第17章

manpossessesthetheoreticalrightofpassingthebarrierswhichseparatehimfromtheupperclassesbyawholeseriesofcompetitionsandexaminations，hischanceofreachingthemisinrealityextremelyslight。

Thedemocracyoftheletteredclasseshasnootherobjectthantosetupaselectionwhichshallrecruitthedirectingclassesexclusivelyfromthemselves。Ishouldhavenothingtosayagainstthisiftheselectionwerereal。ItwouldthenconstitutetheapplicationofthemaximofNapoleon：``Thetruemethodofgovernmentistoemploythearistocracy，butundertheformsofdemocracy。’’

Unhappilythedemocracyofthe``intellectuals’’wouldsimplyleadtothesubstitutionoftheDivinerightofkingsbytheDivinerightofapettyoligarchy，whichistoooftennarrowandtyrannical。Libertycannotbecreatedbyreplacingatyranny。

Populardemocracybynomeansaimsatmanufacturingrulers。

Dominatedentirelybythespiritofequalityandthedesiretoamelioratethelotoftheworkers，itrejectstheideaoffraternity，andexhibitsnoanxietyinrespectofliberty。Nogovernmentisconceivabletopopulardemocracyexceptintheformofanautocracy。Weseethis，notonlyinhistory，whichshowsusthatsincetheRevolutionalldespoticGovernmentshavebeenvigorouslyacclaimed，butalsointheautocraticfashioninwhichtheworkers’tradesunionsareconducted。

Thisprofounddistinctionbetweenthedemocracyoftheletteredclassesandpopulardemocracyisfarmoreobvioustotheworkersthantotheintellectuals。Intheirmentalitiesthereisnothingincommon；thetwoclassesdonotspeakthesamelanguage。Thesyndicalistsemphaticallyassertto—daythatnoalliancecouldpossiblyexistbetweenthemandthepoliticiansofthebourgeoisie。Thisassertionisstrictlytrue。

Itwasalwaysso，andthis，nodoubt，iswhypopulardemocracy，fromPlato’stoourowntimes，hasneverbeendefendedbythegreatthinkers。

ThisfacthasgreatlystruckEmileFaguet。``Almostallthethinkersofthenineteenthcentury，’’hesays，``werenotdemocrats。WhenIwaswritingmyPolitiquesetmoralistesduXIXesieclethiswasmydespair。Icouldnotfindonewhohadbeenademocrat；yetIwasextremelyanxioustofindonesothatIcouldgivethedemocraticdoctrineasformulatedbyhim。’’

Theeminentwritermightcertainlyhavefoundplentyofprofessionalpoliticians，buttheselatterrarelybelongtothecategoryofthinkers。

2。NaturalInequalitiesandDemocraticEqualisation。

Thedifficultyofreconcilingdemocraticequalisationwithnaturalinequalitiesconstitutesoneofthemostdifficultproblemsofthepresenthour。Weknowwhatarethedesiresofdemocracy。LetusseewhatNaturerepliestothesedemands。

ThedemocraticideaswhichhavesooftenshakentheworldfromtheheroicagesofGreecetomoderntimesarealwaysclashingwithnaturalinequalities。Someobservershaveheld，withHelvetius，thattheinequalitybetweenmeniscreatedbyeducation。

Asamatteroffact，Naturedoesnotknowsuchathingasequality。Shedistributesunevenlygenius，beauty，health，vigour，intelligence，andallthequalitieswhichconferontheirpossessorsasuperiorityovertheirfellows。

Notheorycanalterthesediscrepancies，sothatdemocraticdoctrineswillremainconfinedtowordsuntilthelawsofheredityconsenttounifythecapacitiesofmen。

CanwesupposethatsocietieswilleversucceedinestablishingartificiallytheequalityrefusedbyNature？

Afewtheoristshavebelievedforalongtimethateducationmighteffectagenerallevelling。Manyyearsofexperiencehaveshownthedepthofthisillusion。

Itwouldnot，however，beimpossibleforatriumphantSocialismtoestablishequalityforatimebyrigorouslyeliminatingallsuperiorindividuals。Onecaneasilyforeseewhatwouldbecomeofapeoplethathadsuppresseditsbestindividualswhilesurroundedbyothernationsprogressingbymeansoftheirbestindividuals。

NotonlydoesNaturenotknowequality，butsincethebeginningoftheagesshehasalwaysrealisedprogressbymeansofsuccessivedifferentiations——thatistosay，byincreasinginequalities。Thesealonecouldraisetheobscurecelloftheearlygeologicalperiodstothesuperiorbeingswhoseinventionsweretochangethefaceoftheearth。

Thesamephenomenonistobeobservedinsocieties。Theformsofdemocracywhichselectthebetterelementsofthepopularclassesfinallyresultinthecreationofanintellectualaristocracy，aresultthecontraryofthedreamofthepuretheorists，tobeatdownthesuperiorelementsofsocietytotheleveloftheinferiorelements。

Onthesideofnaturallaw，whichishostiletotheoriesofequality，aretheconditionsofmodernprogress。Scienceandindustrydemandmoreandmoreconsiderableintellectualefforts，sothatmentalinequalitiesandthedifferencesofsocialconditionwhichspringfromthemcannotbutbecomeaccentuated。

Wethereforeobservethisstrikingphenomenon：aslawsandinstitutionsseektolevelindividualstheprogressofcivilisationtendsstillfurthertodifferentiatethem。Fromthepeasanttothefeudalbarontheintellectualdifferencewasnotgreat，butfromtheworking—mantotheengineeritisimmenseandisincreasingdaily。

Capacitybeingtheprincipalfactorofprogress，thecapableofeachclassrisewhilethemediocreremainstationaryorsink。

Whatcouldlawsdointhefaceofsuchinevitablenecessities？

Invaindotheincapablepretendthat，representingnumber，theyalsorepresentforce。Deprivedofthesuperiorbrainsbywhoseresearchesallworkersprofit，theywouldspeedilysinkintopovertyandanarchy。

Thecapitalroleoftheelectinmoderncivilisationseemstooobvioustoneedpointingout。Inthecaseofcivilisednationsandbarbarianpeoples，whichcontainsimilaraveragesofmediocrities，thesuperiorityoftheformerarisessolelyfromthesuperiormindswhichtheycontain。TheUnitedStateshaveunderstoodthissothoroughlythattheyforbidtheimmigrationofChineseworkers，whosecapacityisidenticalwiththatofAmericanworkers，andwho，workingforlowerwages，tendtocreateaformidablecompetitionwiththelatter。Despitetheseevidencesweseetheantagonismbetweenthemultitudeandtheelectincreasingdaybyday。Atnoperiodweretheelectmorenecessary，yetneverweretheysupportedwithsuchdifficulty。

OneofthemostsolidfoundationsofSocialismisanintensehatredoftheelect。Itsadeptsalwaysforgetthatscientific，artistic，andindustrialprogress，whichcreatesthestrengthofacountryandtheprosperityofmillionsofworkers，isduesolelytoasmallnumberofsuperiorbrains。

Iftheworkermakesthreetimesasmuchto—dayashedidahundredyearsago，andenjoyscommoditiesthenunknowntogreatnobles，heowesitentirelytotheelect。

SupposethatbysomemiracleSocialismhadbeenuniversallyacceptedacenturyago。Risk，speculation，initiative——inaword，allthestimulantsofhumanactivity——beingsuppressed，noprogresswouldhavebeenpossible，andtheworkerwouldhaveremainedaspoorashewas。Menwouldmerelyhaveestablishedthatequalityinpovertydesiredbythejealousyandenvyofahostofmediocreminds。Humanitywillneverrenouncetheprogressofcivilisationtosatisfysolowanideal。

CHAPTERII

THERESULTSOFDEMOCRATICEVOLUTION

1。TheInfluenceuponSocialEvolutionofTheoriesofnoRationalValue。

Wehaveseenthatnaturallawsdonotagreewiththeaspirationsofdemocracy。Weknow，also，thatsuchastatementhasneveraffecteddoctrinesalreadyinmen’sminds。Themanledbyabeliefnevertroublesaboutitsrealvalue。

Thephilosopherwhostudiesabeliefmustobviouslydiscussitsrationalcontent，butheismoreconcernedwithitsinfluencesuponthegeneralmind。

Appliedtotheinterpretationofallthegreatbeliefsofhistory，theimportanceofthisdistinctionisatonceevident。

Jupiter，Moloch，Vishnu，Allah，andsomanyotherdivinities，were，nodoubt，fromtherationalpointofview，mereillusions，yettheireffectuponthelifeofthepeopleshasbeenconsiderable。

ThesamedistinctionisapplicabletothebeliefswhichprevailedduringtheMiddleAges。Equallyillusory，theyneverthelessexercisedasprofoundaninfluenceasiftheyhadcorrespondedwithrealities。

Ifanyonedoubtsthis，lethimcomparethedominationoftheRomanEmpireandthatoftheChurchofRome。Thefirstwasperfectlyrealandtangible，andimpliednoillusion。Thesecond，whileitsfoundationswereentirelychimerical，wasfullyaspowerful。Thankstoit，duringthelongnightoftheMiddleAges，semi—barbarouspeoplesacquiredthosesocialbondsandrestraintsandthatnationalsoulwithoutwhichthereisnocivilisation。

ThepowerpossessedbytheChurchproves，again，thatthepowerofcertainillusionsissufficientlygreattocreate，atleastmomentarily，sentimentsascontrarytotheinterestsoftheindividualastheyaretothatofsociety——suchastheloveofthemonasticlife，thedesireformartyrdom，thecrusades，thereligiouswars，&c。

Theapplicationtodemocraticandsocialisticideasoftheprecedingconsiderationsshowsthatitmatterslittlethattheseideashavenodefensiblebasis。Theyimpressandinfluencemen’sminds，andthatissufficient。Theirresultsmaybedisastrousintheextreme，butwecannotpreventthem。

Theapostlesofthenewdoctrinesarequitewrongintakingsomuchtroubletofindarationalbasisfortheiraspirations。

Theywouldbefarmoreconvincingweretheytoconfinethemselvestomakingaffirmationsandawakeninghopes。Theirrealstrengthresidesinthereligiousmentalitywhichisinherentintheheartofman，andwhichduringtheageshasonlychangeditsobject。

Lateronweshallconsiderfromaphilosophicalpointofviewvariousconsequencesofthedemocraticevolutionwhosecourseweseeaccelerating。WemaysayinrespectoftheChurchintheMiddleAgesthatithadthepowerofprofoundlyinfluencingthementalityofmen。Examiningcertainresultsofthedemocraticdoctrines，weshallseethatthepoweroftheseisnolessthanthatoftheChurch。

2。TheJacobinSpiritandtheMentalitycreatedbyDemocraticBeliefs。

Existinggenerationshaveinherited，notonlytherevolutionaryprinciplesbutalsothespecialmentalitywhichachievestheirsuccess。

DescribingthismentalitywhenwewereexaminingtheJacobinspirit，wesawthatitalwaysendeavourstoimposebyforceillusionswhichitregardsasthetruth。TheJacobinspirithasfinallybecomesogeneralinFranceandinotherLatincountriesthatithasaffectedallpoliticalparties，eventhemostconservative。Thebourgeoisieisstronglyaffectedbyit，andthepeoplestillmoreso。

ThisincreaseoftheJacobinspirithasresultedinthefactthatpoliticalconceptions，institutions，andlawstendtoimposethemselvesbyforce。Syndicalism，peacefulenoughinothercountries，immediatelyassumedinFranceanuncompromisingandanarchicalaspect，whichbetrayeditselfintheshapeofriots，sabotage，andincendiarism。

NottoberepressedbytimidGovernments，theJacobinspiritproducesmelancholyravagesinmindsofmediocrecapacity。Atarecentcongressofrailwaymenathirdofthedelegatesvotedapprovalofsabotage，andoneofthesecretariesoftheCongressbeganhisspeechbysaying：``Isendallsaboteursmyfraternalgreetingandallmyadmiration。’’

Thisgeneralmentalityengendersanincreasinganarchy。ThatFranceisnotinapermanentstateofanarchyis，asIhavealreadyremarked，duetothefactthatthepartiesbywhichsheisdividedproducesomethinglikeequilibrium。Theyareanimatedbyamortalhatredforoneanother，butnoneofthemisstrongenoughtoenslaveitsrivals。

ThisJacobinintoleranceisspreadingtosuchanextentthattherulersthemselvesemploywithoutscruplethemostrevolutionarytacticswithregardtotheirenemies，violentlypersecutinganypartythatofferstheleastresistance，andevendespoilingitofitsproperty。Ourrulersto—daybehaveastheancientconquerorsused；thevanquishedhavenothingtohopefromthevictors。

Farfrombeingpeculiartothelowerorders，intoleranceisequallyprominentamongtherulingclasses。Micheletremarkedlongagothattheviolenceofthecultivatedclassesisoftengreaterthanthatofthepeople。Itistruethattheydonotbreakthestreetlamps，buttheyarereadyenoughtocauseheadstobebroken。Theworstviolenceoftherevolutionwastheworkofcultivatedbourgeoisie——professors，lawyers，&c。，possessorsofthatclassicaleducationwhichissupposedtosoftenthemanners。Ithasnotdonesointhesedays，anymorethanitdidofold。Onecanmakesureofthisbyreadingtheadvancedjournals，whosecontributorsandeditorsarerecruitedchieflyfromamongtheprofessorsoftheUniversity。

Theirbooksareasviolentastheirarticles，andonewondershowsuchfavouritesoffortunecanhavesecretedsuchstoresofhatred。

Onewouldfindithardtocreditthemdidtheyassureusthattheywereconsumedbyanintensepassionforaltruism。Onemightmorereadilyadmitthatapartfromanarrowreligiousmentalitythehopeofbeingremarkedbythemightyonesoftheday，orofcreatingaprofitablepopularity，istheonlypossibleexplanationoftheviolencerecommendedintheirwrittenpropaganda。

Ihavealready，inoneofmyprecedingworks，citedsomepassagesfromabookwrittenbyaprofessorattheCollegeofFrance，inwhichtheauthorincitesthepeopletoseizeupontherichesofthebourgeoisie，whomhefuriouslyabuses，andhavearrivedattheconclusionthatanewrevolutionwouldreadilyfindamongtheauthorsofsuchbookstheMarats，Robespierres，andCarrierswhomitmightrequire。

TheJacobinreligion——aboveallinitsSocialistform——hasallthepoweroftheancientfaithsoverfeeblemindsBlindedbytheirfaith，theybelievethatreasonistheirguide，butarereallyactuatedsolelybytheirpassionsandtheirdreams。

Theevolutionofdemocraticideashasthusproducednotonlythepoliticalresultsalreadymentioned，butalsoaconsiderableeffectuponthementalityofmodernmen。

Iftheancientdogmashavelongagoexhaustedtheirpower，thetheoriesofdemocracyarefarfromhavinglosttheirs，andweseetheirconsequencesincreasingdaily。Oneofthechiefresultshasbeenthegeneralhatredofsuperiority。

Thishatredofwhateverpassestheaverageinsocialfortuneorintelligenceisto—daygeneralinallclasses，fromtheworking—

classestotheupperstrataofthebourgeoisie。Theresultsareenvy，detraction，andaloveofattack，ofraillery，ofpersecution，andahabitofattributingallactionstolowmotives，ofrefusingtobelieveinprobity，disinterestedness，andintelligence。

Conversation，amongthepeopleasamongthemostcultivatedFrenchmen，isstampedwiththecrazeforabasingandabusingeverythingandeveryone。Eventhegreatestofthedeaddonotescapethistendency。Neverweresomanybookswrittentodepreciatethemeritoffamousmen，menwhowereformerlyregardedasthemostpreciouspatrimonyoftheircountry。

Envyandhatredseemfromalltimetohavebeeninseparablefromdemocratictheories，butthespreadofthesesentimentshasneverbeensogreatasto—day。Itstrikesallobservers。

``Thereisalowdemagogicinstinct，’’writesM。Bourdeau，``withoutanymoralinspiration，whichdreamsofpullinghumanitydowntothelowestlevel，andforwhichanysuperiority，evenofculture，isanoffencetosociety……itisthesentimentofignobleequalitywhichanimatedtheJacobinbutcherswhentheystruckofftheheadofaLavoisieroraChenier。

Thishatredofsuperiority，themostprominentelementinthemodernprogressofSocialism，isnottheonlycharacteristicofthenewspiritcreatedbydemocraticideas。

Otherconsequences，althoughindirect，arenotlessprofound。

Such，forexample，aretheprogressof``statism，’’thediminutionofthepowerofthebourgeoisie，theincreasingactivityoffinanciers，theconflictoftheclasses，thevanishingoftheoldsocialconstraints，andthedegradationofmorality。

Alltheseeffectsaredisplayedinageneralinsubordinationandanarchy。Thesonrevoltsagainstthefather，theemployeeagainsthispatron，thesoldieragainsthisofficers。

Discontent，hatred，andenvyreignthroughout。

Asocialmovementwhichcontinuesisnecessarilylikeamachineinmovementwhichacceleratesitsmotion。Weshallthereforefindthattheresultsofthismentalitywillbecomeyetmoreimportant。Itisbetrayedfromtimetotimebyincidentswhosegravityisdailyincreasing——railwaystrikes，postmen’sstrikes，explosionsonboardironclads，&c。AproposofthedestructionoftheLiberte，whichcostmorethantwomillionpoundsandslewtwohundredmeninthespaceofaminute，anex—MinisterofMarine，M。deLanessan，expresseshimselfasfollows：——

’’Theevilthatisgnawingatourfleetisthesameasthatwhichisdevouringourarmy，ourpublicadministrations，ourparliamentarysystem，ourgovernmentalsystem，andthewholefabricofoursociety。Thisevilisanarchy——thatistosay，suchadisorderofmindsandthingsthatnothingisdoneasreasonwoulddictate，andnoonebehavesashisprofessionalormoraldutyshouldrequirehimtobehave。’’

OnthesubjectofthecatastropheoftheLiberte，whichfollowedthatoftheIena，M。FelixRousselsaid，inaspeechdeliveredaspresidentofthemunicipalcouncilofParis：——

``Thecausesoftheevilarenotpeculiartoourday。Theevilismoregeneral，andbearsatriplename：irresponsibility，indiscipline，andanarchy。’’

Thesequotations，whichstatefactswithwhicheveryoneisfamiliar，showthatthestaunchestupholdersoftherepublicansystemthemselvesrecognisetheprogressofsocialdisorganisation。[12]Everyoneseesit，whileheisconsciousofhisownimpotencetochangeanything。Itresults，infact，frommentalinfluenceswhosepowerisgreaterthanthatofourwills。

[12]ThisdisorderisthesameinalltheGovernmentdepartmentsInterestingexampleswillbefoundinareportofM。DaussettotheMunicipalCouncil：——

``Theserviceofthepublichighways，whichoughtabovealltobenotedforitsrapidexecution，is，onthecontrary，theverytypeofred—tape，bureaucratic，andink—slingingadministration，possessingmenandmoneyandwastingbothintaskswhichareoftenuseless，forlackoforder，initiative，andmethod——inaword，oforganisation。

Speakingthenofthedirectorsofdepartments，eachofwhomworksashepleases，andafterhisownfashion，headds：——

``Theseimportantpersonscompletelyignoreoneanother；theyprepareandexecutetheirplanswithoutknowinganythingofwhattheirneighboursaredoing；thereisnooneabovethemtogroupandco—ordinatetheirwork。’’Thisiswhyaroadisoftentornup，repaired，andthentornupagainafewdayslater，becausethedepartmentsdealingwiththesupplyofwater，gas，electricity，andthesewersaremutuallyjealous，andneverattempttoworktogether。Thisanarchyandindisciplinenaturallycostenormoussumsofmoney，andaprivatefirmwhichoperatedinthismannerwouldsoonfinditselfbankrupt。

3。UniversalSuffrageanditsRepresentatives。

Amongthedogmasofdemocracyperhapsthemostfundamentalofallandthemostattractiveisthatofuniversalsuffrage。Itgivesthemassestheideaofequality，sinceforamomentatleastrichandpoor，learnedandignorant，areequalbeforetheelectoralurn。Theministerelbowstheleastofhisservants，andduringthisbriefmomentthepowerofoneisasgreatastheothers。

AllGovernments，includingthatoftheRevolution，havefeareduniversalsuffrage。Atafirstglance，indeed，theobjectionswhichsuggeststhemselvesarenumerous。Theideathatthemultitudecouldusefullychoosethemencapableofgoverning，thatindividualsofindifferentmorality，feebleknowledge，andnarrowmindsshouldpossess，bythesolefactofnumber，acertaintalentforjudgingthecandidateproposedforitsselectionissurelyashockingone。

FromarationalpointofviewthesuffrageofnumbersistoacertainextentjustifiedifwethinkwithPascal。

``Pluralityisthebestway，becauseitisvisibleandhasstrengthtomakeitselfobeyed；itis，however，theadviceofthelessable。’’

Asuniversalsuffragecannotinourtimesbereplacedbyanyotherinstitution，wemustacceptitandtrytoadaptit。ItisaccordinglyuselesstoprotestagainstitortorepeatwiththequeenMarieCaroline，atthetimeofherstrugglewithNapoleon：

``Nothingismoredreadfulthantogovernmeninthisenlightenedcentury，wheneverycobblerreasonsandcriticisestheGovernment。’’

Totellthetruth，theobjectionsarenotalwaysasgreatastheyappear。Thelawsofthepsychologyofcrowdsbeingadmitted，itisverydoubtfulwhetheralimitedsuffragewouldgiveamuchbetterchoiceofmenthanthatobtainedbyuniversalsuffrage。

Thesesamepsychologicallawsalsoshowusthatso—calleduniversalsuffrageisinrealityapurefiction。Thecrowd，saveinveryrarecases，hasnoopinionbutthatofitsleaders。

Universalsuffragereallyrepresentsthemostlimitedofsuffrages。

Therejustlyresidesitsrealdanger。UniversalsuffrageismadedangerousbythefactthattheleaderswhoareitsmastersarethecreaturesoflittlelocalcommitteesanalogoustotheclubsoftheRevolution。Theleaderwhocanvassesforamandateischosenbythem。

Oncenominated，heexercisesanabsolutelocalpower，onconditionofsatisfyingtheinterestsofhiscommittees。Beforethisnecessitythegeneralinterestofthecountrydisappearsalmosttotallyfromthemindoftheelectedrepresentative。

Naturallythecommittees，havingneedofdocileservants，donotchooseforthistaskindividualsgiftedwithaloftyintelligencenor，aboveall，withaveryhighmorality。Theymusthavemenwithoutcharacter，withoutsocialposition，andalwaysdocile。

Byreasonofthesenecessitiestheservilityofthedeputyinrespectoftheselittlegroupswhichpatronisehim，andwithoutwhichhewouldbenoone，isabsolute。Hewillspeakandvotejustashiscommitteetellshim。Hispoliticalidealmaybeexpressedinafewwords：itistoobey，thathemayretainhispost。

Sometimes，rarelyindeed，andonlywhenbynameorpositionorwealthhehasagreatprestige，asuperiorcharactermayimposehimselfuponthepopularvotebyovercomingthetyrannyoftheimpudentminoritieswhichconstitutethelocalcommittees。

DemocraticcountrieslikeFranceareonlyapparentlygovernedbyuniversalsuffrage。Forthisreasonisitthatsomanymeasuresarepassedwhichdonotinterestthepeopleandwhichthepeopleneverdemanded。SuchwerethepurchaseoftheWesternrailways，thelawsrespectingcongregations，&c。Theseabsurdmanifestationsmerelytranslatedthedemandsoffanaticallocalcommittees，andwereimposedupondeputieswhomtheyhadchosen。

Wemayjudgeoftheinfluenceofthesecommitteeswhenweseemoderatedeputiesforcedtopatronisetheanarchicaldestroyersofarsenals，toallythemselveswithanti—militarists，and，inaword，toobeythemostatrociousdemandsinordertoensurere—election。Thewillofthelowestelementsofdemocracyhasthuscreatedamongtheelectedrepresentativesmannersandamoralitywhichwecanbutrecogniseareofthelowest。Thepoliticianisthemaninpublicemployment，andasNietzschesays：——

``Wherepublicemploymentbeginstherebeginsalsotheclamourofthegreatcomediansandthebuzzingofvenomousflies……Thecomedianalwaysbelievesinthatwhichmakeshimobtainhisbesteffects，inthatwhichimpelsthepeopletobelieveinhim。To—

morrowhewillhaveanewfaith，andthedayafterto—morrowyetanother……Allthatisgreathasitsbeingfarfrompublicemploymentandglory。’’

4。TheCravingforReforms。

ThecrazeforreformsimposedsuddenlybymeansofdecreesisoneofthemostdisastrousconceptionsoftheJacobinspirit，oneoftheformidablelegaciesleftbytheRevolution。ItisamongtheprincipalfactorsofalltheincessantpoliticalupheavalsofthelastcenturyinFrance。

Oneofthepsychologicalcausesofthisintensethirstforreformsarisesfromthedifficultyofdeterminingtherealcausesoftheevilscomplainedof。Theneedofexplanationcreatesfictitiouscausesofthesimplestnature。Thereforetheremediesalsoappearsimple。

Forfortyyearswehaveincessantlybeenpassingreforms，eachofwhichisalittlerevolutioninitself。Inspiteofallthese，orratherbecauseofthem，theFrenchhaveevolvedalmostaslittleasanyraceinEurope。

Theslownessofouractualevolutionmaybeseenifwecomparetheprincipalelementsofoursociallife——commerce，industry，&c。——withthoseofothernations。Theprogressofothernations——oftheGermansespecially——thenappearsenormous，whileourownhasbeenveryslow。

Ouradministrative，industrial，andcommercialorganisationisconsiderablyoutofdate，andisnolongerequaltoournewneeds。Ourindustryisnotprospering；ourmarineisdeclining。

Eveninourowncolonieswecannotcompetewithforeigncountries，despitetheenormouspecuniarysubventionsaccordedbytheState。M。Cruppi，anex—MinisterofCommerce，hasinsistedonthismelancholydeclineinarecentbook。Fallingintotheusualerrors，hebelievediteasytoremedythisinferioritybynewlaws。