第8章

WeshallseeinanotherpartofthisworkthatthefirstofthetwoauthorswhomIhavecitedis，inspiteofhisuncompromisingJacobinism，bynomeansindulgenttowardthemenformerlyqualifiedasthe``GiantsoftheConvention。’’

ThejudgmentsofforeignersuponourRevolutionareusuallydistinctlysevere，andwecannotbesurprisedwhenwerememberhowEuropesufferedduringthetwentyyearsofupheavalinFrance。

TheGermansinparticularhavebeenmostsevere。TheiropinionissummedupinthefollowinglinesbyM。Faguet：——

``Letussayitcourageouslyandpatriotically，forpatriotismconsistsaboveallintellingthetruthtoone’sowncountry：

GermanyseesinFrance，withregardtothepast，apeoplewho，withthegreatwords`liberty’and`fraternity’initsmouth，oppressed，trampled，murdered，pillaged，andfleecedherforfifteenyears；andwithregardtothepresent，apeoplewho，withthesamewordsonitsbanners，isorganisingadespotic，oppressive，mischievous，andruinousdemocracy，whichnonewouldseektoimitate。ThisiswhatGermanymaywellseeinFrance；

andthis，accordingtoherbooksandjournals，is，wemayassureourselves，whatshedoessee。’’

Fortherest，whatevertheworthoftheverdictspronouncedupontheFrenchRevolution，wemaybecertainthatthewritersofthefuturewillconsideritasaneventaspassionatelyinterestingasitisinstructive。

AGovernmentbloodthirstyenoughtoguillotineoldmenofeightyyears，younggirls，andlittlechildren：whichcoveredFrancewithruins，andyetsucceededinrepulsingEuropeinarms；anarchduchessofAustria，QueenofFrance，dyingonthescaffold，andafewyearslateranotherarchduchess，herrelative，replacingheronthesamethroneandmarryingasub—

lieutenant，turnedEmperor——herearetragediesuniqueinhumanhistory。Thepsychologists，aboveall，willderivelessonsfromahistoryhithertosolittlestudiedbythem。Nodoubttheywillfinallydiscoverthatpsychologycanmakenoprogressuntilitrenounceschimericaltheoriesandlaboratoryexperimentsinordertostudytheeventsandthemenwhosurroundus。[7]

[7]Thisadviceisfarfrombeingbanal。Thepsychologistsofthedaypayverylittleattentiontotheworldaboutthem，andareevensurprisedthatanyoneshouldstudyit。IhavecomeacrossaninterestingproofofthisindifferentframeofmindinareviewofoneofmybookswhichappearedintheRevuephilosophiqueandwasinspiredbytheeditorofthereview。Theauthorreproachesmewith``exploringtheworldandthenewspapersratherthanbooks。’’

Imostgladlyacceptthisreproach。ThemanifoldfactsofthejournalsandtherealitiesoftheworldarefarmoreinstructivethanphilosophicallucubrationssuchastheRevueisstuffedwith。

Philosophersarebeginningtoseethepuerilityofsuchreproaches。ItwascertainlyofthefortyvolumesofthisfastidiouspublicationthatMr。WilliamJameswasthinkingwhenhewrotethatallthesedissertationssimplyrepresented``astringoffactsclumsilyobservedandafewquarrelsomediscussions。’’Althoughheistheauthorofthebestknowntreatiseonpsychologyextant，theeminentthinkerrealises``thefragilityofasciencethatoozesmetaphysicalcriticismateveryjoint。’’FormorethantwentyyearsIhavetriedtointerestpsychologistsinthestudyofrealities，butthestreamofuniversitymetaphysicsishardlyyetturnedaside，althoughithaslostitsformerforce4。ImpartialityinHistory。

Impartialityhasalwaysbeenconsideredasthemostessentialqualityofthehistorian。AllhistorianssinceTacitushaveassuredusthattheyareimpartial。

Inrealitythewriterseeseventsasthepainterseesalandscape——thatis，throughhisowntemperament；throughhischaracterandthemindoftherace。

Anumberofartists，placedbeforethesamelandscape，wouldnecessarilyinterpretitinasmanydifferentfashions。Somewouldlaystressupondetailsneglectedbyothers。Eachreproductionwouldthusbeapersonalwork——thatistosay，wouldbeinterpretedbyacertainformofsensibility。

Itisthesamewiththewriter。Wecannomorespeakoftheimpartialityofthehistorianthanwecanspeakoftheimpartialityofthepainter。

Certainlythehistorianmayconfinehimselftothereproductionofdocuments，andthisisthepresenttendency。Butthesedocuments，forperiodsasnearusastheRevolution，aresoabundantthataman’swholelifewouldnotsufficetogothroughthem。Thereforethehistorianmustmakeachoice。

Consciouslysometimes，butmoreoftenunconsciously，theauthorwillselectthematerialwhichbestcorrespondswithhispolitical，moral，andsocialopinions。

Itisthereforeimpossible，unlesshecontentshimselfwithsimplechronologiessummingupeacheventwithafewwordsandadate，toproduceatrulyimpartialvolumeofhistory。Noauthorcouldbeimpartial；anditisnottoberegretted。Theclaimtoimpartiality，socommonto—day，resultsinthoseflat，gloomy，andprodigiouslywearisomeworkswhichrenderthecomprehensionofaperiodcompletelyimpossible。

Shouldthehistorian，underapretextofimpartiality，abstainfromjudgingmen——thatis，fromspeakingintonesofadmirationorreprobation？

Thisquestion，Iadmit，allowsoftwoverydifferentsolutions，eachofwhichisperfectlycorrect，accordingtothepointofviewassumed——thatofthemoralistorthatofthepsychologist。

Themoralistmustthinkexclusivelyoftheinterestofsociety，andmustjudgemenonlyaccordingtothatinterest。Bytheveryfactthatitexistsandwishestocontinuetoexistasocietyisobligedtoadmitacertainnumberofrules，tohaveanindestructiblestandardofgoodandevil，andconsequentlytocreateverydefinitedistinctionsbetweenviceandvirtue。Itthusfinallycreatesaveragetypes，towhichthemanoftheperiodapproachesmoreorlessclosely，andfromwhichhecannotdepartverywidelywithoutperiltosociety。

Itisbysuchsimilartypesandtherulesderivedfromsocialnecessitiesthatthemoralistmustjudgethemenofthepast。

Praisingthosewhichwereusefulandblamingtherest，hethushelpstoformthemoraltypeswhichareindispensabletotheprogressofcivilisationandwhichmayserveothersasmodels。

PoetssuchasCorneille，forexample，createheroessuperiortothemajorityofmen，andpossiblyinimitable；buttheytherebyhelpgreatlytostimulateourefforts。Theexampleofheroesmustalwaysbesetbeforeapeopleinordertoennobleitsmind。

Suchisthemoralist’spointofview。Thatofthepsychologistwouldbequitedifferent。Whileasocietyhasnorighttobetolerant，becauseitsfirstdutyistolive，thepsychologistmayremainindifferent。Consideringthingsasascientist，henolongeraskstheirutilitarianvalue，butseeksmerelytoexplainthem。

Hissituationisthatoftheobserverbeforeanyphenomenon。ItisobviouslydifficulttoreadincoldbloodthatCarrierorderedhisvictimstobeburieduptothenecksothattheymightthenbeblindedandsubjectedtohorribletorments。Yetifwewishtocomprehendsuchactswemustbenomoreindignantthanthenaturalistbeforethespiderslowlydevouringafly。Assoonasthereasonismoveditisnolongerreason，andcanexplainnothing。

Thefunctionsofthehistorianandthepsychologistarenot，aswesee，identical，butofbothwemaydemandtheendeavour，byawiseinterpretationofthefacts，todiscover，underthevisibleevidences，theinvisibleforceswhichdeterminethem。

CHAPTERII

THEPSYCHOLOGICALFOUNDATIONSOFTHEANCIENREGIME

1。TheAbsoluteMonarchyandtheBasesoftheAncienRegime。

ManyhistoriansassureusthattheRevolutionwasdirectedagainsttheautocracyofthemonarchy。InrealitythekingsofFrancehadceasedtobeabsolutemonarchslongbeforeitsoutbreak。

Onlyverylateinhistory——notuntilthereignofLouisXIV。——didtheyfinallyobtainincontestablepower。Alltheprecedingsovereigns，eventhemostpowerful，suchasFrancisI。，forexample，hadtosustainaconstantstruggleeitheragainsttheseigneurs，ortheclergy，ortheparliaments，andtheydidnotalwayswin。FrancishimselfhadnotsufficientpowertoprotecthismostintimatefriendsagainsttheSorbonneandtheParliament。HisfriendandcouncillorBerquin，havingoffendedtheSorbonne，wasarrestedupontheorderofthelatterbody。

Thekingorderedhisrelease，whichwasrefused。HewasobligedtosendarcherstoremovehimfromtheConciergerie，andcouldfindnoothermeansofprotectinghimthanthatofkeepinghimbesidehimintheLouvre。TheSorbonnebynomeansconsidereditselfbeaten。Profitingbytheking’sabsence，itarrestedBerquinagainandhadhimtriedbyParliament。

Condemnedatteninthemorning，hewasburnedaliveatnoon。

Builtupverygradually，thepowerofthekingsofFrancewasnotabsoluteuntilthetimeofLouisXIV。Itthenrapidlydeclined，anditwouldbetrulydifficulttospeakoftheabsolutismofLouisXVI。

Thispretendedmasterwastheslaveofhiscourt，hisministers，theclergy，andthenobles。Hedidwhattheyforcedhimtodoandrarelywhathewished。PerhapsnoFrenchmanwassolittlefreeastheking。

ThegreatpowerofthemonarchyresidedoriginallyintheDivineoriginwhichwasattributedtoit，andinthetraditionswhichhadaccumulatedduringtheages。Theseformedtherealsocialframeworkofthecountry。

Thetruecauseofthedisappearanceoftheancienregimewassimplytheweakeningofthetraditionswhichservedasitsfoundations。Whenafterrepeatedcriticismitcouldfindnomoredefenders，theancienregimecrumbledlikeabuildingwhosefoundationshavebeendestroyed。

2。TheInconveniencesoftheAncienRegimeAlong—establishedsystemofgovernmentwillalwaysfinallyseemacceptabletothepeoplegoverned。Habitmasksitsinconveniences，whichappearonlywhenmenbegintothink。Thentheyaskhowtheycouldeverhavesupportedthem。Thetrulyunhappymanisthemanwhobelieveshimselfmiserable。

ItwaspreciselythisbeliefwhichwasgaininggroundatthetimeoftheRevolution，undertheinfluenceofthewriterswhoseworkweshallpresentlystudy。Thentheimperfectionsoftheancienregimestaredallmenintheface。Theywerenumerous；itisenoughtomentionafew。

Despitetheapparentauthorityofthecentralpower，thekingdom，formedbythesuccessiveconquestofindependentprovinces，wasdividedintoterritorieseachofwhichhaditsownlawsandcustoms，andeachofwhichpaiddifferentimposts。Internalcustoms—housesseparatedthem。TheunityofFrancewasthussomewhatartificial。Itrepresentedanaggregateofvariouscountrieswhichtherepeatedeffortsofthekings，includingLouisXIV。，hadnotsucceededinwhollyunifying。ThemostusefuleffectoftheRevolutionwasthisveryunification。

Tosuchmaterialdivisionswereaddedsocialdivisionsconstitutedbydifferentclasses——nobles，clergy，andtheThirdEstate，whoserigidbarrierscouldonlywiththeutmostdifficultybecrossed。

Regardingthedivisionoftheclassesasoneofitssourcesofpower，theancienregimehadrigorouslymaintainedthatdivision。Thisbecametheprincipalcauseofthehatredswhichthesysteminspired。Muchoftheviolenceofthetriumphantbourgeoisierepresentedvengeanceforalongpastofdisdainandoppression。Thewoundsofself—lovearethemostdifficultofalltoforget。TheThirdEstatehadsufferedmanysuchwounds。AtameetingoftheStatesGeneralin1614，atwhichitsrepresentativeswereobligedtoremainbareheadedontheirknees，onememberoftheThirdEstatehavingdaredtosaythatthethreeorderswerelikethreebrothers，thespokesmanofthenoblesreplied``thattherewasnofraternitybetweenitandtheThird；

thatthenoblesdidnotwishthechildrenofcobblersandtannerstocallthemtheirbrothers。’’

Despitethemarchofenlightenmentthenoblesandtheclergyobstinatelypreservedtheirprivilegesandtheirdemands，nolongerjustifiablenowthattheseclasseshadceasedtorenderservices。

Keptfromtheexerciseofpublicfunctionsbytheroyalpower，whichdistrustedthem，andprogressivelyreplacedbyabourgeoisiewhichwasmoreandmorelearnedandcapable，thesocialroleofnobilityandclergywasonlyanemptyshow。

ThispointhasbeenluminouslyexpoundedbyTaine：——

``Sincethenobility，havinglostitsspecialcapacity，andtheThirdEstate，havingacquiredgeneralcapacity，werenowonalevelinrespectofeducationandaptitudes，theinequalitywhichdividedthemhadbecomehurtfulanduseless。Institutedbycustom，itwasnolongerratifiedbytheconsciousness，andtheThirdEstatewaswithreasonangeredbyprivilegeswhichnothingjustified，neitherthecapacityofthenoblesnortheincapacityofthebourgeoisie。’’

Byreasonoftherigidityofcastesestablishedbyalongpastwecannotseewhatcouldhavepersuadedthenoblesandtheclergytorenouncetheirprivileges。Certainlytheydidfinallyabandonthemonememorableevening，wheneventsforcedthemtodoso；butthenitwastoolate，andtheRevolution，unchained，waspursuingitscourse。

ItiscertainthatmodernprogresswouldsuccessivelyhaveestablishedallthattheRevolutioneffected——theequalityofcitizensbeforethelaw，thesuppressionoftheprivilegesofbirth，&c。DespitetheconservativespiritoftheLatins，thesethingswouldhavebeenwon，astheywerebythemajorityofthepeoples。Wemightinthismannerhavebeensavedtwentyyearsofwarfareanddevastation；butwemusthavehadadifferentmentalconstitution，and，aboveall，differentstatesmen。

TheprofoundhostilityofthebourgeoisieagainsttheclassesmaintainedaboveitbytraditionwasoneofthegreatfactorsoftheRevolution，andperfectlyexplainswhy，afteritstriumph，thefirstclassdespoiledthevanquishedoftheirwealth。Theybehavedasconquerors——likeWilliamtheConqueror，who，aftertheconquestofEngland，distributedthesoilamonghissoldiers。

Butalthoughthebourgeoisiedetestedthenobilitytheyhadnohatredforroyalty，anddidnotregarditasrevocable。Themaladdressofthekingandhisappealstoforeignpowersonlyverygraduallymadehimunpopular。

ThefirstAssemblyneverdreamedoffoundingarepublic。

Extremelyroyalist，infact，itthoughtsimplytosubstituteaconstitutionalforanabsolutemonarchy。Onlytheconsciousnessofitsincreasingpowerexasperateditagainsttheresistanceoftheking；butitdarednotoverthrowhim。

3。LifeundertheAncienRegime。

Itisdifficulttoformaveryclearideaoflifeundertheancienregime，and，aboveall，oftherealsituationofthepeasants。

ThewriterswhodefendtheRevolutionastheologiansdefendreligiousdogmasdrawsuchgloomypicturesoftheexistenceofthepeasantsundertheancienregimethatweaskourselveshowitwasthatalltheseunhappycreatureshadnotdiedofhungerlongbefore。AgoodexampleofthisstyleofwritingmaybefoundinabookbyM。A。Rambaud，formerlyprofessorattheSorbonne，publishedunderthetitleHistoryoftheFrenchRevolution。Onenoticesespeciallyanengravingbearingthelegend，PovertyofPeasantsunderLouisXIV。Intheforegroundamanisfightingsomedogsforsomebones，whichforthatmatterarealreadyquitefleshless。Besidehimawretchedfellowistwistinghimselfandcompressinghisstomach。Fartherbackawomanlyingonthegroundiseatinggrass。Atthebackofthelandscapefiguresofwhichonecannotsaywhethertheyarecorpsesorpersonsstarvingarealsostretchedonthesoil。Asanexampleoftheadministrationoftheancienregimethesameauthorassuresusthat``aplaceinthepolicecost300

livresandbroughtin400，000。’’Suchfiguressurelyindicateagreatdisinterestednessonthepartofthosewhosoldsuchproductiveemployment！Healsoinformsus``thatitcostonly120livrestogetpeoplearrested，’’andthat``underLouisXV。

morethan150，000lettresdecachetweredistributed。’’

ThemajorityofbooksdealingwiththeRevolutionareconceivedwithaslittleimpartialityandcriticalspirit，whichisonereasonwhythisperiodisreallysolittleknowntous。

Certainlythereisnolackofdocuments，buttheyareabsolutelycontradictory。TothecelebrateddescriptionofLaBruyerewemayopposetheenthusiasticpicturedrawnbytheEnglishtravellerYoungoftheprosperousconditionofthepeasantsofsomeoftheFrenchprovinces。

Weretheyreallycrushedbytaxation，anddidthey，ashasbeenstated，payfour—fifthsoftheirrevenueinsteadofafifthasto—day？Impossibletosaywithcertainty。Onecapitalfact，however，seemstoprovethatundertheancienregimethesituationoftheinhabitantsoftheruraldistrictscouldnothavebeensoverywretched，sinceitseemsestablishedthatmorethanathirdofthesoilhadbeenboughtbypeasants。

Wearebetterinformedastothefinancialsystem。Itwasveryoppressiveandextremelycomplicated。Thebudgetsusuallyshoweddeficits，andtheimpostsofallkindswereraisedbytyrannicalfarmers—general。AttheverymomentoftheRevolutionthisconditionofthefinancesbecamethecauseofuniversaldiscontent，whichisexpressedinthecahiersoftheStatesGeneral。Letusremarkthatthesecahiersdidnotrepresentapreviousstateofaffairs，butanactualconditionduetoacrisisofpovertyproducedbythebadharvestof1788andthehardwinterof1789。Whatwouldthesecahiershavetoldushadtheybeenwrittentenyearsearlier？

Despitetheseunfavourablecircumstancesthecahierscontainednorevolutionaryideas。ThemostadvancedmerelyaskedthattaxesshouldbeimposedonlywiththeconsentoftheStatesGeneralandpaidbyallalike。ThesamecahierssometimesexpressedawishthatthepowerofthekingshouldbelimitedbyaConstitutiondefininghisrightsandthoseofthenation。Ifthesewisheshadbeengrantedaconstitutionalmonarchycouldveryeasilyhavebeensubstitutedfortheabsolutemonarchy，andtheRevolutionwouldprobablyhavebeenavoided。

Unhappily，thenobilityandtheclergyweretoostrongandLouisXVI。tooweakforsuchasolutiontobepossible。

Moreover，itwouldhavebeenrenderedextremelydifficultbythedemandsofthebourgeoisie，whoclaimedtosubstitutethemselvesforthenobles，andweretherealauthorsoftheRevolution。Themovementstartedbythemiddleclassesrapidlyexceededtheirhopes，needs，andaspirations。Theyhadclaimedequalityfortheirownprofit，butthepeoplealsodemandedequality。TheRevolutionthusfinallybecamethepopulargovernmentwhichitwasnotandhadnointentionofbecomingattheoutset。

4。EvolutionofMonarchicalFeelingduringtheRevolution。

Despitetheslowevolutionoftheaffectiveelements，itiscertainthatduringtheRevolutionthesentiments，notofthepeopleonly，butalsooftherevolutionaryAssemblieswithregardtothemonarchy，underwentaveryrapidchange。BetweenthemomentwhenthelegislatorsofthefirstAssemblysurroundedLouisXVI。withrespectandthemomentwhenhisheadwascutoffaveryfewyearshadelapsed。

Thesechanges，superficialratherthanprofound，wereinrealityameretranspositionofsentimentsofthesameorder。ThelovewhichthemenofthisperiodprofessedforthekingwastransferredtothenewGovernmentwhichhadinheritedhispower。

Themechanismofsuchatransfermayeasilybedemonstrated。

Undertheancienregime，thesovereign，holdinghispowerbyDivineright，wasforthisreasoninvestedwithakindofsupernaturalpower。Hispeoplelookeduptohimfromeverycornerofthecountry。

Thismysticbeliefintheabsolutepowerofroyaltywasshatteredonlywhenrepeatedexperienceprovedthatthepowerattributedtotheadoredbeingwasfictitious。Hethenlosthisprestige。

Now，whenprestigeislostthecrowdwillnotforgivethefallenidolfordeludingthem，andseekanewtheidolwithoutwhichtheycannotexist。

FromtheoutsetoftheRevolutionnumerousfacts，whichweredailyrepeated，revealedtothemostferventbelieversthefactthatroyaltynolongerpossessedanypower，andthattherewereotherpowerscapable，notonlyofcontendingwithroyalty，butpossessedofsuperiorforce。

What，forinstance，wasthoughtoftheroyalpowerbythemultitudeswhosawthekingheldincheckbytheAssembly，andincapable，intheheartofParis，ofdefendinghisstrongestfortressagainsttheattacksofarmedbands？

Theroyalweaknessthusbeingobvious，thepoweroftheAssemblywasincreasing。Now，intheeyesofthecrowdweaknesshasnoprestige；itturnsalwaystoforce。

IntheAssembliesfeelingwasveryfluid，butdidnotevolveveryrapidly，forwhichreasonthemonarchicalfaithsurvivedthetakingoftheBastilletheflightoftheking，andhisunderstandingwithforeignsovereigns。

TheroyalistfaithwasstillsopowerfulthattheParisianriotsandtheeventswhichledtotheexecutionofLouisXVI。werenotenoughfinallytodestroy，intheprovinces，thespeciesofsecularpietywhichenvelopedtheoldmonarchy。[8]

[8]Asaninstanceofthedepthofthishereditaryloveofthepeopleforitskings，Micheletrelatesthefollowingfact，whichoccurredinthereignofLouisXV。：``WhenitwasknowninParisthatLouisXV。，whohadleftforthearmy，wasdetainedillatMetz，itwasnight。Peoplegotupandrantumultuouslyhitherandthitherwithoutknowingwheretheyweregoing；thechurcheswereopenedinthemiddleofthenight……peopleassembledateverycross—road，jostlingandquestioningoneanotherwithoutknowingwhattheywereafter。Inseveralchurchesthepriestwhowasrecitingtheprayerfortheking’shealthwasstoppedbyhistears，andthepeoplerepliedbysobsandcries……Thecourierwhobroughtthenewsofhisconvalescencewasembracedandalmoststifled；peoplekissedhishorse，andledhimintriumph……Everystreetresoundedwithacryofjoy：`Thekingishealed。’’’

ItpersistedinagreatpartofFranceduringthewholeoftheRevolution，andwastheoriginoftheroyalistconspiraciesandinsurrectionsinvariousdepartmentswhichtheConventionhadsuchtroubletosuppress。TheroyalistfaithhaddisappearedinParis，wheretheweaknessofthekingwastooplainlyvisible；

butintheprovincestheroyalpower，representingGodonearth，stillretaineditsprestige。

Theroyalistsentimentsofthepeoplemusthavebeendeeplyrootedtosurvivetheguillotine。Theroyalistmovementspersisted，indeed，duringthewholeoftheRevolution，andwereaccentuatedundertheDirectory，whenforty—ninedepartmentssentroyalistdeputiestoParis，whichprovokedtheDirectorytothecoupd’etatofFructidor。

Thismonarchical—feeling，withdifficultyrepressedbytheRevolution，contributedtothesuccessofBonapartewhenhecametooccupythethroneoftheancientkings，andingreatmeasuretore—establishtheancienregime。

CHAPTERIII

MENTALANARCHYATTHETIMEOFTHEREVOLUTIONANDTHEINFLUENCE

ATTRIBUTEDTOTHEPHILOSOPHERS

1。OriginandPropagationofRevolutionaryIdeas。

Theoutwardlifeofmenineveryageismouldeduponaninwardlifeconsistingofaframeworkoftraditions，sentiments，andmoralinfluenceswhichdirecttheirconductandmaintaincertainfundamentalnotionswhichtheyacceptwithoutdiscussion。

Lettheresistanceofthissocialframeworkweaken，andideaswhichcouldhavehadnoforcebeforewillgerminateanddevelop。

CertaintheorieswhosesuccesswasenormousatthetimeoftheRevolutionwouldhaveencounteredanimpregnablewalltwocenturiesearlier。

Theaimoftheseconsiderationsistorecalltothereaderthefactthattheoutwardeventsofrevolutionsarealwaysaconsequenceofinvisibletransformationswhichhaveslowlygoneforwardinmen’sminds。Anyprofoundstudyofarevolutionnecessitatesastudyofthementalsoiluponwhichtheideasthatdirectitscoursehavetogerminate。

Generallyslowintheextreme，theevolutionofideasisofteninvisibleforawholegeneration。Itsextentcanonlybegraspedbycomparingthementalconditionofthesamesocialclassesatthetwoextremitiesofthecurvewhichthemindhasfollowed。TorealisethedifferentconceptionsofroyaltyentertainedbyeducatedmenunderLouisXIV。andLouisXVI。，wemustcomparethepoliticaltheoriesofBossuetandTurgot。

BossuetexpressedthegeneralconceptionsofhistimeconcerningtheabsolutemonarchywhenhebasedtheauthorityofaGovernmentuponthewillofGod，``solejudgeoftheactionsofkings，alwaysirresponsiblebeforemen。’’Religiousfaithwasthenasstrongasthemonarchicalfaithfromwhichitseemedinseparable，andnophilosophercouldhaveshakenit。

ThewritingsofthereformingministersofLouisXVI。，thoseofTurgot，forinstance，areanimatedbyquiteanotherspirit。OftheDivinerightofkingsthereishardlyaword，andtherightsofthepeoplesbegintobeclearlydefined。

Manyeventshadcontributedtoprepareforsuchanevolution——

unfortunatewars，famines，imposts，generalpovertyattheendofthereignofLouisXV。，&c。Slowlydestroyed，respectformonarchicalauthoritywasreplacedbyamentalrevoltwhichwasreadytomanifestitselfassoonasoccasionshouldarise。

Whenoncethementalframeworkcommencestocrumbletheendcomesrapidly。ThisiswhyatthetimeoftheRevolutionideasweresoquicklypropagatedwhichwerebynomeansnew，butwhichuntilthenhadexertednoinfluence，astheyhadnotfallenonfruitfulground。

Yettheideaswhichwerethensoattractiveandeffectualhadoftenbeenexpressed。ForalongtimetheyhadinspiredthepoliticsofEngland。TwothousandyearsearliertheGreekandLatinauthorshadwrittenindefenceofliberty，hadcursedtyrants，andproclaimedtherightsofpopularsovereignty。

ThemiddleclasseswhoeffectedtheRevolution，although，liketheirfathers，theyhadlearnedallthesethingsintext—books，werenotinanydegreemovedbythem，becausethemomentwhensuchideascouldmovethemhadnotarrived。Howshouldthepeoplehavebeenimpressedbythematatimewhenallmenwereaccustomedtoregardallhierarchiesasnaturalnecessities？

TheactualinfluenceofthephilosophersinthegenesisoftheRevolutionwasnotthatwhichwasattributedtothem。Theyrevealednothingnew，buttheydevelopedthecriticalspiritwhichnodogmacanresistoncethewayispreparedforitsdownfall。