第6章

Wemusthopeforthesakeoflibertythatthesegloomyfanaticswillneverfinallybecomeourmasters。

Giventhesilentpowerofreasonovermysticbeliefs，itisquiteuselesstoseektodiscuss，asissooftendone，therationalvalueofrevolutionaryorpoliticalideas。Onlytheirinfluencecaninterestus。Itmatterslittlethatthetheoriesofthesupposedequalityofmen，theoriginalgoodnessofmankind，thepossibilityofre—makingsocietybymeansoflaws，havebeengiventheliebyobservationandexperience。Theseemptyillusionsmustbecountedamongthemostpotentmotivesofactionthathumanityhasknown。

3。TheJacobinMentality。

Althoughtheterm``Jacobinmentality’’doesnotreallybelongtoanytrueclassification，Iemployitherebecauseitsumsupaclearlydefinedcombinationwhichconstitutesaveritablepsychologicalspecies。

ThismentalitydominatesthemenoftheFrenchRevolution，butisnotpeculiartothem，asitstillrepresentsoneofthemostactiveelementsinourpolitics。

ThemysticmentalitywhichwehavealreadyconsideredisanessentialfactoroftheJacobinmind，butitisnotinitselfenoughtoconstitutethatmind。Otherelements，whichweshallnowexamine，mustbeadded。

TheJacobinsdonotintheleastsuspecttheirmysticism。Onthecontrary，theyprofesstobeguidedsolelybypurereason。

DuringtheRevolutiontheyinvokedreasonincessantly，andconsidereditastheironlyguidetoconduct。

ThemajorityofhistorianshaveadoptedthisrationalistconceptionoftheJacobinmind，andTainefellintothesameerror。ItisintheabuseofrationalismthatheseekstheoriginofagreatproportionoftheactsoftheJacobins。Thepagesinwhichhehasdealtwiththesubjectcontainmanytruths，however，andastheyareinotherwaysveryremarkable，I

reproducethemostimportantpassageshere：——

``Neitherexaggeratedself—lovenordogmaticreasoningisrareinthehumanspecies。InallcountriesthesetworootsoftheJacobinspiritsubsist，secretandindestructible……Attwentyyearsofage，whenayoungmanisenteringintotheworld，hisreasonisstimulatedsimultaneouslywithhispride。Inthefirstplace，whateversocietyhemaymovein，itiscontemptibletopurereason，forithasnotbeenconstructedbyaphilosophiclegislatoraccordingtoaprinciple，butsuccessivegenerationshavearrangeditaccordingtotheirmultipleandever—changingneeds。Itisnottheworkoflogic，butofhistory，andtheyoungreasonershrugshisshouldersatthesightofthisoldbuilding，whosesiteisarbitrary，whosearchitectureisincoherent，andwhoseinconveniencesareobvious……Themajorityofyoungpeople，aboveallthosewhohavetheirwaytomake，aremoreorlessJacobinonleavingcollege……

Jacobinismisbornofsocialdecompositionjustasmushroomsarebornofafermentingsoil。Considertheauthenticmonumentsofitsthought——thespeechesofRobespierreandSaint—Just，thedebatesoftheLegislativeAssemblyandtheConvention，theharangues，addresses，andreportsofGirondistsandMontagnards。

Neverdidmenspeaksomuchtosaysolittle；theemptyverbiageandswollenemphasisswampanytruththeremaybebeneaththeirmonotonyandtheirturgidity。TheJacobinisfullofrespectforthephantomsofhisreasoningbrain；inhiseyestheyaremorerealthanlivingmen，andtheirsuffrageistheonlysuffrageherecognises——hewillmarchonwardinallsincerityattheheadofaprocessionofimaginaryfollowers。Themillionsofmetaphysicalwillswhichhehascreatedintheimageofhisownwillsustainhimbytheirunanimousassent，andhewillprojectoutwards，likeachorusoftriumphandacclamation，theinwardechoofhisownvoice。’’

WhileadmiringTaine’sdescription，IthinkhehasnotexactlygraspedthepsychologyoftheJacobin。

ThemindofthetrueJacobin，atthetimeoftheRevolutionasnow，wascomposedofelementswhichwemustanalyseifwearetounderstanditsfunction。

ThisanalysiswillshowinthefirstplacethattheJacobinisnotarationalist，butabeliever。Farfrombuildinghisbeliefonreason，hemouldsreasontohisbelief，andalthoughhisspeechesaresteepedinrationalismheemploysitverylittleinhisthoughtsandhisconduct。

AJacobinwhoreasonedasmuchasheisaccusedofreasoningwouldbesometimesaccessibletothevoiceofreason。Now，observationproves，fromthetimeoftheRevolutiontoourowndays，thattheJacobinisneverinfluencedbyreasoning，howeverjust，anditispreciselyherethathisstrengthresides。

Andwhyishenotaccessibletoreason？Simplybecausehisvisionofthings，alwaysextremelylimited，doesnotpermitofhisresistingthepowerfulandpassionateimpulseswhichguidehim。

Thesetwoelements，feeblereasonandstrongpassions，wouldnotofthemselvesconstitutetheJacobinmind。Thereisanother。

Passionsupportsconvictions，buthardlyevercreatesthem。Now，thetrueJacobinhasforcibleconvictions。Whatistosustainthem？Herethemysticelementswhoseactionwehavealreadystudiedcomeintoplay。TheJacobinisamysticwhohasreplacedtheolddivinitiesbynewgods。Imbuedwiththepowerofwordsandformulae，heattributestotheseamysteriouspower。Toservetheseexigentdivinitieshedoesnotshrinkfromthemostviolentmeasures。ThelawsvotedbyourmodernJacobinsfurnishaproofofthisfact。

TheJacobinmentalityisfoundespeciallyinnarrowandpassionatecharacters。Itimplies，infact，anarrowandrigidmind，inaccessibletoallcriticismandtoallconsiderationsbutthoseoffaith。

ThemysticandaffectiveelementswhichdominatethemindoftheJacobincondemnhimtoanextremesimplicity。Graspingonlythesuperficialrelationsofthings，nothingpreventshimfromtakingforrealitiesthechimericalimageswhicharebornofhisimagination。Thesequenceofphenomenaandtheirresultsescapehim。Heneverraiseshiseyesfromhisdream。

Aswemaysee，itisnotbythedevelopmentofhislogicalreasonthattheJacobinexceeds。Hepossessesverylittlelogicofthiskind，andthereforeheoftenbecomesdangerous。WhereasuperiormanwouldhesitateorhalttheJacobin，whohasplacedhisfeeblereasonattheserviceofhisimpulses，goesforwardwithcertainty。

SothatalthoughtheJacobinisagreatreasoner，thisdoesnotmeanthatheisintheleastguidedbyreason。Whenheimaginesheisbeingledbyreasonitisreallyhispassionsandhismysticismthatleadhim。Likeallthosewhoareconvincedandhemmedinbythewallsoffaith，hecanneverescapetherefrom。

Atrueaggressivetheologian，heisastonishinglylikethedisciplesofCalvindescribedinapreviouschapter。Hypnotisedbytheirfaith，nothingcoulddeterthemfromtheirobject。Allthosewhocontradictedtheirarticlesoffaithwereconsideredworthyofdeath。Theytooseemedtobepowerfulreasoners。

Ignorant，liketheJacobins，ofthesecretforcesthatledthem，theybelievedthatreasonwastheirsoleguide，whileinrealitytheyweretheslavesofmysticismandpassion。

ThetrulyrationalisticJacobinwouldbeincomprehensible，andwouldmerelymakereasondespair。ThepassionateandmysticalJacobinis，onthecontrary，easilyintelligible。

Withthesethreeelements——averyweakreasoningpower，verystrongpassions，andanintensemysticism——wehavethetruepsychologicalcomponentsofthemindoftheJacobin。

CHAPTERIII

THEREVOLUTIONARYANDCRIMINALMENTALITIES

1。TheRevolutionaryMentality。

WehavejustseenthatthemysticelementsareoneofthecomponentsoftheJacobinmentality。Weshallnowseethattheyenterintoanotherformofmentalitywhichisalsoclearlydefined，therevolutionarymentality。

Inallagessocietieshavecontainedacertainnumberofrestlessspirits，unstableanddiscontented，readytorebelagainstanyestablishedorderofaffairs。Theyareactuatedbythemereloveofrevolt，andifsomemagicpowercouldrealisealltheirdesirestheywouldsimplyrevoltagain。

Thisspecialmentalityoftenresultsfromafaultyadaptationoftheindividualtohissurroundings，orfromanexcessofmysticism，butitmayalsobemerelyaquestionoftemperamentorarisefrompathologicaldisturbances。

Theneedofrevoltpresentsverydifferentdegreesofintensity，fromsimplediscontentexpressedinwordsdirectedagainstmenandthingstotheneedofdestroyingthem。Sometimestheindividualturnsuponhimselftherevolutionaryfrenzythathecannototherwiseexercise。Russiaisfullofthesemadmen，who，notcontentwithcommittingarsonorthrowingbombsathazardintothecrowd，finallymutilatethemselves，liketheSkopzisandotheranalogoussects。

Theseperpetualrebelsaregenerallyhighlysuggestiblebeings，whosemysticmentalityisobsessedbyfixedideas。Despitetheapparentenergyindicatedbytheiractionstheyarereallyweakcharacters，andareincapableofmasteringthemselvessufficientlytoresisttheimpulsesthatrulethem。Themysticspiritwhichanimatesthemfurnishespretextsfortheirviolence，andenablesthemtoregardthemselvesasgreatreformers。

Innormaltimestherebelswhicheverysocietycontainsarerestrainedbythelaws，bytheirenvironment——inshort，byalltheusualsocialconstraints，andthereforeremainundetected。

Butassoonasatimeofdisturbancebeginstheseconstraintsgrowweaker，andtherebelcangiveafreereigntohisinstincts。Hethenbecomestheaccreditedleaderofamovement。

Themotiveoftherevolutionmatterslittletohim；hewillgivehislifeindifferentlyfortheredflagorthewhite，orfortheliberationofacountrywhichhehasheardvaguelymentioned。

Therevolutionaryspiritisnotalwayspushedtotheextremeswhichrenderitdangerous。When，insteadofderivingfromaffectiveormysticimpulses，ithasanintellectualorigin，itmaybecomeasourceofprogress。Itisthankstothosespiritswhoaresufficientlyindependenttobeintellectuallyrevolutionarythatacivilisationisabletoescapefromtheyokeoftraditionandhabitwhenthisbecomestooheavy。Thesciences，arts，andindustriesespeciallyhaveprogressedbytheaidofsuchmen。Galileo，Lavoisier，Darwin，andPasteurweresuchrevolutionaries。

Althoughitisnotnecessarythatanationshouldpossessanylargenumberofsuchspirits，itisverynecessarythatitshouldpossesssome。Withoutthemmenwouldstillbelivingincaves。

Therevolutionaryaudacitywhichresultsindiscoveriesimpliesveryrarefaculties。Itnecessitatesnotablyanindependenceofmindsufficienttoescapefromtheinfluenceofcurrentopinions，andajudgementthatcangrasp，undersuperficialanalogies，thehiddenrealities。Thisformofrevolutionaryspiritiscreative，whilethatexaminedaboveisdestructive。

Therevolutionarymentalitymay，therefore，becomparedtocertainphysiologicalstatesinthelifeoftheindividualwhicharenormallyuseful，butwhich，whenexaggerated，takeapathologicalformwhichisalwayshurtful。

2。TheCriminalMentality。

Allthecivilisedsocietiesinevitablydragbehindthemaresidueofdegenerates，oftheunadapted，ofpersonsaffectedbyvarioustaints。Vagabonds，beggars，fugitivesfromjustice，thieves，assassins，andstarvingcreaturesthatlivefromdaytoday，mayconstitutethecriminalpopulationofthegreatcities。Inordinarytimesthesewasteproductsofcivilisationaremoreorlessrestrainedbythepolice。Duringrevolutionnothingrestrainsthem，andtheycaneasilygratifytheirinstinctstomurderandplunder。Inthedregsofsocietytherevolutionariesofalltimesaresureoffindingrecruits。Eageronlytokillandtoplunder，littlematterstothemthecausetheyaresworntodefend。Ifthechancesofmurderandpillagearebetterinthepartyattacked，theywillpromptlychangetheircolours。

Tothesecriminals，properlysocalled，theincurableplagueofallsocieties，wemustaddtheclassofsemi—criminals。

Wrongdoersonoccasion，theyneverrebelsolongasthefearoftheestablishedorderrestrainsthem，butassoonasitweakenstheyenrolthemselvesinthearmyofrevolution。

Thesetwocategories——habitualandoccasionalcriminals——formanarmyofdisorderwhichisfitfornothingbutthecreationofdisorder。Alltherevolutionaries，allthefoundersofreligiousorpoliticalleagues，haveconstantlycountedontheirsupport。

Wehavealreadystatedthatthispopulation，withitscriminalmentality，exercisedaconsiderableinfluenceduringtheFrenchRevolution。Italwaysfiguredinthefrontrankoftheriotswhichoccurredalmostdaily。CertainhistorianshavespokenwithrespectandemotionofthewayinwhichthesovereignpeopleenforceditswillupontheConvention，invadingthehallarmedwithpikes，thepointsofwhichweresometimesdecoratedwithnewlyseveredheads。Ifweanalysetheelementscomposingthepretendeddelegationsofthesovereignpeople，weshallfindthat，apartfromasmallnumberofsimplesoulswhosubmittedtotheimpulsesoftheleaders，themasswasalmostentirelyformedofthebanditsofwhomIhavebeenspeaking。TothemwereduetheinnumerablemurdersofwhichthemassacresofSeptemberandthekillingofthePrincessedeLamballeweremerelytypical。

TheyterrorisedallthegreatAssemblies，fromtheConstituentAssemblytotheConvention，andfortenyearstheyhelpedtoravageFrance。Ifbysomemiraclethisarmyofcriminalscouldhavebeeneliminated，theprogressoftheRevolutionwouldhavebeenverydifferent。Theystaineditwithbloodfromitsdawntoitsdecline。Reasoncoulddonothingwiththembuttheycoulddomuchagainstreason。

CHAPTERIV

THEPSYCHOLOGYOFREVOLUTIONARYCROWDS

1。GeneralCharacteristicsoftheCrowd。

Whatevertheirorigin，revolutionsdonotproducetheirfulleffectsuntiltheyhavepenetratedthesoulofthemultitude。

Theythereforerepresentaconsequenceofthepsychologyofcrowds。

AlthoughIhavestudiedcollectivepsychologyatlengthinanothervolume，Imusthererecallitsprincipallaws。

Man，aspartofamultitude，isaverydifferentbeingfromthesamemanasanisolatedindividual。Hisconsciousindividualityvanishesintheunconsciouspersonalityofthecrowd。

Materialcontactisnotabsolutelynecessarytoproduceintheindividualthementalityofthecrowd。Commonpassionsandsentiments，provokedbycertainevents，areoftensufficienttocreateit。

Thecollectivemind，momentarilyformed，representsaveryspecialkindofaggregate。Itschiefpeculiarityisthatitisentirelydominatedbyunconsciouselements，andissubjecttoapeculiarcollectivelogic。

Amongtheothercharacteristicsofcrowds，wemustnotetheirinfinitecredulityandexaggeratedsensibility，theirshort—

sightedness，andtheirincapacitytorespondtotheinfluencesofreason。Affirmation，contagion，repetition，andprestigeconstitutealmosttheonlymeansofpersuadingthem。Realityandexperiencehavenoeffectuponthem。Themultitudewilladmitanything；nothingisimpossibleintheeyesofthecrowd。

Byreasonoftheextremesensibilityofcrowds，theirsentiments，goodorbad，arealwaysexaggerated。Thisexaggerationincreasesstillfurtherintimesofrevolution。Theleastexcitementwillthenleadthemultitudetoactwiththeutmostfury。Theircredulity，sogreateveninthenormalstate，isstillfurtherincreased；themostimprobablestatementsareaccepted。ArthurYoungrelatesthatwhenhevisitedthespringsnearClermont，atthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution，hisguidewasstoppedbythepeople，whowerepersuadedthathehadcomebyorderoftheQueentomineandblowupthetown。ThemosthorribletalesconcerningtheRoyalFamilywerecirculated，depictingitasanestofghoulsandvampires。

Thesevariouscharacteristicsshowthatmaninthecrowddescendstoaverylowdegreeinthescaleofcivilisation。Hebecomesasavage，withallasavage’sfaultsandqualities，withallhismomentaryviolence，enthusiasm，andheroism。Intheintellectualdomainacrowdisalwaysinferiortotheisolatedunit。Inthemoralandsentimentaldomainitmaybehissuperior。Acrowdwillcommitacrimeasreadilyasanactofabnegation。

Personalcharacteristicsvanishinthecrowd，whichexertsanextraordinaryinfluenceupontheindividualswhichformit。Themiserbecomesgenerous，thescepticabeliever，thehonestmanacriminal，thecowardahero。ExamplesofsuchtransformationsaboundedduringthegreatRevolution。

Aspartofajuryoraparliament，thecollectivemanrendersverdictsorpasseslawsofwhichhewouldneverhavedreamedinhisisolatedcondition。

Oneofthemostnotableconsequencesoftheinfluenceofacollectivityupontheindividualswhocomposeitistheunificationoftheirsentimentsandwills。Thispsychologicalunityconfersaremarkableforceuponcrowds。

Theformationofsuchamentalunityresultschieflyfromthefactthatinacrowdgesturesandactionsareextremelycontagious。Acclamationsofhatred，fury，orloveareimmediatelyapprovedandrepeated。

Whatistheoriginofthesecommonsentiments，thiscommonwill？

Theyarepropagatedbycontagion，butapointofdepartureisnecessarybeforethiscontagioncantakeeffect。Withoutaleaderthecrowdisanamorphousentityincapableofaction。

AknowledgeofthelawsrelatingtothepsychologyofcrowdsisindispensabletotheinterpretationoftheelementsofourRevolution，andtoacomprehensionoftheconductofrevolutionaryassemblies，andthesingulartransformationsoftheindividualswhoformpartofthem。Pushedbytheunconsciousforcesofthecollectivesoul，theymoreoftenthannotsaywhattheydidnotintend，andvotewhattheywouldnothavewishedtovote。

Althoughthelawsofcollectivepsychologyhavesometimesbeendivinedinstinctivelybysuperiorstatesmen，themajorityofGovernmentshavenotunderstoodanddonotunderstandthem。Itisbecausetheydonotunderstandthemthatsomanyofthemhavefallensoeasily。WhenweseethefacilitywithwhichcertainGovernmentswereoverthrownbyaninsignificantriot——ashappenedinthecaseofthemonarchyofLouis—Philippe——thedangersofanignoranceofcollectivepsychologyareevident。

Themarshalincommandofthetroopsin1848，whichweremorethansufficienttodefendtheking，certainlydidnotunderstandthatthemomentheallowedthecrowdtominglewiththetroopsthelatter，paralysedbysuggestionandcontagion，wouldceasetodotheirduty。Neitherdidheknowthatasthemultitudeisextremelysensibletoprestigeitneedsagreatdisplayofforcetoimpressit，andthatsuchadisplaywillatoncesuppresshostiledemonstrations。Hewasequallyignorantofthefactthatallgatheringsshouldbedispersedimmediately。Allthesethingshavebeentaughtbyexperience，butin1848theselessonshadnotbeengrasped。AtthetimeofthegreatRevolutionthepsychologyofcrowdswasevenlessunderstood。

2。HowtheStabilityoftheRacialMindlimitstheOscillationsoftheMindoftheCrowd。

Apeoplecaninasensebelikenedtoacrowd。Itpossessescertaincharacteristics，buttheoscillationsofthesecharacteristicsarelimitedbythesoulormindoftherace。Themindoftheracehasafixityunknowntothetransitorymindofthecrowd。

Whenapeoplepossessesanancestralsoulestablishedbyalongpastthesoulofthecrowdisalwaysdominatedthereby。

Apeoplediffersfromacrowdalsointhatitiscomposedofacollectionofgroups，eachhavingdifferentinterestsandpassions。Inacrowdproperlyso—called——apopularassembly，forexample——thereareunitieswhichmaybelongtoverydifferentsocialcategories。

Apeoplesometimesseemsasmobileasacrowd，butwemustnotforgetthatbehinditsmobility，itsenthusiasms，itsviolenceanddestructiveness，theextremelytenaciousandconservativeinstinctsoftheracialmindpersist。ThehistoryoftheRevolutionandthecenturywhichhasfollowedshowshowtheconservativespiritfinallyovercomesthespiritofdestruction。

Morethanonesystemofgovernmentwhichthepeoplehasshatteredhasbeenrestoredbythepeople。

Itisnotaseasytoworkuponthemindofthepeople——thatis，themindoftherace——asonthemindofacrowd。Themeansofactionareindirectandslower（journals，conferences，speeches，books，&c。）。Theelementsofpersuasionalwayscomeundertheheadingsalreadygiven：affirmation，repetition，prestige，andcontagion。

Mentalcontagionmayaffectawholepeopleinstantaneously，butmoreoftenitoperatesslowly，creepingfromgrouptogroup。

ThuswastheReformationpropagatedinFrance。

Apeopleisfarlessexcitablethanacrowd；butcertainevents——

nationalinsults，threatsofinvasion，&c。——mayarouseitinstantly。SuchaphenomenonwasobservedonseveraloccasionsduringtheRevolution，notablyatthetimeoftheinsolentmanifestoissuedbytheDukeofBrunswick。TheDukeknewlittleindeedofthepsychologyoftheFrenchracewhenheprofferedhisthreats。NotonlydidheconsiderablyprejudicethecauseofLouisXVI。；buthealsodamagedhisown，sincehisinterventionraisedfromthesoilanarmyeagertofighthim。

Thissuddenexplosionoffeelingthroughoutawholeracehasbeenobservedinallnations。NapoleondidnotunderstandthepowerofsuchexplosionswhenheinvadedSpainandRussia。Onemayeasilydisaggregatethefacilemindofacrowd，butonecandonothingbeforethepermanentsoulofarace。CertainlytheRussianpeasantisaveryindifferentbeing，grossandnarrowbynature，yetatthefirstnewsofinvasionhewastransformed。

OnemayjudgeofthisfactonreadingaletterwrittenbyElizabeth，wifeoftheEmperorAlexanderI。

``FromthemomentwhenNapoleonhadcrossedourfrontiersitwasasthoughanelectricsparkhadspreadthroughallRussia；andiftheimmensityofitsareahadmadeitpossibleforthenewstopenetratesimultaneouslytoeverycorneroftheEmpireacryofindignationwouldhavearisensoterriblethatIbelieveitwouldhaveresoundedtotheendsoftheearth。AsNapoleonadvancesthisfeelingisgrowingyetstronger。Oldmenwhohavelostallornearlyalltheirgoodsaresaying：`Weshallfindawayofliving。Anythingispreferabletoashamefulpeace。’Womenallofwhosekinareinthearmyregardthedangerstheyarerunningassecondary，andfearnothingbutpeace。Happilythispeace，whichwouldbethedeath—warrantofRussia，willnotbenegotiated；theEmperordoesnotconceiveofsuchanidea，andevenifhewouldhecouldnot。Thisistheheroicsideofourposition。’’

TheEmpressdescribestohermotherthetwofollowingtraits，whichgivesomeideaofthedegreeofresistanceofwhichthesouloftheRussianiscapable：——

``TheFrenchmenhadcaughtsomeunhappypeasantsinMoscow，whomtheythoughttoforcetoserveintheirranks，andinorderthattheyshouldnotbeabletoescapetheybrandedtheirhandsasonebrandshorsesinthestud。Oneofthemaskedwhatthismarkmeant；hewastolditsignifiedthathewasaFrenchsoldier。

`What！IamasoldieroftheEmperoroftheFrench！’hesaid。

Andimmediatelyhetookhishatchet，cutoffhishand，andthrewitatthefeetofthosepresent，saying，`Takeit——there’syourmark！’

``AtMoscow，too，theFrenchhadtakenascoreofpeasantsofwhomtheywishedtomakeanexampleinordertofrightenthevillagers，whowerepickingofftheFrenchforagingpartiesandweremakingwaraswellasthedetachmentsofregulartroops。

TheyrangedthemagainstawallandreadtheirsentenceinRussian。Theywaitedforthemtobegformercy：insteadofthattheytookfarewellofoneanotherandmadetheirsignofthecross。TheFrenchfiredonthefirstofthem；theywaitedfortheresttobegforpardonintheirterror，andtopromisetochangetheirconduct。Theyfiredonthesecond，andonthethird，andsoonallthetwenty，withoutasingleonehavingattemptedtoimploretheclemencyoftheenemy。NapoleonhasnotoncehadthepleasureofprofaningthiswordinRussia。’’

Amongthecharacteristicsofthepopularmindwemustmentionthatinallpeoplesandallagesithasbeensaturatedwithmysticism。Thepeoplewillalwaysbeconvincedthatsuperiorbeings——divinities，Governments，orgreatmen——havethepowertochangethingsatwill。Thismysticsideproducesanintenseneedofadoration。Thepeoplemusthaveafetich，eitheramanoradoctrine。Thisiswhy，whenthreatenedwithanarchy，itcallsforaMessiahtosaveit。

Likethecrowd，butmoreslowly，thepeoplereadilypassesfromadorationtohatred。Amanmaybetheheroofthepeopleatoneperiod，andfinallyearnitscurses。Thesevariationsofpopularopinionconcerningpoliticalpersonalitiesmaybeobservedinalltimes。ThehistoryofCromwellfurnishesuswithaverycuriousexample。[5]

[5]Afterhavingoverthrownadynastyandrefusedacrownhewasburiedlikeakingamongkings。Twoyearslaterhisbodywastornfromthetomb，andhishead，cutoffbytheexecutioner，wasexposedabovethegateoftheHouseofParliament。Alittlewhileagoastatuewasraisedtohim。Theoldanarchistturnedautocratnowfiguresinthegalleryofdemigods。

4。TheRoleoftheLeaderinRevolutionaryMovements。

Allthevarietiesofcrowds——homogeneousandheterogeneous，assemblies，peoples，clubs，&c。——are，aswehaveoftenrepeated，aggregatesincapableofunityandactionsolongastheyfindnomastertoleadthem。

Ihaveshownelsewhere，makinguseofcertainphysiologicalexperiments，thattheunconsciouscollectivemindofthecrowdseemsboundupwiththemindoftheleader。Thelattergivesitasinglewillandimposesabsoluteobedience。

Theleaderactsespeciallythroughsuggestion。Hissuccessdependsonhisfashionofprovokingthissuggestion。Manyexperimentshaveshowntowhatpointacollectivitymaybesubjectedtosuggestion。[6]

[6]AmongthenumerousexperimentsmadetoprovethisfactoneofthemostremarkablewasperformedonthepupilsofhisclassbyProfessorGlossonandpublishedintheRevueScientifiqueforOctober28，1899。

``Ipreparedabottlefilledwithdistilledwatercarefullywrappedincottonandpackedinabox。AfterseveralotherexperimentsIstatedthatIwishedtomeasuretherapiditywithwhichanodourwoulddiffuseitselfthroughtheair，andaskedthosepresenttoraisetheirhandsthemomenttheyperceivedtheodour……Itookoutthebottleandpouredthewateronthecotton，turningmyheadawayduringtheoperation，thentookupastop—watchandawaitedtheresult……IexplainedthatIwasabsolutelysurethatnoonepresenthadeversmelttheodourofthechemicalcompositionIhadspilt……Attheendoffifteensecondsthemajorityofthoseinfronthadhelduptheirhands，andinfortysecondstheodourhadreachedthebackofthehallbyfairlyregularwaves。Aboutthree—quartersofthosepresentdeclaredthattheyperceivedtheodour。Alargernumberwoulddoubtlesshavesuccumbedtosuggestion，ifattheendofaminuteIhadnotbeenforcedtostoptheexperiment，someofthoseinthefrontrowsbeingunpleasantlyaffectedbytheodour，andwishingtoleavethehall。’’

Accordingtothesuggestionsoftheleaders，themultitudewillbecalm，furious，criminal，orheroic。Thesevarioussuggestionsmaysometimesappeartopresentarationalaspect，buttheywillonlyappeartobereasonable。Acrowdisinrealityinaccessibletoreason；theonlyideascapableofinfluencingitwillalwaysbesentimentsevokedintheformofimages。

ThehistoryoftheRevolutionshowsoneverypagehoweasilythemultitudefollowsthemostcontradictoryimpulsesgivenbyitsdifferentleaders。WeseeitapplaudjustasvigorouslyatthetriumphoftheGirondists，theHebertists，theDantonists，andtheTerroristsasattheirsuccessivedownfalls。Onemaybequitesure，also，thatthecrowdunderstoodnothingoftheseevents。

Atadistanceonecanonlyconfusedlyperceivethepartplayedbytheleaders，fortheycommonlyworkintheshade。Tograspthisclearlywemuststudythemincontemporaryevents。Weshallthenseehowreadilytheleadercanprovokethemostviolentpopularmovements。Wearenotthinkinghereofthestrikesofthepostmenorrailwaymen，inwhichthediscontentoftheemployeesmightintervene，butofeventsinwhichthecrowdwasnotintheleastinterested。Such，forexample，wasthepopularrisingprovokedbyafewSocialistleadersamidsttheParisianpopulaceonthemorrowoftheexecutionofFerrer，inSpain。TheFrenchcrowdhadneverheardofFerrer。InSpainhisexecutionwasalmostunnoticed。InParistheincitementsofafewleaderssufficedtohurlaregularpopulararmyupontheSpanishEmbassy，withtheintentionofburningit。Partofthegarrisonhadtobeemployedtoprotectit。Energeticallyrepulsed，theassailantscontentedthemselveswithsackingafewshopsandbuildingsomebarricades。

Atthesametime，theleadersgaveanotherproofoftheirinfluence。Finallyunderstandingthattheburningofaforeignembassymightbeextremelydangerous，theyorderedapacificdemonstrationforthefollowingday，andwereasfaithfullyobeyedasiftheyhadorderedthemostviolentriot。NoexamplecouldbettershowtheimportanceofleadersandthesubmissionofthecrowdThehistorianswho，fromMichelettoM。Aulard，haverepresentedtherevolutionarycrowdashavingactedonitsowninitiative，withoutleaders，donotcomprehenditspsychology。