第13章

Although300Frenchand200Prussiansonlywerekilledinthisbattle，ithadverysignificantresults。Thefactthatanarmyreputedinvinciblehadbeenforcedtoretreatgaveboldnesstotheyoungrevolutionarytroops，andeverywheretheytooktheoffensive。InafewweeksthesoldiersofValmyhadchasedtheAustriansoutofBelgium，wheretheywerewelcomedasliberators。

ButitwasundertheConventionthatthewarassumedsuchimportance。Atthebeginningof1793theAssemblydeclaredthatBelgiumwasunitedtoFrance。FromthisresultedaconflictwithEnglandwhichlastedfortwenty—twoyears。

AssembledatAntwerpinApril，1793，therepresentativesofEngland，Prussia，andAustriaresolvedtodismemberFrance。ThePrussiansweretoseizeAlsaceandLorraine；theAustrians，FlandersandArtois；theEnglish，Dunkirk。TheAustrianambassadorproposedtocrushtheRevolutionbyterror，``byexterminatingpracticallythewholeofthepartydirectingthenation。’’InthefaceofsuchdeclarationsFrancehadperforcetoconquerortoperish。

Duringthisfirstcoalition，between1793and1797，Francehadtofightonallherfrontiers，fromthePyreneestothenorth。

Attheoutsetshelostherformerconquests，andsufferedseveralreverses。TheSpaniardstookPerpignanandBayonne；theEnglish，Toulon；andtheAustrians，Valenciennes。ItwasthenthattheConvention，towardstheendof1793，orderedagenerallevyofallFrenchmenbetweentheagesofeighteenandforty，andsucceededinsendingtothefrontiersatotalofsome750，000

men。Theoldregimentsoftheroyalarmywerecombinedwithbattalionsofvolunteersandconscripts。

Theallieswererepulsed，andMaubeugewasrelievedafterthevictoryofWattigny，whichwasgainedbyJourdan。HocherescuedLorraine。Francetooktheoffensive，reconqueringBelgiumandtheleftbankoftheRhine。JourdandefeatedtheAustriansatFleurus，drovethembackupontheRhine，andoccupiedCologneandCoblentz。Hollandwasinvaded。Thealliedsovereignsresignedthemselvestosuingforpeace，andrecognisedtheFrenchconquests。

ThesuccessesoftheFrenchwerefavouredbythefactthattheenemyneverputtheirwholeheartintotheaffair，astheywerepreoccupiedbythepartitionofPoland，whichtheyeffectedin1793—5。EachPowerwishedtobeonthespotinordertoobtainmoreterritory。ThismotivehadalreadycausedtheKingofPrussiatoretireafterthebattleofValmyin1792。

ThehesitationsofthealliesandtheirmutualdistrustwereextremelyadvantageoustotheFrench。HadtheAustriansmarcheduponParisinthesummerof1793，``weshould，’’saidGeneralThiebault，``havelostahundredtimesforone。Theyalonesavedus，bygivingustimetomakesoldiers，officers，andgenerals。’’

AfterthetreatyofBasle，FrancehadnoimportantadversariesontheContinent，savetheAustrians。ItwasthenthattheDirectoryattackedAustriainItaly。Bonapartewasentrustedwiththechargeofthiscampaign。Afterayearoffighting，fromApril，1796，toApril，1797，heforcedthelastenemiesofFrancetodemandpeace。

3。PsychologicalandMilitaryFactorswhichdeterminedtheSuccessoftheRevolutionaryArmies。

Torealisethecausesofthesuccessoftherevolutionaryarmieswemustremembertheprodigiousenthusiasm，endurance，andabnegationoftheseraggedandoftenbarefoottroops。Thoroughlysteepedinrevolutionaryprinciples，theyfeltthattheyweretheapostlesofanewreligion，whichwasdestinedtoregeneratetheworld。

ThehistoryofthearmiesoftheRevolutionrecallsthatofthenomadsofArabia，who，excitedtofanaticismbytheidealsofMohammed，weretransformedintoformidablearmieswhichrapidlyconqueredaportionoftheoldRomanworld。AnanalogousfaithendowedtheRepublicansoldierswithaheroismandintrepiditywhichneverfailedthem，andwhichnoreversecouldshakeWhentheConventiongaveplacetotheDirectorytheyhadliberatedthecountry，andhadcarriedawarofinvasionintotheenemy’sterritory。AtthisperiodthesoldiersweretheonlytrueRepublicansleftinFrance。

Faithiscontagious，andtheRevolutionwasregardedasanewera，sothatseveralofthenationsinvaded，oppressedbytheabsolutismoftheirmonarchs，welcomedtheinvadersasliberators。TheinhabitantsofSavoyranouttomeetthetroops。

AtMayencethecrowdwelcomedthemwithenthusiasmplantedtreesofliberty，andformedaConventioninimitationofthatofParis。

SolongasthearmiesoftheRevolutionhadtodealwithpeoplesbentundertheyokeofabsolutemonarchy，andhavingnopersonalidealtodefend，theirsuccesswasrelativelyeasy。Butwhentheyenteredintoconflictwithpeopleswhohadanidealasstrongastheirownvictorybecamefarmoredifficult。

Thenewidealoflibertyandequalitywascapableofseducingpeopleswhohadnopreciseconvictions，andweresufferingfromthedespotismoftheirmasters，butitwasnaturallypowerlessagainstthosewhopossessedapotentidealoftheirownwhichhadbeenlongestablishedintheirminds。ForthisreasonBretonsandVendeeans，whosereligiousandmonarchicalsentimentswereextremelypowerful，successfullystruggledforyearsagainstthearmiesoftheRepublic。

InMarch，1793，theinsurrectionsoftheVendeeandBrittanyhadspreadtotendepartments。TheVendeeansinPoitouandtheChouansinBrittanyput80，000meninthefield。

Theconflictsbetweencontraryideals——thatis，betweenbeliefsinwhichreasoncanplaynopart——arealwayspitiless，andthestrugglewiththeVendeeimmediatelyassumedtheferocioussavageryalwaysobservableinreligiouswars。Itlasteduntiltheendof1795，whenHochefinally``pacified’’thecountry。

Thispacificationwasthesimpleresultofthepracticalexterminationofitsdefenders。

``Aftertwoyearsofcivilwar，’’writesMolinari，``theVendeewasnomorethanahideousheapofruins。About900，000individuals——men，women，children，andagedpeople——hadperished，andthesmallnumberofthosewhohadescapedmassacrecouldscarcelyfindfoodorshelter。Thefieldsweredevastated，thehedgesandwallsdestroyed，andthehousesburned。’’

Besidestheirfaith，whichsooftenrenderedtheminvincible，thesoldiersoftheRevolutionhadusuallytheadvantageofbeingledbyremarkablegenerals，fullofardourandformedonthebattle—

field。

Themajorityoftheformerleadersofthearmy，beingnobles，hademigratedsothatanewbodyofofficershadtobeorganised。

Theresultwasthatthosegiftedwithinnatemilitaryaptitudeshadachanceofshowingthem，andpassedthroughallthegradesofrankinafewmonths。Hoche，forinstance，acorporalin1789，wasageneralofdivisionandcommanderofanarmyattheageoftwenty—five。Theextremeyouthoftheseleadersresultedinaspiritofaggressiontowhichthearmiesopposedtothemwerenotaccustomed。Selectedonlyaccordingtomerit，andhamperedbynotraditions，noroutine，theyquicklysucceededinworkingoutatacticssuitedtothenewnecessities。

Ofsoldierswithoutexperienceopposedtoseasonedprofessionaltroops，drilledandtrainedaccordingtothemethodsinuseeverywheresincetheSevenYears’War，onecouldnotexpectcomplicatedmanoeuvres。

Attacksweredeliveredsimplybygreatmassesoftroops。Thankstothenumbersofthemenatthedisposaloftheirgenerals，theconsiderablegapsprovokedbythisefficaciousbutbarbarousprocedurecouldberapidlyfilled。

Deepmassesofmenattackedtheenemywiththebayonet，andquicklyroutedmenaccustomedtomethodswhichweremorecarefulofthelivesofsoldiers。TheslowrateoffireinthosedaysrenderedtheFrenchtacticsrelativelyeasyofemployment。Ittriumphed，butatthecostofenormouslosses。Ithasbeencalculatedthatbetween1792and1800theFrencharmyleftmorethanathirdofitseffectiveforceonthebattle—field（700，000

menoutof2，000，000）。

Examiningeventsfromapsychologicalpointofview，weshallcontinuetoelicittheconsequencesfromthefactsonwhichtheyareconsequent。

AstudyoftherevolutionarycrowdsinParisandinthearmiespresentsverydifferentbutreadilyinterpretedpictures。

Wehaveprovedthatcrowds，unabletoreason，obeysimplytheirimpulses，whicharealwayschanging，butwehavealsoseenthattheyarereadilycapableofheroism，thattheiraltruismisoftenhighlydeveloped，andthatitiseasytofindthousandsofmenreadytogivetheirlivesforabelief。

Psychologicalcharacteristicssodiversemustnaturally，accordingtothecircumstances，leadtodissimilarandevenabsolutelycontradictoryactions。ThehistoryoftheConventionanditsarmiesprovesasmuch。ItshowsuscrowdscomposedofsimilarelementsactingsodifferentlyinParisandonthefrontiersthatonecanhardlybelievethesamepeoplecanbeinquestion。

InParisthecrowdsweredisorderly，violent，murderous，andsochangeableintheirdemandsastomakeallgovernmentimpossible。

Inthearmiesthepicturewasentirelydifferent。Thesamemultitudesofunaccustomedmen，restrainedbytheorderlyelementsofalaboriouspeasantpopulation，standardisedbymilitarydiscipline，andinspiredbycontagiousenthusiasm，heroicallysupportedprivations，disdainedperils，andcontributedtoformthatfabulousstrainwhichtriumphedoverthemostredoubtabletroopsinEurope。

Thesefactsareamongthosewhichshouldalwaysbeinvokedtoshowtheforceofdiscipline。Ittransformsmen。Liberatedfromitsinfluence，peoplesandarmiesbecomebarbarianhordes。

Thistruthisdailyandincreasinglyforgotten。Ignoringthefundamentallawsofcollectivelogic，wegivewaymoreandmoretoshiftingpopularimpulses，insteadoflearningtodirectthem。

Themultitudemustbeshowntheroadtofollow；itisnotforthemtochooseit。

CHAPTERVII

PSYCHOLOGYOFTHELEADERSOFTHEREVOLUTION

1。MentalityoftheMenoftheRevolution。TherespectiveInfluenceofViolentandFeebleCharacters。

Menjudgewiththeirintelligence，andareguidedbytheircharacters。Tounderstandamanfullyonemustseparatethesetwoelements。

Duringthegreatperiodsofactivity——andtherevolutionarymovementsnaturallybelongtosuchperiods——characteralwaystakesthefirstrank。

Havinginseveralchaptersdescribedthevariousmentalitieswhichpredominateintimesofdisturbance，weneednotreturntothesubjectnow。Theyconstitutegeneraltypeswhicharenaturallymodifiedbyeachman’sinheritedandacquiredpersonality。

WehaveseenwhatanimportantpartwasplayedbythemysticelementintheJacobinmentality，andtheferociousfanaticismtowhichitledthesectariesofthenewfaith。

WehavealsoseenthatallthemembersoftheAssemblieswerenotfanatics。Theselatterwereevenintheminority，sinceinthemostsanguinaryoftherevolutionaryassembliesthegreatmajoritywascomposedoftimidandmoderatemenofneutralcharacter。BeforeThermidorthemembersofthisgroupvotedfromfearwiththeviolentandafterThermidorwiththemoderatedeputies。

Intimeofrevolution，asatothertimes，theseneutralcharacters，obeyingthemostcontraryimpulses，arealwaysthemostnumerous。Theyarealsoasdangerousinrealityastheviolentcharacters。Theforceofthelatterissupportedbytheweaknessoftheformer。

Inallrevolutions，andinparticularlyintheFrenchRevolution，weobserveasmallminorityofnarrowbutdecidedmindswhichimperiouslydominateanimmensemajorityofmenwhoareoftenveryintelligentbutarelackingincharacterBesidesthefanaticalapostlesandthefeeblecharacters，arevolutionalwaysproducesindividualswhomerelythinkhowtoprofitthereby。ThesewerenumerousduringtheFrenchRevolution。Theiraimwassimplytoutilisecircumstancessoastoenrichthemselves。SuchwereBarras，Tallien，Fouche，Barrere，andmanymore。Theirpoliticsconsistedsimplyinservingthestrongagainsttheweak。

FromtheoutsetoftheRevolutionthese``arrivists，’’asonewouldcallthemto—day，werenumerous。CamilleDesmoulinswrotein1792：``OurRevolutionhasitsrootsonlyintheegotismandself—loveofeachindividual，ofthecombinationofwhichthegeneralinterestiscomposed。’’

Ifweaddtotheseindicationstheobservationscontainedinanotherchapterconcerningthevariousformsofmentalitytobeobservedintimesofpoliticalupheaval，weshallobtainageneralideaofthecharacterofthemenoftheRevolution。Weshallnowapplytheprinciplesalreadyexpoundedtothemostremarkablepersonagesoftherevolutionaryperiod。

2。PsychologyoftheCommissariesorRepresentatives``onMission。’’

InParistheconductofthemembersoftheConventionwasalwaysdirected，restrained，orexcitedbytheactionoftheircolleagues，andthatoftheirenvironment。

Tojudgethemproperlyweshouldobservethemwhenlefttothemselvesanduncontrolled，whentheypossessedfullliberty。

Suchweretherepresentativeswhoweresent``onmission’’intothedepartmentsbytheConvention。

Thepowerofthesedelegateswasabsolute。Nocensureembarrassedthem。Functionariesandmagistrateshadperforcetoobeythem。

Arepresentative``onmission’’``requisitions，’’sequestrates，orconfiscatesasseemsgoodtohim；taxes，imprisons，deports，ordecapitatesashethinksfit，andinhisowndistrictheisa’’pasha。’’

Regardingthemselvesas``pashas，’’theydisplayedthemselves``drawnincarriageswithsixhorses，surroundedbyguards；

sittingatsumptuoustableswiththirtycovers，eatingtothesoundofmusic，withafollowingofplayers，courtezans，andmercenaries……’’AtLyons``thesolemnappearanceofCollotd’HerboisislikethatoftheGrandTurk。Noonecancomeintohispresencewithoutthreerepeatedrequests；astringofapartmentsprecedeshisreception—room，andnooneapproachesnearerthanfifteenpaces。’’

Onecanpicturetheimmensevanityofthesedictatorsastheysolemnlyenteredthetowns，surroundedbyguards，menwhosegesturewasenoughtocauseheadstofall。

Pettylawyerswithoutclients，doctorswithoutpatients，unfrockedclergymen，obscureattorneys，whohadformerlyknownthemostcolourlessoflives，weresuddenlymadetheequalsofthemostpowerfultyrantsofhistory。Guillotining，drowning，shootingwithoutmercy，atthehazardoftheirfancy，theywereraisedfromtheirformerhumbleconditiontothelevelofthemostcelebratedpotentates。

NeverdidNeroorHeliogabalussurpassintyrannytherepresentativesoftheConvention。Lawsandcustomsalwaysrestrainedtheformertoacertainextent。Nothingrestrainedthecommissaries。

``Fouche，’’writesTaine，``lorgnetteinhand，watchedthebutcheryof210inhabitantsofLyonsfromhiswindow。Collot，Laporte，andFouchefeastedondaysofexecution（fusillades），andatthesoundofeachdischargesprangupwithcriesofjoy，wavingtheirhats。’’

Amongtherepresentatives``onmission’’whoexhibitthismurderousmentalitywemayciteasatypetheex—cureLebon，who，havingbecomepossessedofsupremepower，ravagedArrasandCambrai。Hisexample，withthatofCarrier，contributestoshowwhatmancanbecomewhenheescapesfromtheyokeoflawandtradition。ThecrueltyoftheferociouscommissarywascomplicatedbySadism；thescaffoldwasraisedunderhiswindows，sothathe，hiswife，andhishelperscouldrejoiceinthecarnage。Atthefootoftheguillotineadrinking—boothwasestablishedwherethesans—culottescouldcometodrink。

Toamusethemtheexecutionerwouldgrouponthepavement，inridiculousattitudes，thenakedbodiesofthedecapitated。

``Thereadingofthetwovolumesofhistrial，printedatAmiensin1795，maybecountedasanightmare。DuringtwentysessionsthesurvivorsofthehecatombsofArrasandCambraipassedthroughtheancienthallofthebailiwickatAmiens，wheretheex—memberoftheConventionwastried。Whatthesephantomsinmourningrelatedisunheardof。Entirestreetsdispeopled；

nonagenariansandgirlsofsixteendecapitatedafteramockeryofatrial；deathbuffeted，insulted，adorned，rejoicedin；

executionstomusic；battalionsofchildrenrecruitedtoguardthescaffold；thedebauchery，thecynicism，therefinementsofaninsanesatrap；aromancebySadeturnedepic；itseems，aswewatchtheunpackingofthesehorrors，thatawholecountry，longterrorised，isatlastdisgorgingitsterrorandrevengingitselfforitscowardicebyoverwhelmingthewretchthere，thescapegoatofanabhorredandvanishedsystem。’’

Theonlydefenceoftheex—clergymanwasthathehadobeyedorders。Thefactswithwhichhewasreproachedhadlongbeenknown，andtheConventionhadinnowiseblamedhimforthem。

Ihavealreadyspokenofthevanityofthedeputies``onmission，’’whoweresuddenlyendowedwithapowergreaterthanthatofthemostpowerfuldespots；butthisvanityisnotenoughtoexplaintheirferocity。

Thatarosefromothersources。Apostlesofaseverefaith，thedelegatesoftheConvention，liketheinquisitorsoftheHolyOffice，couldfeel，canhavefelt，nopityfortheirvictims。

Freed，moreover，fromallthebondsoftraditionandlaw，theycouldgivereintothemostsavageinstinctsthatprimitiveanimalityhasleftinus。

Civilisationrestrainstheseinstincts，buttheyneverdie。Theneedtokillwhichmakesthehunterisapermanentproofofthis。

M。Cunisset—Carnothasexpressedinthefollowinglinesthegripofthishereditarytendency，which，inthepursuitofthemostharmlessgame，re—awakensthebarbarianineveryhunter：——

``Thepleasureofkillingforkilling’ssakeis，onemaysay，universal；itisthebasisofthehuntinginstinct，foritmustbeadmittedthatatpresent，incivilisedcountries，theneedtolivenolongercountsforanythinginitspropagation。Inrealitywearecontinuinganactionwhichwasimperiouslyimposeduponoursavageancestorsbytheharshnecessitiesofexistence，duringwhichtheyhadeithertokillordieofhunger，whileto—

daythereisnolongeranylegitimateexcuseforit。Butsoitis，andwecandonothing；probablyweshallneverbreakthechainsofaslaverywhichhasboundusforsolong。Wecannotpreventourselvesfromfeelinganintense，oftenpassionate，pleasureinsheddingthebloodofanimalstowardswhom，whentheloveofthechasepossessesus，weloseallfeelingofpity。Thegentlestandprettiestcreatures，thesong—birds，thecharmofourspringtime，falltoourgunsorarechokedinoursnares，andnotashudderofpitytroublesourpleasureatseeingthemterrified，bleeding，writhinginthehorriblesufferingweinflictonthem，seekingtofleeontheirpoorbrokenpawsordesperatelybeatingtheirwings，whichcannolongersupportthem……Theexcuseistheimpulseofthatimperiousatavismwhichthebestofushavenotthestrengthtoresist。’’

Atordinarytimesthissingularatavism，restrainedbyfearofthelaws，canonlybeexercisedonanimals。Whencodesarenolongeroperativeitimmediatelyappliesitselftoman，whichiswhysomanyterroriststookanintensepleasureinkilling。

Carrier’sremarkconcerningthejoyhefeltincontemplatingthefacesofhisvictimsduringtheirtormentisverytypical。Inmanycivilisedmenferocityisarestrainedinstinct，butitisbynomeanseliminated。

3。DantonandRobespierre。

DantonandRobespierrerepresentedthetwoprincipalpersonagesoftheRevolution。Ishallsaylittleoftheformer：hispsychology，besidesbeingsimple，isfamiliar。Acluboratorfirstly，impulsiveandviolent，heshowedhimselfalwaysreadytoexcitethepeople。Cruelonlyinhisspeeches，heoftenregrettedtheireffects。Fromtheoutsetheshoneinthefirstrank，whilehisfuturerival，Robespierre，wasvegetatingalmostinthelowest。

AtonegivenmomentDantonbecamethesouloftheRevolution，buthewasdeficientintenacityandfixityofconduct。Moreover，hewasneedy，whileRobespierrewasnot。Thecontinuousfanaticismofthelatterdefeatedtheintermittenteffortsoftheformer。

Nevertheless，itwasanamazingspectacletoseesopowerfulatribunesenttothescaffoldbyhispale，venemousenemyandmediocrerival。

Robespierre，themostinfluentialmanoftheRevolutionandthemostfrequentlystudied，isyettheleastexplicable。Itisdifficulttounderstandtheprodigiousinfluencewhichgavehimthepoweroflifeanddeath，notonlyovertheenemiesoftheRevolutionbutalsoovercolleagueswhocouldnothavebeenconsideredasenemiesoftheexistingGovernment。

WecertainlycannotexplainthematterbysayingwithTainethatRobespierrewasapedantlostinabstractions，norbyassertingwiththeMicheletthathesucceededonaccountofhisprinciples，norbyrepeatingwithhiscontemporaryWilliamsthat``oneofthesecretsofhisgovernmentwastotakemenmarkedbyopprobriumorsoiledwithcrimeasstepping—stonestohisambition。’’

Itisimpossibletoregardhiseloquenceasthecauseofhissuccess。Hiseyesprotectedbygoggles，hepainfullyreadhisspeeches，whichwerecomposedofcoldandindefiniteabstractions。TheAssemblycontainedoratorswhopossessedanimmenselysuperiortalent，suchasDantonandtheGirondists；yetitwasRobespierrewhodestroyedthem。

Wehavereallynoacceptableexplanationoftheascendancywhichthedictatorfinallyobtained。WithoutinfluenceintheNationalAssembly，hegraduallybecamethemasteroftheConventionandoftheJacobins。``WhenhereachedtheCommitteeofPublicSafetyhewasalready，’’saidBillaud—Varennes，``themostimportantpersoninFrance。’’

``Hishistory，’’writesMichelet，``isprodigious，farmoremarvellousthanthatofBonaparte。Thethreads，thewheels，thepreparationofforces，arefarlessvisible。Itisanhonestman，anausterebutpiousfigure，ofmiddlingtalents，thatshootsuponemorning，borneupwardbyIknownotwhatcataclysm。

ThereisnothinglikeitintheArabianNights。Andinamomenthegoeshigherthanthethrone。Heissetuponthealtar。

Astonishingstory！’’

Certainlycircumstanceshelpedhimconsiderably。Peopleturnedtohimastothemasterofwhomallfelttheneed。Butthenhewasalreadythere，andwhatwewishtodiscoveristhecauseofhisrapidascent。Iwouldwillinglysupposeinhimtheexistenceofaspeciesofpersonalfascinationwhichescapesusto—day。

Hissuccesseswithwomenmightbequotedinsupportofthistheory。Onthedayswhenhespeaks``thepassagesarechokedwithwomen……therearesevenoreighthundredinthetribunes，andwithwhattransportstheyapplaud！AttheJacobins，whenhespeakstherearesobsandcriesofemotion，andmenstampasthoughtheywouldbringthehalldown。’’Ayoungwidow，Mme。deChalabre，possessedofsixteenhundredpoundsayear，sendshimburninglove—lettersandiseagertomarryhim。

Wecannotseekinhischaracterforthecausesofhispopularity。

Ahypochondriacbytemperament，ofmediocreintelligence，incapableofgraspingrealities，confinedtoabstractions，craftyanddissimulating，hisprevailingnotewasanexcessivepridewhichincreaseduntilhislastday。Highpriestofanewfaith，hebelievedhimselfsentonearthbyGodtoestablishthereignofvirtue。Hereceivedwritingsstating``thathewastheMessiahwhomtheEternalBeinghadpromisedtoreformtheworld。’’

Fullofliterarypretensions，helaboriouslypolishedhisspeeches。Hisprofoundjealousyofotheroratorsormenofletters，suchasCamilleDesmoulins，causedtheirdeath。

``Thosewhowereparticularlytheobjectsofthetyrant’srage，’’

writestheauthoralreadycited，``werethemenofletters。Withregardtothemthejealousyofacolleaguewasmingledwiththefuryoftheoppressor；forthehatredwithwhichhepersecutedthemwascausedlessbytheirresistancetohisdespotismthanbytheirtalents，whicheclipsedhis。’’

Thecontemptofthedictatorforhiscolleagueswasimmenseandalmostunconcealed。GivingaudiencetoBarrasatthehourofhistoilet，hefinishedshaving，spittinginthedirectionofhiscolleagueasthoughhedidnotexist，anddisdainingtoreplytohisquestions。

Heregardedthebourgeoisieandthedeputieswiththesamehatefuldisdain。Onlythemultitudefoundgraceinhiseyes。

``Whenthesovereignpeopleexercisesitspower，’’hesaid，``wecanonlybowbeforeit。Inallitdoesallisvirtueandtruth，andnoexcess，error，orcrimeispossible。’’

Robespierresufferedfromthepersecutionmania。Thathehadothers’headscutoffwasnotonlybecausehehadamissionasanapostle，butbecausehebelievedhimselfhemmedinbyenemiesandconspirators。``Greataswasthecowardiceofhiscolleagueswherehewasconcerned，’’writesM。Sorel，``thefearhehadofthemwasstillgreater。’’