第9章

Undertheinfluenceofthisdevelopingcriticalspiritthingswhichwerenolongerverygreatlyrespectedcametoberespectedlessandless。Whentraditionandprestigehaddisappearedthesocialedificesuddenlyfell。

Thisprogressivedisaggregationfinallydescendedtothepeople，butwasnotcommencedbythepeople。Thepeoplefollowsexamples，butneversetsthem。

Thephilosophers，whocouldnothaveexertedanyinfluenceoverthepeople，didexertagreatinfluenceovertheenlightenedportionofthenation。Theunemployednobility，whohadlongbeenoustedfromtheiroldfunctions，andwhowereconsequentlyinclinedtobecensorious，followedtheirleadership。Incapableofforesight，thenobleswerethefirsttobreakwiththetraditionsthatweretheironlyraisond’etre。Assteepedinhumanitarianismandrationalismasthebourgeoisieofto—

day，theycontinuallysappedtheirownprivilegesbytheircriticisms。Asto—day，themostardentreformerswerefoundamongthefavouritesoffortune。Thearistocracyencourageddissertationsonthesocialcontract，therightsofman，andtheequalityofcitizens。Atthetheatreitapplaudedplayswhichcriticisedprivileges，thearbitrarinessandtheincapacityofmeninhighplaces，andabusesofallkinds。

Assoonasmenloseconfidenceinthefoundationsofthementalframeworkwhichguidestheirconducttheyfeelatfirstuneasyandthendiscontented。Allclassesfelttheiroldmotivesofactiongraduallydisappearing。Thingsthathadseemedsacredforcenturieswerenowsacrednolonger。

Thecensoriousspiritofthenobilityandofthewritersofthedaywouldnothavesufficedtomovetheheavyloadoftradition，butthatitsactionwasaddedtothatofotherpowerfulinfluences。Wehavealreadystated，incitingBossuet，thatundertheancienregimethereligiousandcivilgovernments，widelyseparatedinourdays，wereintimatelyconnected。Toinjureonewasinevitablytoinjuretheother。Now，evenbeforethemonarchicalideawasshakentheforceofreligioustraditionwasgreatlydiminishedamongcultivatedmen。Theconstantprogressofknowledgehadsentanincreasingnumberofmindsfromtheologytosciencebyopposingthetruthobservedtothetruthrevealed。

Thismentalevolution，althoughasyetveryvague，wassufficienttoshowthatthetraditionswhichforsomanycenturieshadguidedmenhadnotthevaluewhichhadbeenattributedtothem，andthatitwouldsoonbenecessarytoreplacethem。

Butwherediscoverthenewelementswhichmight；taketheplaceoftradition？Whereseekthemagicringwhichwouldraiseanewsocialedificeontheremainsofthatwhichnolongercontentedmen？

Menwereagreedinattributingtoreasonthepowerthattraditionandthegodsseemedtohavelost。Howcoulditsforcebedoubted？Itsdiscoverieshavingbeeninnumerable，wasitnotlegitimatetosupposethatbyapplyingittotheconstructionofsocietiesitwouldentirelytransformthem？Itspossiblefunctionincreasedveryrapidlyinthethoughtsofthemoreenlightened，inproportionastraditionseemedmoreandmoretobedistrusted。

ThesovereignpowerattributedtoreasonmustberegardedastheculminatingideawhichnotonlyengenderedtheRevolutionbutgoverneditthroughout。DuringthewholeRevolutionmengavethemselvesuptothemostperseveringeffortstobreakwiththepast，andtoerectsocietyuponanewplandictatedbylogic。

Slowlyfilteringdownward，therationalistictheoriesofthephilosophersmeanttothepeoplesimplythatallthethingswhichhadbeenregardedasworthyofrespectwerenownolongerworthy。

Menbeingdeclaredequal，theoldmastersneednolongerbeobeyed。

Themultitudeeasilysucceededinceasingtorespectwhattheupperclassesthemselvesnolongerrespected。WhenthebarrierofrespectwasdowntheRevolutionwasaccomplished。

Thefirstresultofthisnewmentalitywasageneralinsubordination。Mme。VigeeLebrunrelatesthatonthepromenadeatLongchampsmenofthepeopleleapedonthefootboardsofthecarriages，saying，``Nextyearyouwillbebehindandweshallbeinside。’’

Thepopulacewasnotaloneinmanifestinginsubordinationanddiscontent。ThesesentimentsweregeneralontheeveoftheRevolution。``Thelesserclergy，’’saysTaine，``arehostiletotheprelates；theprovincialgentrytothenobilityofthecourt；

thevassalstotheseigneurs；thepeasantstothetownsmen，’’&c。

Thisstateofmind，whichhadbeencommunicatedfromthenoblesandclergytothepeople，alsoinvadedthearmy。AtthemomenttheStatesGeneralwereopenedNeckersaid：``Wearenotsureofthetroops。’’Theofficerswerebecominghumanitarianandphilosophical。Thesoldiers，recruitedfromthelowestclassofthepopulation，didnotphilosophise，buttheynolongerobeyed。

Intheirfeeblemindstheideasofequalitymeantsimplythesuppressionofallleadersandmasters，andthereforeofallobedience。In1790morethantwentyregimentsthreatenedtheirofficers，andsometimes，asatNancy，threwthemintoprison。

Thementalanarchywhich，afterspreadingthroughalltheclassesofsociety，finallyinvadedthearmywastheprincipalcauseofthedisappearanceoftheancienregime。``ItwasthedefectionofthearmyaffectedbytheideasoftheThirdEstate，’’wroteRivarol，``thatdestroyedroyalty。’’

2。ThesupposedInfluenceofthePhilosophersoftheEighteenthCenturyupontheGenesisoftheRevolution——TheirdislikeofDemocracy。

AlthoughthephilosopherswhohavebeensupposedtheinspirersoftheFrenchRevolutiondidattackcertainprivilegesandabuses，wemustnotforthatreasonregardthemaspartisansofpopulargovernment。Democracy，whoseroleinGreekhistorywasfamiliartothem，wasgenerallyhighlyantipathetictothem。

Theywerenotignorantofthedestructionandviolencewhichareitsinvariableaccompaniments，andknewthatinthetimeofAristotleitwasalreadydefinedas``aStateinwhicheverything，eventhelaw，dependsonthemultitudesetupasatyrantandgovernedbyafewdeclamatoryspeakers。’’

PierreBayle，thetrueforerunnerofVoltaire，recalledinthefollowingtermstheconsequencesofpopulargovernmentinAthens：——

``Ifoneconsidersthishistory，whichdisplaysatgreatlengththetumultoftheassemblies，thefactionsdividingthecity，theseditiousdisturbingit，themostillustrioussubjectspersecuted，exiled，andpunishedbydeathatthewillofaviolentwindbag，onewouldconcludethatthispeople，whichsoprideditselfonitsliberty，wasreallytheslaveofasmallnumberofcaballers，whomtheycalleddemagogues，andwhomadeitturnnowinthisdirection，nowinthat，astheirpassionschanged，almostastheseaheapsthewavesnowoneway，nowanother，accordingtothewindswhichtroubleit。YouwillseekinvaininMacedonia，whichwasamonarchy，forasmanyexamplesoftyrannyasAthenianhistorywillafford。’’

Montesquieuhadnogreateradmirationforthedemocracy。Havingdescribedthethreeformsofgovernment——republican，monarchical，anddespotic——heshowsveryclearlywhatpopulargovernmentmayleadto：——

``Menwerefreewithlaws；menwouldfainbefreewithoutthem；whatwasamaximiscalledseverity；whatwasorderiscalledhindrance。Formerlythewelfareofindividualsconstitutedthepublicwealth，butnowthepublicwealthbecomesthepatrimonyofindividuals。Therepublicisspoil，anditsstrengthismerelythepowerofafewcitizensandthelicenceofall。’’

``……Littlepettytyrantsspringupwhohaveallthevicesofasingletyrant。Verysoonwhatisleftoflibertybecomesuntenable；asingletyrantarises，andthepeoplelosesall，eventheadvantagesofcorruption。

``Democracyhasthereforetwoextremestoavoid；theextremeofthespiritofequalityleadstothedespotismofasingleperson，asthedespotismofasinglepersonleadstoconquest。’’

TheidealofMontesquieuwastheEnglishconstitutionalgovernment，whichpreventedthemonarchyfromdegeneratingintodespotism。OtherwisetheinfluenceofthisphilosopheratthemomentoftheRevolutionwasveryslight。

AsfortheEncyclopaedists，towhomsuchaconsiderableroleisattributed，theyhardlydealtwithpolitics，exceptingd’Holbach，aliberalmonarchistlikeVoltaireandDiderot。Theywrotechieflyindefenceofindividualliberty，opposingtheencroachmentsoftheChurch，atthattimeextremelyintolerantandinimicaltophilosophers。BeingneitherSocialistsnordemocrats，theRevolutioncouldnotutiliseanyoftheirprinciples。

Voltairehimselfwasbynomeansapartisanofdemocracy。

``Democracy，’’hesaid，``seemsonlytosuitaverysmallcountry，andeventhenitmustbefortunatelysituated。

Littleasitmaybe，itwillmakemanymistakes，becauseitwillbecomposedofmen。Discordwillprevailthereasinaconventfullofmonks；buttherewillbenoSt。Bartholomew’sday，noIrishmassacres，noSicilianVespers，noInquisition，nocondemnationtothegalleysforhavingtakenwaterfromtheseawithoutpayingforit；unlesswesupposethisrepublictobecomposedofdevilsinacornerofhell。’’

AllthesemenwhoaresupposedtohaveinspiredtheRevolutionhadopinionswhichwerefarfromsubversive，anditisreallydifficulttoseethattheyhadanyrealinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftherevolutionarymovement。Rousseauwasoneoftheveryfewdemocraticphilosophersofhisage，whichiswhyhisContratSocialbecametheBibleofthemenoftheTerror。Itseemedtofurnishtherationaljustificationnecessarytoexcusetheactsderivingfromunconsciousmysticandaffectiveimpulseswhichnophilosophyhadinspired。

Tobequitetruthful，thedemocraticinstinctsofRousseauwerebynomeansabovesuspicion。Hehimselfconsideredthathisprojectsforsocialreorganisation，baseduponpopularsovereignty，couldbeappliedonlytoaverysmallState；andwhenthePolesaskedhimforadraftdemocraticConstitutionheadvisedthemtochooseahereditarymonarch。

AmongthetheoriesofRousseauthatrelatingtotheperfectionoftheprimitivesocialstatehadagreatsuccess。Heasserted，togetherwithvariouswritersofhistime，thatprimitivemankindwasperfect；itwascorruptedonlybysociety。Bymodifyingsocietybymeansofgoodlawsonemightbringbackthehappinessoftheearlyworld。Ignorantofallpsychology，hebelievedthatmenwerethesamethroughouttimeandspaceandthattheycouldallberuledbythesamelawsandinstitutions。

Thiswasthenthegeneralbelief。``Thevicesandvirtuesofthepeople，’’wroteHelvetius，``arealwaysanecessaryeffectofitslegislation……Howcanwedoubtthatvirtueisinthecaseofallpeoplestheresultofthewisdom，moreorlessperfect，oftheadministration？’’

Therecouldbenogreatermistake。

3。ThePhilosophicalIdeasoftheBourgeoisieattheTimeoftheRevolution。

ItisbynomeanseasytosayjustwhatwerethesocialandpoliticalconceptionsofaFrenchmanofthemiddleclassesatthemomentoftheRevolution。Theymightbereducedtoafewformulaeconcerningfraternity，equality，andpopulargovernment，summedupinthecelebratedDeclarationoftheRightsofMan，ofwhichweshallhaveoccasiontoquoteafewpassages。

ThephilosophersoftheeighteenthcenturydonotseemtohavebeenveryhighlyratedbythemenoftheRevolution。Rarelyaretheyquotedinthespeechesofthetime。HypnotisedbytheirclassicalmemoriesofGreeceandRome，thenewlegislatorsre—

readtheirPlatoandtheirPlutarch。TheywishedtorevivetheconstitutionofSparta，withitsmanners，itsfrugalhabits，anditslaws。

Lycurgus，Solon，Miltiades，ManliusTorquatus，Brutus，MuciusScaevola，eventhefabulousMinoshimself，becameasfamiliarinthetribuneasinthetheatre，andthepublicwentcrazyoverthem。Theshadesoftheheroesofantiquityhoveredovertherevolutionaryassemblies。Posterityalonehasreplacedthembytheshadesofthephilosophersoftheeighteenthcentury。

Weshallseethatinrealitythemenofthisperiod，generallyrepresentedasboldinnovatorsguidedbysubtlephilosophers，professedtoeffectnoinnovationswhatever，buttoreturntoapastlongburiedinthemistsofhistory，andwhich，moreover，theyscarcelyeverintheleastunderstood。

Themorereasonable，whodidnotgosofarbackfortheirmodels，aimedmerelyatadoptingtheEnglishconstitutionalsystem，ofwhichMontesquieuandVoltairehadsungthepraises，andwhichallnationswerefinallytoimitatewithoutviolentcrises。

Theirambitionswereconfinedtoadesiretoperfecttheexistingmonarchy，nottooverthrowit。Butintimeofrevolutionmenoftentakeaverydifferentpathfromthattheyproposetotake。

AtthetimeoftheconvocationoftheStatesGeneralnoonewouldeverhavesupposedthatarevolutionofpeacefulbourgeoisieandmenofletterswouldrapidlybetransformedintooneofthemostsanguinarydictatorshipsofhistory。

CHAPTERIV

PSYCHOLOGICALILLUSIONSRESPECTINGTHEFRENCHREVOLUTION

1。IllusionsrespectingPrimitiveMan，theReturntoaStateofNature，andthePsychologyofthePeople。

Wehavealreadyrepeated，andshallagainrepeat，thattheerrorsofadoctrinedonothinderitspropagation，sothatallwehavetoconsiderhereisitsinfluenceuponmen’sminds。

Butalthoughthecriticismoferroneousdoctrinesisseldomofpracticalutility，itisextremelyinterestingfromapsychologicalpointofview。Thephilosopherwhowishestounderstandtheworkingofmen’smindsshouldalwayscarefullyconsidertheillusionswhichtheylivewith。Never，perhaps，inthecourseofhistoryhavetheseillusionsappearedsoprofoundandsonumerousasduringtheRevolution。

Oneofthemostprominentwasthesingularconceptionofthenatureofourfirstancestorsandprimitivesocieties。

Anthropologynothavingasyetrevealedtheconditionsofourremoterforbears，mensupposed，beinginfluencedbythelegendsoftheBible，thatmanhadissuedperfectfromthehandsoftheCreator。Thefirstsocietiesweremodelswhichwereafterwardsruinedbycivilisation，buttowhichmankindmustreturn。

Thereturntothestateofnaturewasverysoonthegeneralcry。

``Thefundamentalprincipleofallmorality，ofwhichIhavetreatedinmywritings，’’saidRousseau，``isthatmanisabeingnaturallygood，lovingjusticeandorder。’’

Modernscience，bydetermining，fromthesurvivingremnants，theconditionsoflifeofourfirstancestors，haslongagoshowntheerrorofthisdoctrine。Primitivemanhasbecomeanignorantandferociousbrute，asignorantasthemodernsavageofgoodness，morality，andpity。Governedonlybyhisinstinctiveimpulses，hethrowshimselfonhispreywhenhungerdriveshimfromhiscave，andfallsuponhisenemythemomentheisarousedbyhatred。Reason，notbeingborn，couldhavenoholdoverhisinstincts。

Theaimofcivilisation，contrarytoallrevolutionarybeliefs，hasbeennottoreturntothestateofnaturebuttoescapefromit。ItwaspreciselybecausetheJacobinsledmankindbacktotheprimitiveconditionbydestroyingallthesocialrestraintswithoutwhichnocivilisationcanexistthattheytransformedapoliticalsocietyintoabarbarianhorde。

TheideasofthesetheoristsconcerningthenatureofmanwereaboutasvaluableasthoseofaRomangeneralconcerningthepowerofomens。Yettheirinfluenceasmotivesofactionwasconsiderable。TheConventionwasalwaysinspiredbysuchideas。

Theerrorsconcerningourprimitiveancestorswereexcusableenough，sincebeforemoderndiscoverieshadshownustherealconditionsoftheirexistencethesewereabsolutelyunknown。ButtheabsoluteignoranceofhumanpsychologydisplayedbythemenoftheRevolutionisfarlesseasytounderstand。

Itwouldreallyseemasthoughthephilosophersandwritersoftheeighteenthcenturymusthavebeentotallydeficientinthesmallestfacultyofobservation。Theylivedamidsttheircontemporarieswithoutseeingthemandwithoutunderstandingthem。Aboveall，theyhadnotasuspicionofthetruenatureofthepopularmind。Themanofthepeoplealwaysappearedtotheminthelikenessofthechimericalmodelcreatedbytheirdreams。

Asignorantofpsychologyasoftheteachingsofhistory，theyconsideredtheplebeianmanasnaturallygood，affectionate，grateful，andalwaysreadytolistentoreason。

ThespeechesdeliveredbymembersoftheAssemblyshowhowprofoundweretheseillusions。Whenthepeasantsbegantoburnthechateauxtheyweregreatlyastonished，andaddressedtheminsentimentalharangues，prayingthemtocease，inordernotto``givepaintotheirgoodking，’’andadjuredthem``tosurprisehimbytheirvirtues。’’

2。IllusionsrespectingthePossibilityofseparatingManfromhisPastandthePowerofTransformationattributedtotheLaw。

Oneoftheprincipleswhichservedasafoundationfortherevolutionaryinstitutionswasthatmanmayreadilybecutofffromhispast，andthatasocietymaybere—madeinallitspartsbymeansofinstitutions。Persuadedinthelightofreasonthat，exceptfortheprimitiveageswhichweretoserveasmodels，thepastrepresentedaninheritanceoferrorsandsuperstitions，thelegislatorsofthedayresolvedtobreakentirelywiththatpast。

Thebettertoemphasisetheirintention，theyfoundedanewera，transformedthecalendar，andchangedthenamesofthemonthsandseasons。

Supposingallmentobealike，theythoughttheycouldlegislateforthehumanrace。Condorcetimaginedthathewasexpressinganevidenttruthwhenhesaid：``Agoodlawmustbegoodforallmen，justasageometricalpropositionistrueforall。’’

ThetheoristsoftheRevolutionneverperceived，behindtheworldofvisiblethings，thesecretspringswhichmovedthem。A

centuryofbiologicalprogresswasneededtoshowhowgrievousweretheirmistakes，andhowwhollyabeingofwhateverspeciesdependsonitspast。

Withtheinfluenceofthepast，thereformersoftheRevolutionwerealwaysclashing，withouteverunderstandingit。Theywantedtoannihilateit，butwereannihilatedbyitinstead。

Thefaithoflaw—makersintheabsolutepoweroflawsandinstitutions，rudelyshakenbytheendoftheRevolution，wasabsoluteatitsoutbreak。GregoiresaidfromthetribuneoftheConstituentAssembly，withoutprovokingtheleastastonishment：``Wecouldifwewouldchangereligion，butwedonotwantto。’’Weknowthattheydidwanttolater，andweknowhowmiserablytheirattemptfailed。

YettheJacobinshadintheirhandsalltheelementsofsuccess。

Thankstothecompletestoftyrannies，allobstacleswereremoved，andthelawswhichitpleasedthemtoimposewerealwaysaccepted。Aftertenyearsofviolence，ofdestructionandburningandpillageandmassacreandgeneralupheaval，theirimpotencewasrevealedsostartlinglythattheyfellintouniversalreprobation。ThedictatortheninvokedbythewholeofFrancewasobligedtore—establishthegreaterpartofthatwhichhadbeendestroyed。

TheattemptoftheJacobinstore—fashionsocietyinthenameofpurereasonconstitutesanexperimentofthehighestinterest。

Probablymankindwillneverhaveoccasiontorepeatitonsovastascale。

Althoughthelessonwasaterribleone，itdoesnotseemtohavebeensufficientforaconsiderableclassofminds，sinceeveninourdayswehearSocialistsproposetorebuildsocietyfromtoptobottomaccordingtotheirchimericalplans。

3。IllusionsrespectingtheTheoreticalValueofthegreatRevolutionaryPrinciples。

ThefundamentalprinciplesonwhichtheRevolutionwasbasedinordertocreateanewdispensationarecontainedintheDeclarationsofRightswhichwereformulatedsuccessivelyin1789，1793，and1795。AllthreeDeclarationsagreeinproclaimingthat``theprincipleofsovereigntyresidesinthenation。’’

Fortherest，thethreeDeclarationsdifferonseveralpoints，notablyinthematterofequality。Thatof1789simplystates（Article1）：``Menarebornandremainfreeandhavingequalrights。’’Thatof1793goesfarther，andassuresus（Article3）：

``Allmenareequalbynature。’’Thatof1795ismoremodestandsays（Article3）：``Equalityconsistsinthelawbeingthesameforall。’’Besidesthis，havingmentionedrights，thethirdDeclarationconsidersitusefultospeakofduties。ItsmoralityissimplythatoftheGospel。Article2says：``Allthedutiesofamanandacitizenderivefromthesetwoprinciplesengravedonallheartsbynature：donotdountoothersthatwhichyouwouldnottheyshoulddountoyou；doconstantlyuntoothersthegoodyouwouldwishtoreceivefromthem。’’

Theessentialportionsoftheseproclamations，theonlyportionswhichhavereallysurvived，werethoserelatingtoequalityandpopularsovereignty。

Despitetheweaknessofitsrationalmeaning，thepartplayedbytheRepublicandevice，Liberty，Equality，Fraternity，wasconsiderable。

Thismagicformula，whichisstillleftengravenonmanyofourwallsuntilitshallbeengravenonourhearts，hasreallypossessedthesupernaturalpowerattributedtocertainwordsbytheoldsorcerers。

Thankstothenewhopesexcitedbyitspromises，itspowerofexpansionwasconsiderable。Thousandsofmenlosttheirlivesforit。Eveninourdays，whenarevolutionbreaksoutinanypartoftheworld，thesameformulaisalwaysinvoked。

Itschoicewashappyintheextreme。Itbelongstothecategoryofindefinitedream—evokingsentences，whicheveryoneisfreetointerpretaccordingtohisowndesires，hatreds，andhopes。Inmattersoffaiththerealsenseofwordsmattersverylittle；itisthemeaningattachedtothemthatmakestheirimportance。

Ofthethreeprinciplesoftherevolutionarydevice，equalitywasmostfruitfulofconsequences。Weshallseeinanotherpartofthisbookthatitisalmosttheonlyonewhichstillsurvives，andisstillproductiveofeffects。

ItwascertainlynottheRevolutionthatintroducedtheideaofequalityintotheworld。WithoutgoingbackeventotheGreekrepublics，wemayremarkthatthetheoryofequalitywastaughtintheclearestfashionbyChristianityandIslamism。Allmen，subjectsoftheoneGod，wereequalbeforeHim，andjudgedsolelyaccordingtotheirmerits。ThedogmaoftheequalityofsoulsbeforeGodwasanessentialdogmawithMohammedansaswellaswithChristians。

Buttoproclaimaprincipleisnotenoughtosecureitsobservation。TheChristianChurchsoonrenounceditstheoreticalequality，andthemenoftheRevolutiononlyremembereditintheirspeeches。

Thesenseoftheterm``equality’’variesaccordingtothepersonsusingit。Itoftenconcealssentimentsverycontrarytoitsrealsense，andthenrepresentstheimperiousneedofhavingnooneaboveone，joinedtothenolesslivelydesiretofeelaboveothers。WiththeJacobinsoftheRevolution，aswiththoseofourdays，theword``equality’’simplyinvolvesajealoushatredofallsuperiority。Toeffacesuperiority，suchmenpretendtounifymanners，customs，andsituations。Alldespotismsbutthatexercisedbythemselvesseemodious。

Notbeingabletoavoidthenaturalinequalities，theydenythem。

ThesecondDeclarationofRights，thatof1793，affirms，contrarytotheevidence，that``allmenareequalbynature。’’

ItwouldseemthatinmanyofthemenoftheRevolutiontheardentdesireforequalitymerelyconcealedanintenseneedofinequalities。Napoleonwasobligedtore—establishtitlesofnobilityanddecorationsfortheirbenefit。Havingshownthatitwasamongthemostrabidrevolutioniststhathefoundthemostdocileinstrumentsofdomination，Tainecontinues：——

``Suddenly，throughalltheirpreachingoflibertyandequality，appearedtheirauthoritativeinstincts，theirneedofcommanding，evenassubordinates，andalso，inmostcases，anappetiteformoneyorforpleasure。BetweenthedelegateoftheCommitteeofPublicSafetyandtheminister，prefect，orsubprefectoftheEmpirethedifferenceissmall：itisthesamemanunderthetwocostumes，firstencarmagnole，theninthebraidedcoat。’’

Thedogmaofequalityhadasitsfirstconsequencetheproclamationofpopularsovereigntybythebourgeoisie。ThissovereigntyremainedotherwisehighlytheoreticalduringthewholeRevolution。

TheprincipleofauthoritywasthelastinglegacyoftheRevolution。Thetwoterms``liberty’’and``fraternity’’whichaccompanyitintherepublicandevicehadnevermuchinfluence。

WemayevensaythattheyhadnoneduringtheRevolutionandtheEmpire，butmerelyservedtodecoratemen’sspeeches。

Theirinfluencewashardlymoreconsiderablelater。Fraternitywasneverpractisedandthepeopleshavenevercaredmuchforliberty。To—dayourworking—menhavecompletelysurrenderedittotheirunions。

Tosumup：althoughtheRepublicanmottohasbeenlittleappliedithasexertedaverygreatinfluence。OftheFrenchRevolutionpracticallynothinghasremainedinthepopularmindbutthethreecelebratedwordswhichsumupitsgospel，andwhichitsarmiesspreadoverEurope。

BOOKII

THERATIONAL，AFFECTIVE，MYSTIC，ANDCOLLECTIVEINFLUENCESACTIVE

DURINGTHEREVOLUTION

CHAPTERI

THEPSYCHOLOGYOFTHECONSTITUENTASSEMBLY

1。PsychologicalInfluencesactiveduringtheFrenchRevolution。

ThegenesisoftheFrenchRevolution，aswellasitsduration，wasconditionedbyelementsofarational，affective，mystic，andcollectivenature，eachcategoryofwhichwasruledbyadifferentlogic。Itis，asIhavesaid，becausetheyhavenotbeenabletodissociatetherespectiveinfluencesofthesefactorsthatsomanyhistorianshaveinterpretedthisperiodsoindifferentlyTherationalelementusuallyinvokedasanexplanationexertedinrealitybutaveryslightinfluence。ItpreparedthewayfortheRevolution，butmaintaineditonlyattheoutset，whileitwasstillexclusivelymiddle—class。Itsactionwasmanifestedbymanymeasuresofthetime，suchastheproposalstoreformthetaxes，thesuppressionoftheprivilegesofauselessnobility，&c。

AssoonastheRevolutionreachedthepeople，theinfluenceoftherationalelementsspeedilyvanishedbeforethatoftheaffectiveandcollectiveelements。Asforthemysticelements，thefoundationoftherevolutionaryfaith，theymadethearmyfanaticalandpropagatedthenewbeliefthroughouttheworld。

Weshallseethesevariouselementsastheyappearedineventsandinthepsychologyofindividuals。Perhapsthemostimportantwasthemysticelement。TheRevolutioncannotbeclearlycomprehended——wecannotrepeatittoooften——unlessitisconsideredastheformationofareligiousbelief。WhatIhavesaidelsewhereofallbeliefsappliesequallytotheRevolution。

Referring，forinstance，tothechapterontheReformation，thereaderwillseethatitpresentsmorethanoneanalogywiththeRevolution。

Havingwastedsomuchtimeindemonstratingtheslightrationalvalueofbeliefs，thephilosophersareto—daybeginningtounderstandtheirfunctionbetter。Theyhavebeenforcedtoadmitthatthesearetheonlyfactorswhichpossessaninfluencesufficienttotransformalltheelementsofacivilisation。

Theyimposethemselvesonmenapartfromreasonandhavethepowertopolarisemen’sthoughtsandfeelingsinonedirection。

Purereasonhadneversuchapower，formenwereneverimpassionedbyreason。

ThereligiousformrapidlyassumedbytheRevolutionexplainsitspowerofexpansionandtheprestigewhichitpossessedandhasretained。

Fewhistorianshaveunderstoodthatthisgreatmonumentoughttoberegardedasthefoundationofanewreligion。ThepenetratingmindofTocqueville，Ibelieve，wasthefirsttoperceiveasmuch。

``TheFrenchRevolution，’’hewrote，``wasapoliticalrevolutionwhichoperatedinthemannerofandassumedsomethingoftheaspectofareligiousrevolution。Seebywhatregularandcharacteristictraitsitfinallyresembledthelatter：notonlydiditspreaditselffarandwidelikeareligiousrevolution，but，likethelatter，itspreaditselfbymeansofpreachingandpropaganda。Apoliticalrevolutionwhichinspiresproselytes，whichispreachedaspassionatelytoforeignersasitisaccomplishedathome：considerwhatanovelspectaclewasthis。’’

ThereligioussideoftheRevolutionbeinggranted，theaccompanyingfuryanddevastationareeasilyexplained。Historyshowsusthatsucharealwaystheaccompanimentsofthebirthofreligions。TheRevolutionwasthereforecertaintoprovoketheviolenceandintolerancethetriumphantdeitiesdemandfromtheiradepts。ItoverturnedallEuropefortwentyyears，ruinedFrance，causedthedeathofmillionsofmen，andcostthecountryseveralinvasions：butitisasaruleonlyatthecostofsuchcatastrophesthatapeoplecanchangeitsbeliefs。

Althoughthemysticelementisalwaysthefoundationofbeliefs，certainaffectiveandrationalelementsarequicklyaddedthereto。Abeliefthusservestogroupsentimentsandpassionsandinterestswhichbelongtotheaffectivedomain。Reasonthenenvelopsthewhole，seekingtojustifyeventsinwhich，however，itplayednopartwhatever。

AtthemomentoftheRevolutioneveryone，accordingtohisaspirations，dressedthenewbeliefinadifferentrationalvesture。Thepeoplessawinitonlythesuppressionofthereligiousandpoliticaldespotismsandhierarchiesunderwhichtheyhadsooftensuffered。WriterslikeGoetheandthinkerslikeKantimaginedthattheysawinitthetriumphofreason。ForeignerslikeHumboldtcametoFrance``tobreathetheairoflibertyandtoassistattheobsequiesofdespotism。’’

Theseintellectualillusionsdidnotlastlong。Theevolutionofthedramasoonrevealedthetruefoundationsofthedream。

2。DissolutionoftheAncienRegime。TheassemblingoftheStatesGeneral。

Beforetheyarerealisedinaction，revolutionsaresketchedoutinmen’sthoughts。Preparedbythecausesalreadystudied，theFrenchRevolutioncommencedinrealitywiththereignofLouisXVI。Morediscontentedandcensoriouseveryday，themiddleclassesaddedclaimtoclaim。Everybodywascallingforreform。

LouisXVI。thoroughlyunderstoodtheutilityofreform，buthewastooweaktoimposeitontheclergyandthenobility。Hecouldnotevenretainhisreformingministers，MalesherbesandTurgot。Whatwithfaminesandincreasedtaxation，thepovertyofallclassesincreased，andthehugepensionsdrawnbytheCourtformedashockingcontrasttothegeneraldistress。

Thenotablesconvokedtoattempttoremedythefinancialsituationrefusedasystemofequaltaxation，andgrantedonlyinsignificantreformswhichtheParliamentdidnotevenconsenttoregister。Ithadtobedissolved。TheprovincialParliamentsmadecommoncausewiththatofParis，andwerealsodissolved。

Buttheyledopinion，andinallpartsofFrancepromotedthedemandforameetingoftheStatesGeneral，whichhadnotbeenconvokedfornearlytwohundredyears。

Thedecisionwastaken：5，000，000Frenchmen，ofwhom100，000

wereecclesiasticsand150，000nobles，senttheirrepresentatives。Therewereinall1，200deputies，ofwhom578

wereoftheThirdEstate，consistingchieflyofmagistrates，advocates，andphysicians。Ofthe300deputiesoftheclergy，200，ofplebeianorigin，threwintheirlotwiththeThirdEstateagainstthenobilityandclergy。

Fromthefirstsessionsapsychologicalconflictbrokeoutbetweenthedeputiesofdifferentsocialconditionsand（therefore）differentmentalities。ThemagnificentcostumesoftheprivilegeddeputiescontrastedinahumiliatingfashionwiththesombrefashionsoftheThirdEstate。