第15章

ToassureitselfofdominationintheprovincestheDirectorycausedaso—calledlawofhostagestobepassed，accordingtowhichalistofhostages，responsibleforalloffences，wasdrawnupineachcommune。

Itiseasytounderstandwhathatredsuchasystemprovoked。Attheendof1799fourteendepartmentswereinrevoltandforty—sixwerereadytorise。IftheDirectoryhadlastedthedissolutionofsocietywouldhavebeencomplete。

Forthatmatter，thisdissolutionwasfaradvanced。Finances，administration，everythingwascrumbling。ThereceiptsoftheTreasury，consistingofdepreciatedassignatsfallentoahundredthpartoftheiroriginalvalue，werenegligible。HoldersofGovernmentstockandofficerscouldnolongerobtainpayment。

Franceatthistimegavetravellerstheimpressionofacountryravagedbywarandabandonedbyitsinhabitants。Thebrokenbridgesanddykesandruinedbuildingsmadealltrafficimpossible。Theroads，longdeserted，wereinfestedbybrigands。

Certaindepartmentscouldonlybecrossedatthepriceofbuyingasafe—conductfromtheleadersofthesebands。Industryandcommercewereannihilated。InLyons13，000workshopsandmillsoutof15，000hadbeenforcedtoclose。Lille，Havre，Bordeaux，Lyons，Marseilles，&c。，werelikedeadcities。Povertyandfamineweregeneral。

Themoraldisorganisationwasnolessterrible。Luxuryandthecravingforpleasure，costlydinners，jewels，andextravaganthouseholdsweretheappanageofanewsocietycomposedentirelyofstock—jobbers，armycontractors，andshadyfinanciersenrichedbypillage。TheygaveParisthatsuperficialaspectofluxuryandgaietywhichhasdeludedsomanyhistoriansofthisperiod，becausetheinsolentprodigalitydisplayedcoveredthegeneralmisery。

ThechroniclesoftheDirectoryastoldinbookshelptoshowusofwhatliesthewebofhistoryiswoven。Thetheatrehaslatelygotholdofthisperiod，ofwhichthefashionsarestillimitated。Ithasleftthememoryofajoyousperiodofre—birthafterthegloomydramaoftheTerror。InrealitythedramaoftheDirectorywashardlyanimprovementontheTerrorandwasquiteassanguinary。Finally，itinspiredsuchloathingthattheDirectors，feelingthatitcouldnotlast，soughtthemselvesforthedictatorcapableofreplacingitandalsoofprotectingthem。

3。TheAdventofBonaparte。

WehaveseenthatattheendoftheDirectorytheanarchyanddisorganisationweresuchthateveryonewasdesperatelycallingforthemanofenergycapableofre—establishingorder。Asearlyas1795anumberofdeputieshadthoughtforamomentofre—

establishingroyalty。LouisXVIII。，havingbeentactlessenoughtodeclarethathewouldrestoretheancienregimeinitsentirety，returnallpropertytoitsoriginalowners，andpunishthemenoftheRevolution，wasimmediatelythrownover。

ThesenselessexpeditionofQuiberonfinallyalienatedthesupportersofthefuturesovereign。TheroyalistsgaveaproofduringthewholeoftheRevolutionofanincapacityandanarrownessofmindwhichjustifiedmostofthemeasurestakenagainstthem。

Themonarchybeingimpossible，itwasnecessarytofindageneral。Onlyoneexistedwhosenamecarriedweight——Bonaparte。

ThecampaigninItalyhadjustmadehimfamous。HavingcrossedtheAlps，hehadmarchedfromvictorytovictory，penetratedtoMilanandVenice，andeverywhereobtainedimportantwarcontributions。HethenmadetowardsVienna，andwasonlytwenty—

fiveleaguesfromitsgateswhentheEmperorofAustriadecidedtosueforpeace。

Butgreataswashisrenown，theyounggeneraldidnotconsideritsufficient。ToincreaseithepersuadedtheDirectorythatthepowerofEnglandcouldbeshakenbyaninvasionofEgypt，andinMay，1798，heembarkedatToulon。

ThisneedofincreasinghisprestigearosefromaverysoundpsychologicalconceptionwhichheclearlyexpoundedatSt。

Helena：——

``ThemostinfluentialandenlightenedgeneralshadlongbeenpressingthegeneralofItalytotakestepstoplacehimselfattheheadoftheRepublic。Herefused；hewasnotyetstrongenoughtowalkquitealone。HehadideasupontheartofgoverninganduponwhatwasnecessarytoagreatnationwhichweresodifferentfromthoseofthemenoftheRevolutionandtheassembliesthat，notbeingabletoactalone，hefearedtocompromisehischaracter。HedeterminedtosetoutforEgypt，butresolvedtoreappearifcircumstancesshouldarisetorenderhispresenceusefulornecessary。’’

BonapartedidnotstaylonginEgypt。Recalledbyhisfriends，helandedatFrejus，andtheannouncementofhisreturnprovokeduniversalenthusiasm。Therewereilluminationseverywhere。

Francecollaboratedinadvanceinthecoupd’etatpreparedbytwoDirectorsandtheprincipalministers。Theplotwasorganisedinthreeweeks。Itsexecutiononthe18thofBrumairewasaccomplishedwiththegreatestease。

Allpartiesexperiencedthegreatestdelightatbeingridofthesinistergangswhohadsolongoppressedandexploitedthecountry。TheFrenchweredoubtlessabouttoenteruponadespoticsystemofgovernment，butitcouldnotbesointolerableasthatwhichhadbeenenduredforsomanyyears。

Thehistoryofthecoupd’etatofBrumairejustifiesallthatwehavealreadysaidoftheimpossibilityofformingexactjudgmentsofeventswhichapparentlyarefullyunderstoodandattestedbynomatterhowmanywitnesses。

WeknowwhatideaspeoplehadthirtyyearsagoconcerningthecoupofBrumaire。Itwasregardedasacrimecommittedbytheambitionofamanwhowassupportedbyhisarmy。Asamatteroffactthearmyplayednopartwhateverintheaffair。Thelittlebodyofmenwhoexpelledthefewrecalcitrantdeputieswerenotsoldierseven，butthegendarmesoftheAssemblyitself。Thetrueauthorofthecoupd’etatwastheGovernmentitself，withthecomplicityofallFrance。

4。CausesoftheDurationoftheRevolution。

IfwelimittheRevolutiontothetimenecessaryfortheconquestofitsfundamentalprinciples——equalitybeforethelaw，freeaccesstopublicfunctions，popularsovereignty，controlofexpenditures，&c。——wemaysaythatitlastedonlyafewmonths。

Towardsthemiddleof1789allthiswasaccomplished，andduringtheyearsthatfollowednothingwasaddedtoit，yettheRevolutionlastedmuchlonger。

Confiningthedurationtothedatesadmittedbytheofficialhistorians，weseeitpersistinguntiltheadventofBonaparte，aspaceofsometenyears。

Whydidthisperiodofdisorganisationandviolencefollowtheestablishmentofthenewprinciples？Weneednotseekthecauseintheforeignwar，whichmightonseveraloccasionshavebeenterminated，thankstothedivisionsofthealliesandtheconstantvictoriesoftheFrench；neithermustwelookforitinthesympathyofFrenchmenfortherevolutionaryGovernment。

NeverwasrulemorecordiallyhatedanddespisedthanthatoftheAssemblies。Byitsrevoltsaswellasbyitsrepeatedvotesagreatpartofthenationdisplayedthehorrorwithwhichitregardedthesystem。

Thislastpoint，theaversionofFrancefortherevolutionaryregime，solongmisunderstood，hasbeenwelldisplayedbyrecenthistorians。TheauthorofthelastbookpublishedontheRevolution，M。Madelin，haswellsummarisedtheiropinioninthefollowingwords：——

``Asearlyas1793apartybynomeansnumeroushadseizeduponFrance，theRevolution，andtheRepublic。Now，three—quartersofFrancelongedfortheRevolutiontobechecked，orratherdeliveredfromitsodiousexploiters；buttheseheldtheunhappycountrybyathousandmeans……AstheTerrorwasessentialtothemiftheyweretorule，theystruckatwhomsoeverseemedatanygivenmomenttobeopposedtotheTerror，weretheythebestservantsoftheRevolution。’’

UptotheendoftheDirectorythegovernmentwasexercisedbyJacobins，whomerelydesiredtoretain，alongwiththesupremepower，therichestheyhadaccumulatedbymurderandpillage，andwerereadytosurrenderFrancetoanyonewhowouldguaranteethemfreepossessionofthese。Thattheynegotiatedthecoupd’etatofBrumairewithNapoleonwassimplytothefactthattheyhadnotbeenabletorealisetheirwisheswithregardtoLouisXVIII。

ButhowexplainthefactthataGovernmentsotyrannicalandsodishonouredwasabletosurviveforsomanyyears？

Itwasnotmerelybecausetherevolutionaryreligionstillsurvivedinmen’sminds，norbecauseitwasforcedonthembymeansofpersecutionandbloodshed，butespecially，asIhavealreadystated，onaccountofthegreatinterestwhichalargeportionofthepopulationhadinmaintainingit。

Thispointisfundamental。IftheRevolutionhadremainedatheoreticalreligion，itwouldprobablyhavebeenofshortduration。Butthebeliefwhichhadjustbeenfoundedveryquicklyemergedfromthedomainofpuretheory。

TheRevolutiondidnotconfineitselftodespoilingthemonarchy，thenobility，andtheclergyoftheirpowersofgovernment。Inthrowingintothehandsofthebourgeoisieandthelargenumbersofpeasantrythewealthandtheemploymentsoftheoldprivilegedclassesithadatthesamestroketurnedthemintoobstinatesupportersoftherevolutionarysystem。Allthosewhohadacquiredthepropertyofwhichthenoblesandclergyhadbeendespoiledhadobtainedlandsandchateauxatlowprices，andwereterrifiedlesttherestorationofthemonarchyshouldforcethemtomakegeneralrestitution。

ItwaslargelyforthesereasonsthataGovernmentwhich，atanynormalperiod，wouldneverhavebeenendured，wasabletosurviveuntilamastershouldre—establishorder，whilepromisingtomaintainnotonlythemoralbutalsothematerialconquestsoftheRevolution。Bonaparterealisedtheseanxieties，andwaspromptlyandenthusiasticallywelcomed。Materialconquestswhichwerestillcontestableandtheoreticalprincipleswhichwerestillfragilewerebyhimincorporatedininstitutionsandthelaws。ItisanerrortosaythattheRevolutionterminatedwithhisadvent。Farfromdestroyingit，heratifiedandconsolidatedit。

CHAPTERII

THERESTORATIONOFORDER。THECONSULARREPUBLIC

1。HowtheWorkoftheRevolutionwasConfirmedbytheConsulate。

ThehistoryoftheConsulateisasrichastheprecedingperiodinpsychologicalmaterial。Inthefirstplaceitshowsusthattheworkofapowerfulindividualissuperiortothatofacollectivity。BonaparteimmediatelyreplacedthebloodyanarchyinwhichtheRepublichadfortenyearsbeenwrithingbyaperiodoforder。ThatwhichnoneofthefourAssembliesoftheRevolutionhadbeenabletorealise，despitethemostviolentoppression，asinglemanaccomplishedinaveryshortspaceoftime。

HisauthorityimmediatelyputanendtoalltheParisianinsurrectionsandtheattemptsatmonarchicalresistance，andre—

establishedthemoralunityofFrance，soprofoundlydividedbyintensehatreds。Bonapartereplacedanunorganisedcollectivedespotismbyaperfectlyorganisedindividualdespotism。

Everyonegainedthereby，forhistyrannywasinfinitelylessheavythanthatwhichhadbeenenduredfortenlongyears。Wemustsuppose，moreover，thatitwasunwelcometoveryfew，asitwasverysoonacceptedwithimmenseenthusiasm。

Weknowbetterto—daythantorepeatwiththeoldhistoriansthatBonaparteoverthrewtheRepublic。Onthecontrary，heretainedofitallthatcouldberetained，andneverwouldhavebeenretainedwithouthim，byestablishingallthepracticableworkoftheRevolution——theabolitionofprivileges，equalitybeforethelaw，&c。——ininstitutionsandcodesoflaw。TheConsularGovernmentcontinued，moreover，tocallitselftheRepublic。

ItisinfinitelyprobablethatwithouttheConsulateamonarchicalrestorationwouldhaveterminatedtheDirectory，andwouldhavewipedoutthegreaterpartoftheworkoftheRevolution。LetussupposeBonaparteerasedfromhistory。Noone，Ithink，willimaginethattheDirectorycouldhavesurvivedtheuniversalwearinessofitsrule。Itwouldcertainlyhavebeenoverturnedbytheroyalistconspiracieswhichwerebreakingoutdaily，andLouisXVIII。wouldprobablyhaveascendedthethrone。Certainlyhewastomountitsixteenyearslater，butduringthisintervalBonapartegavesuchforcetotheprinciplesoftheRevolution，byestablishingtheminlawsandcustoms，thattherestoredsovereigndarednottouchthem，norrestorethepropertyofthereturnedemigres。

MatterswouldhavebeenverydifferenthadLouisXVIII。

immediatelyfollowedtheDirectory。Hewouldhavebroughtwithhimalltheabsolutismoftheancienregime，andfreshrevolutionswouldhavebeennecessarytoabolishit。WeknowthatamereattempttoreturntothepastoverthrewCharlesX。

ItwouldbealittleingenuoustocomplainofthetyrannyofBonaparte。UndertheancienregimeFrenchmenhadsupportedeveryspeciesoftyranny，andtheRepublichadcreatedadespotismevenheavierthanthatofthemonarchy。Despotismwasthenanormalcondition，whicharousednoprotestsavewhenitwasaccompaniedbydisorder。

Aconstantlawofthepsychologyofcrowdsshowsthemascreatinganarchy，andthenseekingthemasterwhowillenablethemtoemergetherefrom。Bonapartewasthismaster。

2。TheReorganisationofFrancebytheConsulate。

UponassumingpowerBonaparteundertookacolossaltask。Allwasinruins；allwastoberebuilt。OnthemorrowofthecoupofBrumairehedrafted，almostsingle—handed，theConstitutiondestinedtogivehimtheabsolutepowerwhichwastoenablehimtoreorganisethecountryandtoprevailoverthefactions。Inamonthitwascompleted。

ThisConstitution，knownasthatoftheyearVIII。，survived，withslightmodifications，untiltheendofhisreign。TheexecutivepowerwastheattributeofthreeConsuls，twoofwhompossessedaconsultativevoiceonly。ThefirstConsul，Bonaparte，wasthereforesolemasterofFrance。Heappointedministers，councillorsofstate，ambassadors，magistrates，andotherofficials，anddecideduponpeaceorwar。Thelegislativepowerwashisalso，sinceonlyhecouldinitiatethelaws，whichweresubsequentlysubmittedtothreeAssemblies——theCouncilofState，theTribunate，andtheLegislativeCorps。AfourthAssembly，theSenate，actedeffectuallyastheguardianoftheConstitution。

Despoticashewasandbecame，BonapartealwayscalledtheotherConsulsabouthimbeforeproceedingwiththemosttrivialmeasure。TheLegislativeCorpsdidnotexercisemuchinfluenceduringhisreign，buthesignednodecreesofanykindwithoutfirstdiscussingthemwiththeCouncilofState。ThisCouncil，composedofthemostenlightenedandlearnedmenofFrance，preparedlaws，whichwerethenpresentedtotheLegislativeCorps，whichcouldcriticisethemveryfreely，sincevotingwassecret。PresidedoverbyBonaparte，theCouncilofStatewasakindofsovereigntribunal，judgingeventheactionsofministers。[9]

[9]NapoleonnaturallyoftenoverruledtheCouncilofState，butbynomeansalwaysdidso。Inoneinstance，reportedintheMemorialdeSainte—Helene，hewastheonlyoneofhisownopinion，andacceptedthatofthemajorityinthefollowingterms：``Gentlemen，mattersaredecidedherebymajority，andbeingalone，Imustgiveway；butIdeclarethatinmyconscienceIyieldonlytoform。Youhavereducedmetosilence，butinnowayconvincedme。’’

AnotherdaytheEmperor，interruptedthreetimesintheexpressionofhisopinion，addressedhimselftothespeakerwhohadjustinterruptedhim：``Sir，Ihavenotyetfinished；Ibegyoutoallowmetocontinue。Afterall，itseemstomethateveryonehasaperfectrighttoexpresshisopinionhere。’’

``TheEmperor，contrarytotheacceptedopinion，wassofarfromabsolute，andsoeasywithhisCouncilofState，thatheoftenresumedadiscussion，orevenannulledadecision，becauseoneofthemembersoftheCouncilhadsince，inprivate，givenhimfreshreasons，orhadurgedthattheEmperor’spersonalopinionhadinfluencedthemajority。’’

ThenewmasterhadgreatconfidenceinthisCouncil，asitwascomposedmoreparticularlyofeminentjurists，eachofwhomdealtwithhisownspeciality。Hewastoogoodapsychologistnottoentertainthegreatestsuspicionoflargeandincompetentassembliesofpopularorigin，whosedisastrousresultshadbeenobvioustohimduringthewholeoftheRevolution。

Wishingtogovernforthepeople，butneverwithitsassistance，Bonaparteaccordeditnopartinthegovernment，reservingtoitonlytherightofvoting，onceforall，fororagainsttheadoptionofthenewConstitution。Heonlyinrareinstanceshadrecoursetouniversalsuffrage。ThemembersoftheLegislativeCorpsrecruitedthemselves，andwerenotelectedbythepeople。

IncreatingaConstitutionintendedsolelytofortifyhisownpower，theFirstConsulhadnoillusionthatitwouldservetorestorethecountry。Consequently，whilehewasdraftingithealsoundertooktheenormoustaskoftheadministrative，judicial，andfinancialreorganisationofFrance。ThevariouspowerswerecentralisedinParis。Eachdepartmentwasdirectedbyaprefect，assistedbyaconsul—general；thearrondissementbyasub—

prefect，assistedbyacouncil；thecommunebyamayor，assistedbyamunicipalcouncil。Allwereappointedbytheministers，andnotbyelection，asundertheRepublic。

Thissystem，whichcreatedtheomnipotentStateandapowerfulcentralisation，wasretainedbyallsubsequentGovernmentsandispreservedto—day。Centralisationbeing，inspiteofitsdrawbacks，theonlymeansofavoidinglocaltyranniesinacountryprofoundlydividedwithinitself，hasalwaysbeenmaintained。

Thisorganisation，basedonaprofoundknowledgeofthesouloftheFrenchpeople，immediatelyrestoredthattranquillityandorderwhichhadforsolongbeenunknown。

Tocompletethementalpacificationofthecountry，thepoliticalexileswererecalledandthechurchesrestoredtothefaithful。

Continuingtorebuildthesocialedifice，Bonapartebusiedhimselfalsowiththedraftingofacode，thegreaterpartofwhichconsistedofcustomsborrowedfromtheancienregime。

Itwas，ashasbeensaid，asortoftransitionorcompromisebetweentheoldlawandthenew。

ConsideringtheenormoustaskaccomplishedbytheFirstConsulinsoshortatime，werealisethathehadneed，beforeall，ofaConstitutionaccordinghimabsolutepower。IfallthemeasuresbywhichherestoredFrancehadbeensubmittedtoassembliesofattorneys，hecouldneverhaveextricatedthecountryfromthedisorderintowhichithadfallen。

TheConstitutionoftheyearVIII。obviouslytransformedtheRepublicintoamonarchyatleastasabsoluteasthe``Divineright’’monarchyofLouisXIV。BeingtheonlyConstitutionadaptedtotheneedsofthemoment，itrepresentedapsychologicalnecessity。

3。PsychologicalElementswhichdeterminedtheSuccessoftheWorkoftheConsulate。

Alltheexternalforceswhichactuponmen——economic，historical，geographical，&c。——maybefinallytranslatedintopsychologicalforces。Thesepsychologicalforcesarulermustunderstandinordertogovern。TheRevolutionaryAssemblieswerecompletelyignorantofthem；Bonaparteknewhowtoemploythem。

ThevariousAssemblies，theConventionnotably，werecomposedofconflictingparties。Napoleonunderstoodthattodominatethemhemustnotbelongtoanyoneoftheseparties。Verywellawarethatthevalueofacountryisdisseminatedamongthesuperiorintelligencesofthevariousparties，hetriedtoutilisethemall。Hisagentsofgovernment——ministers，priests，magistrates，&c。——weretakenindifferentlyfromamongtheLiberals，Royalists，Jacobites，&c。，havingregardonlytotheircapacities。

Whileacceptingtheassistanceofmenoftheancienregime，BonapartetookcaretomakeitunderstoodthatheintendedtomaintainthefundamentalprinciplesoftheRevolution。

NeverthelessmanyRoyalistsralliedroundthenewGovernment。

OneofthemostremarkablefeatsoftheConsulate，fromthepsychologicalpointofview，wastherestorationofreligiouspeace。Francewasfarmoredividedbyreligiousdisagreementthanbypoliticaldifferences。ThesystematicdestructionofaportionoftheVendeehadalmostcompletelyterminatedthestrugglebyforceofarms，butwithoutpacifyingmen’sminds。Asonlyoneman，andhetheheadofChristianity，couldassistinthispacification，Bonapartedidnothesitatetotreatwithhim。

Hisconcordatwastheworkofarealpsychologist，whoknewthatmoralforcesdonotuseviolence，andthegreatdangerofpersecutingsuch。Whileconciliatingtheclergyhecontrivedtoplacethemunderhisowndomination。ThebishopsweretobeappointedandremuneratedbytheState，sothathewouldstillbemaster。

ThereligiouspolicyofNapoleonhadabearingwhichescapesourmodernJacobins。Blindedbytheirnarrowfanaticism，theydonotunderstandthattodetachtheChurchfromtheGovernmentistocreateastatewithintheState，sothattheyareliabletofindthemselvesopposedbyaformidablecaste，directedbyamasteroutsideFrance，andnecessarilyhostiletoFrance。Togiveone’senemiesalibertytheydidnotpossessisextremelydangerous。

NeverwouldNapoleon，noranyofthesovereignswhoprecededhim，haveconsentedtomaketheclergyindependentoftheState，astheyhavebecometo—day。

ThedifficultiesofBonapartetheFirstConsulwerefargreaterthanthosehehadtosurmountafterhiscoronation。Onlyaprofoundknowledgeofmenenabledhimtotriumphoverthem。Thefuturemasterwasfarfrombeingthemasterasyet。Manydepartmentswerestillininsurrection。Brigandagepersisted，andtheMidiwasravagedbythestrugglesofpartisans。

Bonaparte，asConsul，hadtoconciliateandhandleTalleyrand，Fouche，andanumberofgeneralswhothoughtthemselveshisequal。Evenhisbrothersconspiredagainsthispower。Napoleon，asEmperor，hadnohostilepartytoface，butasConsulhehadtocombatallthepartiesandtoholdthebalanceequalamongthem。Thismustindeedhavebeenadifficulttask，sinceduringthelastcenturyveryfewGovernmentshavesucceededinaccomplishingit。

Thesuccessofsuchanundertakingdemandedanextremelysubtlemixtureoffinesse，firmness，anddiplomacy。Notfeelinghimselfpowerfulenoughasyet，BonapartetheConsulmadearule，accordingtohisownexpression，``ofgoverningmenasthegreaternumberwishtobegoverned。’’AsEmperorheoftenmanagedtogovernthemaccordingtohisownideal。

Wehavetravelledalongwaysincethetimewhenhistorians，intheirsingularblindness，andgreatpoets，whopossessedmoretalentthanpsychology，wouldholdforthinindignantaccentsagainstthecoupd’etatofBrumaire。Whatprofoundillusionsunderlaytheassertionthat``FrancelayfairinMessidor’sgreatsun’’！AndotherillusionsnolessprofoundunderlaysuchverdictsasthatofVictorHugoconcerningthisperiod。Wehaveseenthatthe``CrimeofBrumaire’’hadasanenthusiasticaccomplice，notonlytheGovernmentitselfbutthewholeofFrance，whichitdeliveredfromanarchy。

Onemaywonderhowintelligentmencouldsomisjudgeaperiodofhistorywhichisneverthelesssoclear。Itwasdoubtlessbecausetheysaweventsthroughtheirownconvictions，andweknowwhattransformationsthetruthmaysufferforthemanwhoisimprisonedinthevalleysofbelief。Themostluminousfactsareobscured，andthehistoryofeventsisthehistoryofhisdreams。

Thepsychologistwhodesirestounderstandtheperiodwhichwehavesobrieflysketchedcanonlydosoif，beingattachedtonoparty，hestandsclearofthepassionswhicharethesoulofparties。Hewillneverdreamofrecriminatingapastwhichwasdictatedbysuchimperiousnecessities。CertainlyNapoleonhascostFrancedear：hisepicwasterminatedbytwoinvasions，andtherewasyettobeathird，whoseconsequencesarefeltevento—day，whentheprestigewhichheexertedevenfromthetombsetuponthethronetheinheritorofhisname。

Alltheseeventsarenarrowlyconnectedintheirorigin。Theyrepresentthepriceofthatcapitalphenomenonintheevolutionofapeople，achangeofideal。Mancannevermaketheattempttobreaksuddenlywithhisancestorswithoutprofoundlyaffectingthecourseofhisownhistory。

CHAPTERIII

POLITICALCONSEQUENCESOFTHECONFLICTBETWEENTRADITIONSAND

REVOLUTIONARYPRINCIPLESDURINGTHELASTCENTURY

1。ThePsychologicalCausesofthecontinuedRevolutionaryMovementstowhichFrancehasbeensubject。

Inexamining，inasubsequentchapter，theevolutionofrevolutionaryideasduringthelastcentury，weshallseethatduringmorethanfiftyyearstheyveryslowlyspreadthroughthevariousstrataofsociety。

Duringthewholeofthisperiodthegreatmajorityofthepeopleandthebourgeoisierejectedthem，andtheirdiffusionwaseffectedonlybyaverylimitednumberofapostles。Buttheirinfluence，thanksprincipallytothefaultsofGovernments，wassufficienttoprovokeseveralrevolutions。Weshallexaminethesebrieflywhenwehaveexaminedthepsychologicalinfluenceswhichgavethembirth。

Thehistoryofourpoliticalupheavalsduringthelastcenturyisenoughtoprove，evenifwedidnotyetrealisethefact，thatmenaregovernedbytheirmentalitiesfarmorethanbytheinstitutionswhichtheirrulersendeavourtoforceuponthem。

ThesuccessiverevolutionswhichFrancehassufferedhavebeentheconsequencesofstrugglesbetweentwoportionsofthenationwhosementalitiesaredifferent。Oneisreligiousandmonarchicalandisdominatedbylongancestralinfluences；theotherissubjectedtothesameinfluences，butgivesthemarevolutionaryform。

FromthecommencementoftheRevolutionthestrugglebetweencontrarymentalitieswasplainlymanifested。WehaveseenthatinspiteofthemostfrightfulrepressioninsurrectionsandconspiracieslasteduntiltheendoftheDirectory。Theyprovedthatthetraditionsofthepasthadleftprofoundrootsinthepopularsoul。AtacertainmomentsixtydepartmentswereinrevoltagainstthenewGovernment，andwereonlyrepressedbyrepeatedmassacresonavastscale。