第6章

Ontheseconddaytheyleftthelastvillagebehindthemandenteredthewildcountrythatsurroundsthegreatmountain，andrestedinthehutsthathadbeenpreparedforthemonthebanksofastreamofcoldandsparklingwater。AndtheRajah\'shunters，armedwithlongandheavyguns，wentinsearchofdeerandwildbullsinthesurroundingwoods，andbroughthomethemeatofbothintheearlymorning，andsentitoninadvancetopreparethemid-daymeal。Onthethirddaytheyadvancedasfarashorsescouldgo，andencampedatthefootofhighrocks，amongwhichnarrowpathwaysonlycouldbefoundtoreachthemountain-top。

AndonthefourthmorningwhentheRajahsetout，hewasaccompaniedonlybyasmallpartyofpriestsandprinceswiththeirimmediateattendants；andtheytoiledwearilyuptheruggedway，andsometimeswerecarriedbytheirservants，untiltheypassedupabovethegreattrees，andthenamongthethornybushes，andabovethemagainontotheblackandburnedrockofthehighestpartofthemountain。

Andwhentheywerenearthesummit，theRajahorderedthemalltohalt，whilehealonewenttomeetthegreatspiritontheverypeakofthemountain。Sohewentonwithtwoboysonlywhocarriedhissirihandbetel，andsoonreachedthetopofthemountainamonggreatrocks，ontheedgeofthegreatgulfwhenceissueforthcontinuallysmokeandvapour。AndtheRajahaskedforsirih，andtoldtheboystositdownunderarockandlookdownthemountain，andnottomoveuntilhereturnedtothem。Andastheyweretired，andthesunwaswarmandpleasant，andtherockshelteredthemfromthecoldgrind，theboysfellasleep。AndtheRajahwentalittlewayonunderanotherrock；andashewastired，andthesunwaswarmandpleasant，andhetoofellasleep。

AndthosewhowerewaitingfortheRajahthoughthimalongtimeonthetopofthemountain，andthoughtthegreatspiritmusthavemuchtosay，ormightperhapswanttokeephimonthemountainalways，orperhapshehadmissedhiswayinconningdownagain。Andtheyweredebatingwhethertheyshouldgoandsearchforhim，whentheysawhimcomingdownwiththetwoboys。Andwhenhemetthemhelookedverygrave，butsaidnothing；andthenalldescendedtogether，andtheprocessionreturnedasithadcome；andtheRajahwenttohispalaceandthechiefstotheirvillages，andthepeopletotheirhouses，totelltheirwivesandchildrenallthathadhappened，andtowonderyetagainwhatwouldcomeofit。

AndthreedaysafterwardstheRajahsummonedthepriestsandtheprincesandthechiefmenofMataram，tohearwhatthegreatspirithadtoldhimonthetopofthemountain。Andwhentheywereallassembled，andthebetelandsirihhadbeenhandedround，hetoldthemwhathadhappened。Onthetopofthemountainhehadfallenintoatrance，andthegreatspirithadappearedtohimwithafacelikeburnishedgold，andhadsaid——"0hRajah！muchplagueandsicknessandfeversarecominguponalltheearth，uponmenanduponhorsesanduponcattle；butasyouandyourpeoplehaveobeyedmeandhavecomeuptomygreatmountain，I

willteachyouhowyouandallthepeopleofLombockmayescapethisplague。"Andallwaitedanxiously，tohearhowtheyweretobesavedfromsofearfulacalamity。AndafterashortsilencetheRajahspokeagainandtoldthem，thatthegreatspirithadcommandedthattwelvesacredkrissesshouldbemade，andthattomakethemeveryvillageandeverydistrictmustsendabundleofneedles——aneedleforeveryheadinthevillage。Andwhenanygrievousdiseaseappearedinanyvillage，oneofthesacredkrissesshouldbesentthere；andifeveryhouseinthatvillagehadsenttherightnumberofneedles，thediseasewouldimmediatelycease；butifthenumberofneedlessenthadnotbeenexact，thekriswouldhavenovirtue。

Sotheprincesandchiefssenttoalltheirvillagesandcommunicatedthewonderfulnews；andallmadehastetocollecttheneedleswiththegreatestaccuracy，fortheyfearedthatifbutonewerewanting，thewholevillagewouldsuffer。Soonebyonetheheadmenofthevillagesbroughtintheirbundlesofneedles；thosewhowerenearMataramcamefirst，andthosewhowerefaroffcamelast；andtheRajahreceivedthemwithhisownhandsandputthemawaycarefullyinaninnerchamber，inacamphor-woodchestwhosehingesandclaspswereofsilver；andoneverybundlewasmarkedthenameofthevillageandthedistrictfromwhenceitcame，sothatitmightbeknownthatallhadheardandobeyedthecommandsofthegreatspirit。

Andwhenitwasquitecertainthateveryvillagehadsentinitsbundle，theRajahdividedtheneedlesintotwelveequalparts，andorderedthebeststeelworkerinMataramtobringhisforgeandhisbellowsandhishammerstothepalace，andtomakethetwelvekrissesundertheRajah\'seye，andinthesightofallmenwhochosetoseeit。Andwhentheywerefinished，theywerewrappedupinnewsilkandputawaycarefullyuntiltheymightbewanted。

NowthejourneytothemountainwasinthetimeoftheeastwindwhennorainfallsinLombock。Andsoonafterthekrissesweremadeitwasthetimeofthericeharvest，andthechiefsofdistrictsandofvillagesbroughttheirtaxtotheRajahaccordingtothenumberheadsintheirvillages。Andtothosethatwantedbutlittleofthefullamount，theRajahsaidnothing；butwhenthosecamewhobroughtonlyhalforafourthpartofwhatwasstrictlydue，hesaidtothemmildly，"Theneedleswhichyousentfromyourvillageweremanymorethancamefromsuch-a-one\'svillage，yetyourtributeislessthanhis；gobackandseewhoitisthathasnotpaidthetax。"Andthenextyeartheproduceofthetaxincreasedgreatly，fortheyfearedthattheRajahmightjustlykillthosewhoasecondtimekeptbacktherighttribute。AndsotheRajahbecameveryrich，andincreasedthenumberofhissoldiers，andgavegoldenjewelstohiswives，andboughtfineblackhorsesfromthewhite-skinnedHollanders，andmadegreatfeastswhenhischildrenwerebornorweremarried；andnoneoftheRajahsorSultansamongtheMalaysweresogreatorpowerfulastheRajahofLombock。

Andthetwelvesacredkrisseshadgreatvirtue。And，whenanysicknessappearedinavillageoneofthemwassentfor；andsometimesthesicknesswentaway，andthenthesacredkriswastakenbackagainwithgreatHonour，andtheheadmenofthevillagecametotelltheRajahofitsmiraculouspower，andtothankhim。Andsometimesthesicknesswouldnotgoaway；andtheneverybodywasconvincedthattherehadbeenamistakeinthenumberofneedlessentfromthatvillage，andthereforethesacredkrishadnoeffect，andhadtobetakenbackagainbytheheadmenwithheavyhearts，butstill，withallhonour——forwasnotthefaulttheirown？

CHAPTERXIII。

TIMOR。

(COUPANG，1857-1869。DELLI，1861。)

THEislandofTimorisaboutthreehundredmileslongandsixtywide，andseemstoformtheterminationofthegreatrangeofvolcanicislandswhichbeginswithSumatramorethantwothousandmilestothewest。Itdiffershoweververyremarkablyfromalltheotherislandsofthechaininnotpossessinganyactivevolcanoes，withtheoneexceptionofTimorPeaknearthecentreoftheisland，whichwasformerlyactive，butwasblownupduringaneruptionin1638andhassincebeenquiescent。InnootherpartofTimordothereappeartobeanyrecentigneousrocks，sothatitcanhardlybeclassedasavolcanicisland。Indeeditspositionisjustoutsideofthegreatvolcanicbelt，whichextendsfromFloresthroughOmbayandWettertoBanda。

IfirstvisitedTimorin1857，stayingadayatCoupang，thechiefDutchtownatthewestendoftheisland；andagaininMay1859，whenIstayedafortnightinthesameneighbourhood。Inthespringof1861

IspentfourmonthsatDelli，thecapitalofthePortuguesepossessionsintheeasternpartoftheisland。

ThewholeneighbourhoodofCoupangappearstohavebeenelevatedatarecentepoch，consistingofaruggedsurfaceofcoralrock，whichrisesinaverticalwallbetweenthebeachandthetown，whoselow，white，red-tiledhousesgiveitanappearanceverysimilartootherDutchsettlementsintheEast。Thevegetationiseverywherescantyandscrubby。PlantsofthefamiliesApocynaceaeandEuphorbiacea，abound；butthereisnothingthatcanbecalledaforest，andthewholecountryhasaparchedanddesolateappearance，contrastingstronglywiththeloftyforesttreesandperennialverdureoftheMoluccasorofSingapore。Themostconspicuousfeatureofthevegetationwastheabundanceoffinefanleavedpalms(Borassusflabelliformis)，fromtheleavesofwhichareconstructedthestronganddurablewater-bucketsingeneraluse，andwhicharemuchsuperiortothoseformedfromanyotherspeciesofpalm。Fromthesametree，palm-wineandsugararemade，andthecommonthatchforhousesformedoftheleaveslastssixorsevenyearswithoutremoval。ClosetothetownInoticedthefoundationofaruinedhousebelowhigh-watermark，indicatingrecentsubsidence。Earthquakesarenotseverehere，andaresoinfrequentandharmlessthatthechiefhousesarebuiltofstone。

TheinhabitantsofCoupangconsistofMalays，Chinese，andDutch，besidesthenatives，sothattherearemanystrangeandcomplicatedmixturesamongthepopulation。ThereisoneresidentEnglishmerchant，andwhalersaswellasAustralianshipsoftencomehereforstoresandwater。ThenativeTimoresepreponderate，andaverylittleexaminationservestoshowthattheyhavenothingincommonwithMalays，butaremuchmorecloselyalliedtothetruePapuansoftheAruIslandsandNewGuinea。Theyaretall，havepronouncedfeatures，largesomewhataquilinenoses，andfrizzlyhair，andaregenerallyofaduskybrowncolour。Thewayinwhichthewomentalktoeachotherandtothemen，theirloudvoicesandlaughter，andgeneralcharacterofself-

assertion，wouldenableanexperiencedobservertodecide，evenwithoutseeingthem，thattheywerenotMalays。

Mr。Arndt，aGermanandtheGovernmentdoctor，invitedmetostayathishousewhileinCoupang，andIgladlyacceptedhisoffer，asIonlyintendedmakingashortvisit。WeatfirstbeganspeakingFrench，buthegotonsobadlythatwesoonpassedinsensiblyintoMalay；andweafterwardsheldlongdiscussionsonliterary，scientific，andphilosophicalquestionsinthatsemi-barbarouslanguage，whosedeficiencieswemadeupbythefreeuseofFrenchorLatinwords。

Afterafewwalksintheneighbourhoodofthetown，IfoundsuchapovertyofinsectsandbirdsthatIdeterminedtogoforafewdaystotheislandofSemaoatthewesternextremityofTimor，whereIheardthattherewasforestcountrywithbirdsnotfoundatCoupang。WithsomedifficultyIobtainedalargedugoutboatwithoutriggers，totakemeoveradistanceofabouttwentymiles。Ifoundthecountryprettywellwooded，butcoveredwithshrubsandthornybushesratherthanforesttrees，andeverywhereexcessivelyparchedanddriedupbythelong-continueddryseason。IstayedatthevillageofOeassa，remarkableforitssoapsprings。Oneoftheseisinthemiddleofthevillage，bubblingoutfromalittleconeofmudtowhichthegroundrisesallroundlikeavolcanoinminiature。Thewaterhasasoapyfeelandproducesastronglatherwhenanygreasysubstanceiswashedinit。Itcontainsalkaliandiodine，insuchquantitiesastodestroyallvegetationforsomedistancearound。ClosebythevillageisoneofthefinestspringsIhaveeverseen，containedinseveralrockybasinscommunicatingbynarrowchannels。Thesehavebeenneatlywalledwhererequiredandpartlylevelled，andformfinenaturalbaths。Thewateriswelltastedandclearascrystal，andthebasinsaresurroundedbyagroveofloftymany-stemmedbanyan-trees，whichkeepthemalwayscoolandshady，andaddgreatlytothepicturesquebeautyofthescene。

ThevillageconsistsofcuriouslittlehousesverydifferentfromanyIhaveseenelsewhere。Theyareofanovalfigure，andthewallsaremadeofsticksaboutfourfeethighplacedclosetogether。Fromthisrisesahighconicalroofthatchedwithgrass。Theonlyopeningisadooraboutthreefeethigh。ThepeopleareliketheTimoresewithfrizzlyorwavyhairandofacopperybrowncolour。Thebetterclassappeartohaveamixtureofsomesuperiorracewhichhasmuchimprovedtheirfeatures。IsawinCoupangsomechiefsfromtheislandofSavufurtherwest，whopresentedcharactersverydistinctfromeithertheMalayorPapuanraces。TheymostresembledHindus，havingfinewell-

formedfeaturesandstraightthinnoseswithclearbrowncomplexions。

AstheBrahminicalreligiononcespreadoverallJava，andevennowexistsinBaliandLombock，itisnotatallimprobablethatsomenativesofIndiashouldhavereachedthisisland，eitherbyaccidentortoescapepersecution，andformedapermanentsettlementthere。

IstayedatOeassafourdays，when，notfindinganyinsectsandveryfewnewbirds，IreturnedtoCoupangtoawaitthenextmailsteamer。

OnthewayIhadanarrowescapeofbeingswamped。Thedeepcoffin-

likeboatwasfilledupwithmybaggage，andwithvegetables，cocoa-

nutandotherfruitforCoupangmarket，andwhenwehadgotsomewayacrossintoaratherroughsea，wefoundthataquantityofwaterwascominginwhichwehadnomeansofbalingout。Thiscausedustosinkdeeperinthewater，andthenweshippedseasoveroursides，andtherowers，whohadbeforedeclareditwasnothing，nowbecamealarmedandturnedtheboatroundtogetbacktothecoastofSemao，whichwasnotfaroff。Byclearingawaysomeofthebaggagealittleofthewatercouldbebaledout，buthardlysofastasitcamein，andwhenwenearedthecoastwefoundnothingbutverticalwallsofrockagainstwhichtheseawasviolentlybeating。Wecoastedalongsomedistanceuntilwefoundalittlecove，intowhichwerantheboat，hauleditonshore，andemptyingitfoundalargeholeinthebottom，whichhadbeentemporarilystoppedupwithaplugofcocoa-nutwhichhadcomeout。Hadwebeenaquarterofamilefurtheroffbeforewediscoveredtheleak，weshouldcertainlyhavebeenobligedtothrowmostofourbaggageoverboard，andmighteasilyhavelostourlives。Afterwehadputallstraightandsecureweagainstarted，andwhenwewerehalfwayacrossgotintosuchastrongcurrentandhighcrossseathatwewereverynearlybeingswampedasecondtime，whichmademevownevertotrustmyselfagaininsuchsmallandmiserablevessels。

Themailsteamerdidnotarriveforaweek，andIoccupiedmyselfingettingasmanyofthebirdsasIcould，andfoundsomewhichwereveryinteresting。Amongthemwerefivespeciesofpigeonsofasmanydistinctgenera，andmostofthenpeculiartotheisland；twoparrots——thefinered-wingedbroad-tail(Platycercusvulneratus)，alliedtoanAustralianspecies，andagreenspeciesofthegenusGeoffroyus。TheTropidorhynchustimorensiswasasubiquitousandasnoisyasIhadfounditatLombock；andtheSphaecotheraviridis，acuriousgreenoriolewithbareredorbits，wasagreatacquisition。

Therewereseveralprettyfinches，warblers，andflycatchers，andamongthemIobtainedtheelegantblueandredCyornishyacinthina；

butIcannotrecogniseamongmycollectionsthespeciesmentionedbyDampier，whoseemstohavebeenmuchstruckbythenumberofsmallsongbirdsinTimor。Hesays："Onesortoftheseprettylittlebirdsmymencalledtheringingbird，becauseithadsixnotes，andalwaysrepeatedallhisnotestwice，oneaftertheother，beginninghighandshrillandendinglow。Thebirdwasaboutthebignessofalark，havingasmall，sharp，blackbillandbluewings；theheadandbreastwereofapalered，andtherewasabluestreakaboutitsneck。"InSemao，monkeysareabundant。Theyarethecommonbare-lippedmonkey(Macacuscynomolgus)，whichisfoundalloverthewesternislandsoftheArchipelago，andmayhavebeenintroducedbynatives，whooftencarryitaboutcaptive。Therearealsosomedeer，butitisnotquitecertainwhethertheyareofthesamespeciesasarefoundinJava。

IarrivedatDelli，thecapitalofthePortuguesepossessionsinTimor，onJanuary12，1861，andwaskindlyreceivedbyCaptainHart，anEnglishmanandanoldresident，whotradesintheproduceofthecountryandcultivatescoffeeonanestateatthefootofthehills。

WithhimIwasintroducedtoMr。Geach，amining-engineerwhohadbeenfortwoyearsendeavouringtodiscovercopperinsufficientquantitytobeworthworking。

DelliisamostmiserableplacecomparedwitheventhepoorestoftheDutchtowns。Thehousesareallofmudandthatch；thefortisonlyamudenclosure；andthecustom-houseandchurcharebuiltofthesamemeanmaterials，withnoattemptatdecorationorevenneatness。Thewholeaspectoftheplaceisthatofapoornativetown，andthereisnosignofcultivationorcivilizationroundaboutit。HisExcellencytheGovernor\'shouseistheonlyonethatmakesanypretensionstoappearance，andthatismerelyalowwhitewashedcottageorbungalow。

Yetthereisonethinginwhichcivilizationexhibitsitself——

officialsinblackandwhiteEuropeancostume，andofficersingorgeousuniformsaboundinadegreequitedisproportionatetothesizeorappearanceoftheplace。

Thetownbeingsurroundedforsomedistancebyswampsandmudflatsisveryunhealthy，andasinglenightoftengivesafevertonewcomerswhichnotunfrequentlyprovesfatal。Toavoidthismalaria，CaptainHartalwayssleptathisplantation，onaslightelevationabouttwomilesfromthetown，whereMr。Geachalsohadasmallhouse，whichhekindlyinvitedmetoshare。Werodethereintheevening；andinthecourseoftwodaysmybaggagewasbroughtup，andIwasabletolookaboutmeandseeifIcoulddoanycollecting。

ForthefirstfewweeksIwasveryunwellandcouldnotgofarfromthehouse。Thecountrywascoveredwithlowspinyshrubsandacacias，exceptinalittlevalleywhereastreamcamedownfromthehills，wheresomefinetreesandbushesshadedthewaterandformedaverypleasantplacetorambleup。Therewereplentyofbirdsabout，andofatolerablevarietyofspecies；butveryfewofthemweregailycoloured。Indeed，withoneortwoexceptions，thebirdsofthistropicalislandwerehardlysoornamentalasthoseofGreatBritain。

Beetlesweresoscarcethatacollectormightfairlysaytherewerenone，asthefewobscureoruninterestingspecieswouldnotrepayhimforthesearch。Theonlyinsectsatallremarkableorinterestingwerethebutterflies，which，thoughcomparativelyfewinspecies，weresufficientlyabundant，andcomprisedalargeproportionofneworraresorts。Thebanksofthestreamformedmybestcollecting-ground，andI

dailywanderedupanddownitsshadybed，whichaboutamileupbecamerockyandprecipitous。HereIobtainedtherareandbeautifulswallow-

tailbutterflies，PapilioaenomausandP。liris；themalesofwhicharequiteunlikeeachother，andbelonginfacttodistinctsectionsofthegenus，whilethefemalesaresomuchalikethattheyareundistinguishableonthewing，andtoanuneducatedeyeequallysointhecabinet。Severalotherbeautifulbutterfliesrewardedmysearchinthisplace，amongwhichImayespeciallymentiontheCethosialeschenaultii，whosewingsofthedeepestpurpleareborderedwithbuffinsuchamannerastoresembleatfirstsightourownCamberwellbeauty，althoughitbelongstoadifferentgenus。Themostabundantbutterflieswerethewhitesandyellows(Pieridae)，severalofwhichI

hadalreadyfoundatLombockandatCoupang，whileotherswerenewtome。

EarlyinFebruarywemadearrangementstostayforaweekatavillagecalledBaliba，situatedaboutfourmilesoffonthemountains，atanelevationof2，000feet。Wetookourbaggageandasupplyofallnecessariesonpackhorses；andthoughthedistancebytheroutewetookwasnotmorethansixorsevenmiles，wewerehalfadaygettingthere。Theroadsweremeretracks，sometimesupsteeprockystairs，sometimesinnarrowgullieswornbythehorses\'feet，andwhereitwasnecessarytotuckupourlegsonourhorses\'neckstoavoidhavingthemcrushed。Atsomeoftheseplacesthebaggagehadtobeunloaded，atothersitwasknockedoff。Sometimestheascentordescentwassosteepthatitwaseasiertowalkthantoclingtoourponies\'backs；

andthuswewentupanddownoverbarehillswhosesurfacewascoveredwithsmallpebblesandscatteredoverwithEucalypti，remindingmeofwhatIhadreadofpartsoftheinteriorofAustraliaratherthanoftheMalayArchipelago。

Thevillageconsistedofthreehousesonly，withlowwallsraisedafewfeetonposts，andveryhighroofsthatchedwithbrasshangingdowntowithintwoorthreefeetoftheground。Ahousewhichwasunfinishedandpartlyopenatthebackwasgivenforouruse，andinitweriggedupatable，somebenches，andascreen，whileaninnerenclosedportionservedusforasleepingapartment。WehadasplendidviewdownuponDelliandtheseabeyond。Thecountryaroundwasundulatingandopen，exceptinthehollows，wherethereweresomepatchesofforest，whichMr。Geach，whohadbeenallovertheeasternpartofTimor，assuredmewasthemostluxurianthehadyetseenintheisland。Iwasinhopesoffindingsomeinsectshere，butwasmuchdisappointed，owingperhapstothedampnessoftheclimate；foritwasnotuntilthesunwasprettyhighthatthemistsclearedaway，andbynoonweweregenerallycloudedupagain，sothattherewasseldommorethananhourortwooffitfulsunshine。Wesearchedineverydirectionforbirdsandothergame，buttheywereveryscarce。OnourwayIhadshotthefindwhite-headedpigeon，Ptilonopuscinctus，andtheprettylittlelorikeet，Trichoglossuseuteles。IgotafewmoreoftheseattheblossomsoftheEucalypti，andalsothealliedspeciesTrichoglossusiris，andafewothersmallbutinterestingbirds。Thecommonjungle-cockofIndia(Gallusbankiva)wasfoundhere，andfurnisheduswithsomeexcellentmeals；butwecouldgetnodeer。

Potatoesaregrownhigherupthemountainsinabundance，andareverygood。Wehadasheepkilledeveryotherday，andateourmuttonwithmuchappetiteinthecoolclimate，whichrenderedafirealwaysagreeable。

Althoughone-halftheEuropeanresidentsinDelliarecontinuallyillfromfever，andthePortuguesehaveoccupiedtheplaceforthreecenturies，noonehasyetbuiltahouseonthesefinehills，which，ifatolerableroadweremade，wouldbeonlyanhour\'sridefromthetown；andalmostequallygoodsituationsmightbefoundonalowerlevelathalfanhour\'sdistance。Thefactthatpotatoesandwheatofexcellentqualityaregrowninabundanceatfrom3，000to3，500feetelevation，showswhattheclimateandsoilarecapableofifproperlycultivated。Fromonetotwothousandfeethigh，coffeewouldthrive；

andtherearehundredsofsquaremilesofcountryoverwhichallthevariedproductswhichrequireclimatesbetweenthoseofcoffeeandwheatwouldflourish；butnoattempthasyetbeenmadetoformasinglemileofroad，orasingleacreofplantation！

TheremustbesomethingveryunusualintheclimateofTimortopermitwheatbeinggrownatsomoderateanelevation。Thegrainisofexcellentquality，thebreadmadefromitbeingequaltoanyIhaveevertasted，anditisuniversallyacknowledgedtobeunsurpassedbyanymadefromimportedEuropeanorAmericanflour。Thefactthatthenativeshave(quiteoftheirownaccord)takentocultivatingsuchforeignarticlesaswheatandpotatoes，whichtheybringinsmallquantitiesonthebacksofponiesbythemosthorriblemountaintracks，andsellverycheaplyattheseaside，sufficientlyindicateswhatmightbedoneifgoodroadsweremade，andifthepeopleweretaught，encouraged，andprotected。Sheepalsodowellonthemountains；andabreedofhardyponiesinmuchreputeallovertheArchipelago，runshalf-wild，sothatitappearsasifthisisland，sobarren-lookinganddevoidoftheusualfeaturesoftropicalvegetation，wereyetespeciallyadaptedtosupplyavarietyofproductsessentialtoEuropeans，whichtheotherislandswillnotproduce，andwhichtheyaccordinglyimportfromtheothersideoftheglobe。

Onthe24thofFebruarymyfriendMr。GeachleftTimor，havingfinallyreportedthatnomineralsworthworkingweretobefound。ThePortuguesewereverymuchannoyed，havingmadeuptheirmindsthatcopperisabundant，andstillbelievingittobeso。ItappearsthatfromtimeimmemorialpurenativecopperhasbeenfoundataplaceonthecoastaboutthirtymileseastofDelli。

Thenativessaytheyfinditinthebedofaravine，andmanyyearsagoacaptainofavesselissaidtohavegotsomehundreds-weightofit。Now，however，itisevidentlyveryscarce，asduringthetwoyearsMr。Geachresidedinthecountry，nonewasfound。Iwasshownonepieceseveralpounds\'weight，havingmuchtheappearanceofoneofthelargerAustraliannuggets，butofpurecopperinsteadofgold。ThenativesandthePortuguesehaveverynaturallyimaginedthatwherethesefragmentscomefromtheremustbemore；andtheyhaveareportortradition，thatamountainattheheadoftheravineisalmostpurecopper，andofcourseofimmensevalue。

Aftermuchdifficultyacompanywasatlengthformedtoworkthecoppermountain，aPortuguesemerchantofSingaporesupplyingmostofthecapital。Soconfidentweretheyoftheexistenceofthecopper，thattheythoughtitwouldbewasteoftimeandmoneytohaveanyexplorationmadefirst；andaccordingly，senttoEnglandforaminingengineer，whowastobringoutallnecessarytools，machinery，laboratory，utensils，anumberofmechanics，andstoresofallkindsfortwoyears，inordertocommenceworkonacopper-minewhichhewastoldwasalreadydiscovered。OnreachingSingaporeashipwasfreightedtotakethemenandstorestoTimor，wheretheyatlengtharrivedaftermuchdelay，alongvoyage，andverygreatexpense。

Adaywasthenfixedto"openthemines。"CaptainHartaccompaniedMr。

Geachasinterpreter。TheGovernor，theCommandante，theJudge，andallthechiefpeopleoftheplacewentinstatetothemountain，withMr。Geach\'sassistantandsomeoftheworkmen。AstheywentupthevalleyMr。Leachexaminedtherocks，butsawnosignsofcopper。Theywentonandon，butstillnothingexceptafewmeretracesofverypoorore。Atlengththeystoodonthecoppermountainitself。TheGovernorstopped，theofficialsformedacircle，andhethenaddressedthem，saying，thatatlengththedayhadarrivedtheyhadallbeensolongexpecting，whenthetreasuresofthesoilofTimorwouldbebroughttolight，andmuchmoreinverygraandiloquentPortuguese；

andconcludedbyturningtoMr。Leach，andrequestinghimtopointoutthebestspotforthemtobeginworkatonce，anduncoverthemassofvirgincopper。Astheravinesandprecipicesamongwhichtheyhadpassed，andwhichhadbeencarefullyexamined，revealedveryclearlythenatureandmineralconstitutionofthecountry，Mr。Geachsimplytoldthemthattherewasnotatraceofcopperthere，andthatitwasperfectlyuselesstobeginwork。Theaudiencewerethunderstruck！TheGovernorcouldnotbelievehisears。Atlength，whenMr。Geachhadrepeatedhisstatement，theGovernortoldhimseverelythathewasmistaken；thattheyallknewtherewascopperthereinabundance，andalltheywantedhimtotellthem，asamining-engineer，washowbesttogetatit；andthatatalleventshewastobeginworksomewhere。

ThisMr。Geachrefusedtodo，tryingtoexplainthattheravineshadcutfardeeperintothehillthanhecoulddoinyears，andthathewouldnotthrowawaymoneyortimeonanysuchuselessattempt。Afterthisspeechhadbeeninterpretedtohim，theGovernorsawitwasnouse，andwithoutsayingawordturnedhishorseandrodeaway，leavingmyfriendsaloneonthemountain。TheyallbelievedtherewassomeconspiracythattheEnglishmanwouldnotfindthecopper，andthattheyhadbeencruellybetrayed。

Mr。GeachthenwrotetotheSingaporemerchantwhowashisemployer，anditwasarrangedthatheshouldsendthemechanicshomeagain，andhimselfexplorethecountryforminerals。AtfirsttheGovernmentthrewobstaclesinhiswayandentirelypreventedhismoving；butatlengthhewasallowedtotravelabout，andformorethanayearheandhisassistantexploredtheeasternpartofTimor，crossingitinseveralplacesfromseatosea，andascendingeveryimportantvalley，withoutfindinganymineralsthatwouldpaytheexpenseofworking。

Copperoreexistsinseveralplaces，butalwaystoopoorinquality。

ThebestwouldpaywellifsituatedinEngland；butintheinteriorofanutterlybarrencountry，withroadstomake，andallskilledlabourandmaterialstoimport，itwouldhavebeenalosingconcern。Goldalsooccurs，butverysparinglyandofpoorquality。Afinespringofpurepetroleumwasdiscoveredfarintheinterior，whereitcanneverbeavailableuntilthecountryiscivilized。ThewholeaffairwasadreadfuldisappointmenttothePortugueseGovernment，whohadconsidereditsuchacertainthingthattheyhadcontractedfortheDutchmailsteamerstostopatDelliandseveralvesselsfromAustraliawereinducedtocomewithmiscellaneouscargoes，forwhichtheyexpectedtofindareadysaleamongthepopulationatthenewly-

openedmines。Thelumpsofnativecopperarestill，however，amystery。Mr。Geachhasexaminedthecountryineverydirectionwithoutbeingabletotracetheirorigin；sothatitseemsprobablethattheyresultfromthedebrisofoldcopper-bearingstrata，andarenotreallymoreabundantthangoldnuggetsareinAustraliaorCalifornia。

Ahighrewardwasofferedtoanynativewhoshouldfindapieceandshowtheexactspotwhereheobtainedit，butwithouteffect。

ThemountaineersofTimorareapeopleofPapuantype，havingratherslenderforms，bushyfrizzledhair，andtheskinofaduskybrowncolour。TheyhavethelongnosewithoverhangingapexwhichissocharacteristicofthePapuan，andsoabsolutelyunknownamongracesofMalayanorigin。OnthecoasttherehasbeenmuchadmixtureofsomeoftheMalayraces，andperhapsofHindu，aswellasofPortuguese。Thegeneralstaturethereislower，thehairwavyinsteadoffrizzled，andthefeatureslessprominent。Thehousesarebuiltontheground，whilethemountaineersraisetheirsonpoststhreeorfourfeethigh。Thecommondressisalongcloth，twistedaroundthewaistandhangingtotheknee，asshownintheillustration(page305)，copiedfromaphotograph。Bothmencarrythenationalumbrella，madeofanentirefan-shapedpalmleaf，carefullystitchedatthefoldofeachleaflettopreventsplitting。Thisisopenedout，andheldslopingovertheheadandbackduringashower。Thesmallwater-bucketismadefromanentireunopenedleafofthesamepalm，andthecoveredbambooprobablycontainshoneyforsale。Acuriouswalletisgenerallycarried，consistingofasquareofstronglywovencloth，thefourcornersofwhichareconnectedbycords，andoftenmuchornamentedwithbeadsandtassels。Leaningagainstthehousebehindthefigureontherightarebamboos，usedinsteadofwaterjars。

Aprevalentcustomisthe"pomali，"exactlyequivalenttothe"taboo"

ofthePacificislanders，andequallyrespected。Itisusedonthecommonestoccasions，andafewpalmleavesstuckoutsideagardenasasignofthe"pomali"willpreserveitsproducefromthievesaseffectuallyasthethreateningnoticeofman-traps，springguns，orasavagedogwoulddowithus。Thedeadareplacedonastage，raisedsixoreightfeetabovetheground，sometimesopenandsometimescoveredwitharoof。Herethebodyremainsuntiltherelativescanaffordtomakeafeast，whenitisburied。TheTimoresearegenerallygreatthieves，butarenotbloodthirsty。Theyfightcontinuallyamongthemselves，andtakeeveryopportunityofkidnappingunprotectedpeopleofothertribesforslaves；butEuropeansmaypassanywherethroughthecountryinsafety。Exceptforafewhalf-breedsinthetown，therearenonativeChristiansintheislandofTimor。Thepeopleretaintheirindependenceinagreatmeasure，andbothdislikeanddespisetheirwould-berulers，whetherPortugueseorDutch。

ThePortuguesegovernmentinTimorisamostmiserableone。Nobodyseemstocaretheleastabouttheimprovementofthecountry，andatthistime，afterthreehundredyearsofoccupation，therehasnotbeenamileofroadmadebeyondthetown，andthereisnotasolitaryEuropeanresidentanywhereintheinterior。AlltheGovernmentofficialsoppressandrobthenativesasmuchastheycan，andyetthereisnocaretakentorenderthetowndefensibleshouldtheTimoreseattempttoattackit。Soignorantarethemilitaryofficers，thathavingreceivedasmallmortarandsomeshells，noonecouldbefoundwhoknewhowtousethem；andduringaninsurrectionofthenatives(whileIwasatDelli)theofficerwhoexpectedtobesentagainsttheinsurgentswasinstantlytakenill！Andtheywereallowedtogetpossessionofanimportantpasswithinthreemilesofthetown，wheretheycoulddefendthemselvesagainsttentimestheforce。Theresultwasthatnoprovisionswerebroughtdownfromthehills；afaminewasimminent；andtheGovernorhadtosendofftobegforsuppliesfromtheDutchGovernorofAmboyna。

InitspresentstateTimorismoretroublethanprofittoitsDutchandPortugueserulers，anditwillcontinuetobesounlessadifferentsystemispursued。Afewgoodroadsintotheelevateddistrictsoftheinterior；aconciliatorypolicyandstrictjusticetowardsthenatives，andtheintroductionofagoodsystemofcultivationasinJavaandnorthernCelebes，mightyetmakeTimoraproductiveandvaluableisland。Ricegrowswellonthemarshyflats，whichoftenfringethecoast，andmaizethrivesinallthelowlands，andisthecommonfoodofthenativesasitwaswhenDampiervisitedtheislandin1699。Thesmallquantityofcoffeenowgrownisofverysuperiorquality，anditmightbeincreasedtoanyextent。Sheepthrive，andwouldalwaysbevaluableasfreshfoodforwhalersandtosupplytheadjacentislandswithmutton，ifnotfortheirwool；

althoughitisprobablethatonthemountainsthisproductmightsoonbeobtainedbyjudiciousbreeding。Horsesthriveamazingly；andenoughwheatmightbegrowntosupplythewholeArchipelagoifthereweresufficientinducementstothenativestoextenditscultivation，andgoodroadsbywhichitcouldbecheaplytransportedtothecoast。

UndersuchasystemthenativeswouldsoonperceivethatEuropeangovernmentwasadvantageoustothem。Theywouldbegintosavemoney，andpropertybeingrenderedsecuretheywouldrapidlyacquirenewwantsandnewtastes，andbecomelargeconsumersofEuropeangoods。

Thiswouldbeafarsurersourceofprofittotheirrulersthanimpostsandextortion，andwouldbeatthesametimemorelikelytoproducepeaceandobediencethanthemock-militaryrulewhichhashithertoprovedmostineffective。Toinauguratesuchasystemwouldhoweverrequireanimmediateoutlayofcapital，whichneitherDutchnorPortugueseseeminclinedtomake，andanumberofhonestandenergeticofficials，whichthelatternationatleastseemsunabletoproduce；sothatitismuchtobefearedthatTimorwillformanyyearstocomeremaininitspresentstateofchronicinsurrectionandmisgovernment。

MoralityatDelliisataslowanebbasinthefarinteriorofBrazil，andcrimesareconnivedatwhichwouldentailinfamyandcriminalprosecutioninEurope。WhileIwasthereitwasgenerallyassertedandbelievedintheplace，thattwoofficershadpoisonedthehusbandsofwomenwithwhomtheywerecarryingonintrigues，andwithwhomtheyimmediatelycohabitedonthedeathoftheirrivals。Yetnooneeverthoughtforamomentofshowingdisapprobationofthecrime，orevenofconsideringitacrimeatall，thehusbandsinquestionbeinglowhalf-castes，whoofcourseoughttomakewayforthepleasuresoftheirsuperiors。

JudgingfromwhatIsawmyselfandbythedescriptionsofMr。Geach，theindigenousvegetationofTimorispoorandmonotonous。ThelowerrangesofthehillsareeverywherecoveredwithscrubbyEucalypti，whichonlyoccasionallygrowintoloftyforesttrees。Mingledwiththeseinsmallerquantitiesareacaciasandthefragrantsandalwood，whilethehighermountains，whichrisetoaboutsixorseventhousandfeet，areeithercoveredwithcoarsegrassorarealtogetherbarren。

Inthelowergroundsareavarietyofweedybushes，andopenwasteplacesarecoveredeverywherewithanettle-likewildmint。Hereisfoundthebeautifulcrownlily，Gloriosasuperba，windingamongthebushes，anddisplayingitsmagnificentblossomsingreatprofusion。A

wildvinealsooccurs，bearinggreatirregularbunchesofhairygrapesofacoarsebutverylusciousflavour。Insomeofthevalleyswherethevegetationisricher，thornyshrubsandclimbersaresoabundantastomakethethicketsquiteimpenetrable。

Thesoilseemsverypoor，consistingchieflyofdecomposingclayeyshales；andthebareearthandrockisalmosteverywherevisible。Thedroughtofthehotseasonissoseverethatmostofthestreamsdryupintheplainsbeforetheyreachthesea；everythingbecomesburnedup，andtheleavesofthelargertreesfallascompletelyasinourwinter。Onthemountainsfromtwotofourthousandfeetelevationthereisamuchmoisteratmosphere，sothatpotatoesandotherEuropeanproductscanbegrownalltheyearround。Besidesponies，almosttheonlyexportsofTimoraresandalwoodandbeeswax。Thesandalwood(Santalumsp。)istheproduceofasmalltree，whichgrowssparinglyinthemountainsofTimorandmanyoftheotherislandsinthefarEast。Thewoodisofafineyellowcolour，andpossessesawell-knowndelightfulfragrancewhichiswonderfullypermanent。ItisbroughtdowntoDelliinsmalllogs，andischieflyexportedtoChina，whereitislargelyusedtoburninthetemples，andinthehousesofthewealthy。

Thebeeswaxisastillmoreimportantandvaluableproduct，formedbythewildbees(Apisdorsata)，whichbuildhugehoneycombs，suspendedintheopenairfromtheundersideoftheloftybranchesofthehighesttrees。Theseareofasemicircularform，andoftenthreeorfourfeetindiameter。Ioncesawthenativestakeabees\'nest，andaveryinterestingsightitwas。InthevalleywhereIusedtocollectinsects，IonedaysawthreeorfourTimoresemenandboysunderahightree，and，lookingup，sawonaveryloftyhorizontalbranchthreelargebees\'combs。Thetreewasstraightandsmooth-

barkedandwithoutabranch，untilatseventyoreightyfeetfromthegrounditgaveoutthelimbwhichthebeeshadchosenfortheirhome。

Asthemenwereevidentlylookingafterthebees，Iwaitedtowatchtheiroperations。Oneofthemfirstproducedalongpieceofwoodapparentlythestemofasmalltreeorcreeper，whichhehadbroughtwithhim，andbegansplittingitthroughinseveraldirections，whichshowedthatitwasverytoughandstringy。Hethenwrappeditinpalm-

leaves，whichweresecuredbytwistingaslendercreeperroundthem。

Hethenfastenedhisclothtightlyroundhisloins，andproducinganotherclothwrappeditaroundhishead，neck，andbody，andtieditfirmlyaroundhisneck，leavinghisface，arms，andlegscompletelybare。Slungtohisgirdlehecarriedalongthincoilofcord；andwhilehehadbeenmakingthesepreparations，oneofhiscompanionshadcutastrongcreeperorbush-ropeeightortenyardslong，tooneendofwhichthewood-torchwasfastened，andlightedatthebottom，emittingasteadystreamofsmoke。Justabovethetorchachopping-

knifewasfastenedbyashortcord。

Thebee-hunternowtookholdofthebush-ropejustabovethetorchandpassedtheotherendaroundthetrunkofthetree，holdingoneendineachhand。Jerkingitupthetreealittleabovehisheadhesethisfootagainstthetrunk，andleaningbackbeganwalkingupit。Itwaswonderfultoseetheskillwithwhichhetookadvantageoftheslightestirregularitiesofthebarkorobliquityofthestemtoaidhisascent，jerkingthestiffcreeperafewfeethigherwhenhehadfoundafirmholdforhisbarefoot。Italmostmademegiddytolookathimasherapidlygotup——thirty，forty，fiftyfeetabovetheground；andIkeptwonderinghowhecouldpossiblymountthenextfewfeetofstraightsmoothtrunk。Still，however，hekeptonwithasmuchcoolnessandapparentcertaintyasifheweregoingupaladder，untilhegotwithintenorfifteenfeetofthebees。Thenhestoppedamoment，andtookcaretoswingthetorch(whichhungjustathisfeet)

alittletowardsthesedangerousinsects，soastosendupthestreamofsmokebetweenhimandthem。Stillgoingon，inaminutemorehebroughthimselfunderthelimb，and，inamannerquiteunintelligibletome，seeingthatbothhandswereoccupiedinsupportinghimselfbythecreeper，managedtogetuponit。

Bythistimethebeesbegantobealarmed，andformedadensebuzzingswarmjustoverhim，buthebroughtthetorchupclosertohim，andcoollybrushedawaythosethatsettledonhisarmsorlegs。Thenstretchinghimselfalongthelimb，hecrepttowardsthenearestcombandswungthetorchjustunderit。Themomentthesmoketouchedit，itscolourchangedinamostcuriousmannerfromblacktowhite，themyriadsofbeesthathadcovereditflyingoffandformingadensecloudaboveandaround。Themanthenlayatfulllengthalongthelimb，andbrushedofftheremainingbeeswithhishand，andthendrawinghisknifecutoffthecombatonesliceclosetothetree，andattachingthethincordtoit，letitdowntohiscompanionsbelow。Hewasallthistimeenvelopedinacrowdofangrybees，andhowheboretheirstingssocoolly，andwentonwithhisworkatthatgiddyheightsodeliberately，wasmorethanIcouldunderstand。Thebeeswereevidentlynotstupifiedbythesmokeordrivenawayfarbyit，anditwasimpossiblethatthesmallstreamfromthetorchcouldprotecthiswholebodywhenatwork。Therewerethreeothercombsonthesametree，andallweresuccessivelytaken，andfurnishedthewholepartywithalusciousfeastofhoneyandyoungbees，aswellasavaluablelotofwax。

Aftertwoofthecombshadbeenletdown，thebeesbecamerathernumerousbelow，flyingaboutwildlyandstingingviciously。Severalgotaboutme，andIwassoonstung，andhadtorunaway，beatingthemoffwithmynetandcapturingthemforspecimens。Severalofthemfollowedmeforatleasthalfamile，gettingintomyhairandpersecutingmemostpertinaciously，sothatIwasmoreastonishedthaneverattheimmunityofthenatives。Iaminclinedtothinkthatslowanddeliberatemotion，andnoattemptatescape，areperhapsthebestsafeguards。Abeesettlingonapassivenativeprobablybehavesasitwouldonatreeorotherinanimatesubstance，whichitdoesnotattempttosting。Stilltheymustoftensuffer，buttheyareusedtothepainandlearntobearitimpassively，aswithoutdoingsonomancouldbeabee-hunter。

CHAPTERXIV。

THENATURALHISTORYOFTHETIMORGROUP。

IFwelookatamapoftheArchipelago，nothingseemsmoreunlikelythanthatthecloselyconnectedchainofislandsfromJavatoTimorshoulddiffermateriallyintheirnaturalproductions。Thereare，itistrue，certaindifferencesofclimateandofphysicalgeography，butthesedonotcorrespondwiththedivisionthenaturalistisobligedtomake。Betweenthetwoendsofthechainthereisagreatcontrastofclimate，thewestbeingexceedinglymoistandleavingonlyashortandirregulardryseason，theeastbeingasdryandparchedup，andhavingbutashortwetseason。Thischange，however，occursaboutthemiddleofJava，theeasternportionofthatislandhavingasstronglymarkedseasonsasLombockandTimor。Thereisalsoadifferenceinphysicalgeography；butthisoccursattheeasternterminationofthechainwherethevolcanoeswhicharethemarkedfeatureofJava，Bali，Lombock，Sumbawa，andFlores，turnnorthwardsthroughGunongApitoBanda，leavingTimorwithonlyonevolcanicpeaknearitscentre，whilethemainportionoftheislandconsistsofoldsedimentaryrocks。NeitherofthesephysicaldifferencescorrespondswiththeremarkablechangeinnaturalproductionswhichoccursattheStraitsofLombock，separatingtheislandofthatnamefromBali，andwhichisatoncesolargeinamountandofsofundamentalacharacter，astoformanimportantfeatureinthezoologicalgeographyofourglobe。

TheDutchnaturalistZollinger，whoresidedalongtimeontheislandofBali，informsusthatitsproductionscompletelyassimilatewiththoseofJava，andthatheisnotawareofasingleanimalfoundinitwhichdoesnotinhabitthelargerisland。DuringthefewdayswhichI

stayedonthenorthcoastofBalionmywaytoLombock，IsawseveralbirdshighlycharacteristicofJavanornithology。Amongtheseweretheyellow-headedweaver(Ploceushypoxantha)，theblackgrasshopperthrush(Copsychusamoenus)，therosybarbet(Megalaemarosea)，theMalayoriole(Oriolushorsfieldi)，theJavagroundstarling(Sturnopastorjalla)，andtheJavanesethree-toedwoodpecker(Chrysonotustiga)。OncrossingovertoLombock，separatedfromBalibyastraitlessthantwentymileswide，Inaturallyexpectedtomeetwithsomeofthesebirdsagain；butduringastaythereofthreemonthsIneversawoneofthem，butfoundatotallydifferentsetofspecies，mostofwhichwereutterlyunknownnotonlyinJava，butalsoinBorneo，Sumatra，andMalacca。Forexample，amongthecommonestbirdsinLombockwerewhitecockatoosandthreespeciesofMeliphagidaeorhoneysuckers，belongingtofamilygroupswhichareentirelyabsentfromthewesternorIndo-MalayanregionoftheArchipelago。OnpassingtoFloresandTimorthedistinctnessfromtheJavaneseproductionsincreases，andwefindthattheseislandsformanaturalgroup，whosebirdsarerelatedtothoseofJavaandAustralia，butarequitedistinctfromeither。BesidesmyowncollectionsinLombockandTimor，myassistantMr。AllenmadeagoodcollectioninFlores；andthese，withafewspeciesobtainedbytheDutchnaturalists，enableustoformaverygoodideaofthenaturalhistoryofthisgroupofislands，andtoderivetherefromsomeveryinterestingresults。

Thenumberofbirdsknownfromtheseislandsuptothisdateis：63

fromLombock，86fromFlores，and118fromTimor；andfromthewholegroup，188species。WiththeexceptionoftwoorthreespecieswhichappeartohavebeenderivedfromtheMoluccas，allthesebirdscanbetraced，eitherdirectlyorbycloseallies，toJavaontheonesideortoAustraliaontheother；althoughnolessthan82ofthemarefoundnowhereoutofthissmallgroupofislands。Thereisnot，however，asinglegenuspeculiartothegroup，orevenonewhichislargelyrepresentedinitbypeculiarspecies；andthisisafactwhichindicatesthatthefaunaisstrictlyderivative，andthatitsorigindoesnotgobackbeyondoneofthemostrecentgeologicalepochs。Ofcoursetherearealargenumberofspecies(suchasmostofthewaders，manyoftheraptorialbirds，someofthekingfishers，swallows，andafewothers)，whichrangesowidelyoveralargepartoftheArchipelagothatitisimpossibletotracethemashavingcomefromanyonepartratherthanfromanother。Therearefifty-sevensuchspeciesinmylist，andbesidesthesetherearethirty-fivemorewhich，thoughpeculiartotheTimorgroup，areyetalliedtowide-

rangingforms。Deductingtheseninety-twospecies，wehavenearlyahundredbirdsleftwhoserelationswiththoseofothercountrieswewillnowconsider。

Ifwefirsttakethosespecieswhich，asfarasweyetknow，areabsolutelyconfinedtoeachisland，wefind，in：

Lombock4belongingto2genera，ofwhich1isAustralian，1Indian。

Flores12"7"5are"2"

Timor42"20"16are"4"

TheactualnumberofpeculiarspeciesineachislandIdonotsupposetobeatallaccuratelydetermined，sincetherapidlyincreasingnumbersevidentlydependuponthemoreextensivecollectionsmadeinTimorthaninFlores，andinFloresthaninLombock；butwhatwecandependmoreupon，andwhatisofmorespecialinterest，isthegreatlyincreasedproportionofAustralianformsanddecreasedproportionofIndianforms，aswegofromwesttoeast。WeshallshowthisinayetmorestrikingmannerbycountingthenumberofspeciesidenticalwiththoseofJavaandAustraliarespectivelyineachisland，thus：

InLombock。InFlores。InTimor。

Javanbirds……332311

Australianbirds……4510

Hereweseeplainlythecourseofthemigrationwhichhasbeengoingonforhundredsorthousandsofyears，andisstillgoingonatthepresentday。BirdsenteringfromJavaaremostnumerousintheislandnearestJava；eachstraitoftheseatobecrossedtoreachanotherislandoffersanobstacle，andthusasmallernumbergetovertothenextisland。[Thenamesofallthebirdsinhabitingtheseislandsaretobefoundinthe"ProceedingsoftheZoologicalSocietyofLondon"

fortheyear1863。]ItwillbeobservedthatthenumberofbirdsthatappeartohaveenteredfromAustraliaismuchlessthanthosewhichhavecomefromJava；andwemayatfirstsightsupposethatthisisduetothewideseathatseparatesAustraliafromTimor。Butthiswouldbeahastyand，asweshallsoonsee，anunwarrantedsupposition。BesidesthesebirdsidenticalwithspeciesinhabitingJavaandAustralia，thereareaconsiderablenumberofothersverycloselyalliedtospeciespeculiartothosecountries，andwemusttakethesealsointoaccountbeforeweformanyconclusiononthematter。Itwillbeaswelltocombinethesewiththeformertablethus：

InLombock。InFlores。InTimor。

Javanbirds……332311

CloselyalliedtoJavanbirds……156

Total……342817

Australianbirds……4510

CloselyalliedtoAustralianbirds3926

Total……71436

WenowseethatthetotalnumberofbirdswhichseemtohavebeenderivedfromJavaandAustraliaisverynearlyequal，butthereisthisremarkabledifferencebetweenthetwoseries：thatwhereasthelargerproportionbyfaroftheJavasetareidenticalwiththosestillinhabitingthatcountry，analmostequallylargeproportionoftheAustraliansetaredistinct，thoughoftenverycloselyalliedspecies。Itistobeobservedalso，thattheserepresentativeoralliedspeciesdiminishinnumberastheyrecedefromAustralia，whiletheyincreaseinnumberastheyrecedefromJava。Therearetworeasonsforthis，onebeingthattheislandsdecreaserapidlyinsizefromTimortoLombock，andcanthereforesupportadecreasingnumberofspecies；theotherandthemoreimportantis，thatthedistanceofAustraliafromTimorcutsoffthesupplyoffreshimmigrants，andhasthusallowedvariationtohavefullplay；whilethevicinityofLombocktoBaliandJavahasallowedacontinualinfluxoffreshindividualswhich，bycrossingwiththeearlierimmigrants，hascheckedvariation。

Tosimplifyourviewofthederivativeoriginofthebirdsoftheseislandsletustreatthemasawhole，andthusperhapsrendermoreintelligibletheirrespectiverelationstoJavaandAustralia。

TheTimorgroupofislandscontains：

Javanbirds……36Australianbirds……13

Closelyalliedspecies……11Closelyalliedspecies……35

DerivedfromJava……47DerivedfromAustralia……48

WehavehereawonderfulagreementinthenumberofbirdsbelongingtoAustralianandJavanesegroups，buttheyaredividedinexactlyareversemanner，three-fourthsoftheJavanbirdsbeingidenticalspeciesandone-fourthrepresentatives，whileonlyone-fourthoftheAustralianformsareidenticalandthree-fourthsrepresentatives。Thisisthemostimportantfactwhichwecanelicitfromastudyofthebirdsoftheseislands，sinceitgivesusaverycompletecluetomuchoftheirpasthistory。

Changeofspeciesisaslowprocess——onthatweareallagreed，thoughwemaydifferabouthowithastakenplace。ThefactthattheAustralianspeciesintheseislandshavemostlychanged，whiletheJavanspecieshavealmostallremainedunchanged，wouldthereforeindicatethatthedistrictwasfirstpeopledfromAustralia。But，forthistohavebeenthecase，thephysicalconditionsmusthavebeenverydifferentfromwhattheyarenow。NearlythreehundredmilesofopenseanowseparateAustraliafromTimor，whichislandisconnectedwithJavabyachainofbrokenlanddividedbystraitswhicharenowheremorethanabouttwentymileswide。EvidentlytherearenowgreatfacilitiesforthenaturalproductionsofJavatospreadoverandoccupythewholeoftheseislands，whilethoseofAustraliawouldfindverygreatdifficultyingettingacross。Toaccountforthepresentstateofthings，weshouldnaturallysupposethatAustraliawasoncemuchmorecloselyconnectedwithTimorthanitisatpresent；

andthatthiswasthecaseisrenderedhighlyprobablebythefactofasubmarinebankextendingalongallthenorthandwestcoastofAustralia，andatoneplaceapproachingwithintwentymilesofthecoastofTimor。ThisindicatesarecentsubsidenceofNorthAustralia，whichprobablyonceextendedasfarastheedgeofthisbank，betweenwhichandTimorthereisanunfathomeddepthofocean。

IdonotthinkthatTimorwaseveractuallyconnectedwithAustralia，becausesuchalargenumberofveryabundantandcharacteristicgroupsofAustralianbirdsarequiteabsent，andnotasingleAustralianmammalhasenteredTimor——whichwouldcertainlynothavebeenthecasehadthelandsbeenactuallyunited。Suchgroupsasthebowerbirds(Ptilonorhynchus)，theblackandredcockatoos(Calyptorhynchus)，thebluewrens(Malurus)，thecrowshrikes(Cracticus)，theAustralianshrikes(FalcunculusandColluricincla)，andmanyothers，whichaboundalloverAustralia，wouldcertainlyhavespreadintoTimorifithadbeenunitedtothatcountry，orevenifforanylongtimeithadapproachednearertoitthantwentymiles。NeitherdoanyofthemostcharacteristicgroupsofAustralianinsectsoccurinTimor；sothateverythingcombinestoindicatethatastraitoftheseahasalwaysseparateditfromAustralia，butthatatoneperiodthisstraitwasreducedtoawidthofabouttwentymiles。

Butatthetimewhenthisnarrowingoftheseatookplaceinonedirection，theremusthavebeenagreaterseparationattheotherendofthechain，orweshouldfindmoreequalityinthenumbersofidenticalandrepresentativespeciesderivedfromeachextremity。ItistruethatthewideningofthestraitattheAustralianendbysubsidence，would，byputtingastoptoimmigrationandintercrossingofindividualsfromthemothercountry，haveallowedfullscopetothecauseswhichhaveledtothemodificationofthespecies；whilethecontinuedstreamofimmigrantsfromJava，would，bycontinualintercrossing，checksuchmodification。Thisviewwillnot，however，explainallthefacts；forthecharacterofthefaunaoftheTimoresegroupisindicatedaswellbytheformswhichareabsentfromitasbythosewhichitcontains，andisbythiskindofevidenceshowntobemuchmoreAustralianthanIndian。Nolessthantwenty-ninegenera，allmoreorlessabundantinJava，andmostofwhichrangeoverawidearea，arealtogetherabsent；whileoftheequallydiffusedAustraliangeneraonlyaboutfourteenarewanting。Thiswouldclearlyindicatethattherehasbeen，untilrecently，awideseparationfromJava；andthefactthattheislandsofBaliandLombockaresmall，andarealmostwhollyvolcanic，andcontainasmallernumberofmodifiedformsthantheotherislands，wouldpointthemoutasofcomparativelyrecentorigin。AwidearmoftheseaprobablyoccupiedtheirplaceatthetimewhenTimorwasintheclosestproximitytoAustralia；andasthesubterraneanfireswereslowlypilingupthenowfertileislandsofBaliandLombock，thenorthernshoresofAustraliawouldbesinkingbeneaththeocean。Somesuchchangesashavebeenhereindicated，enableustounderstandhowithappens，thatthoughthebirdsofthisgroupareonthewholealmostasmuchIndianasAustralian，yetthespecieswhicharepeculiartothegrouparemostlyAustralianincharacter；andalsowhysuchalargenumberofcommonIndianformswhichextendthroughJavatoBali，shouldnothavetransmittedasinglerepresentativetotheislandfurthereast。

TheMammaliaofTimoraswellasthoseoftheotherislandsofthegroupareexceedinglyscanty，withtheexceptionofbats。Theselastaretolerablyabundant，andnodoubtmanymoreremaintobediscovered。

OutoffifteenspeciesknownfromTimor，ninearefoundalsoinJava，ortheislandswestofit；threeareMoluccanspecies，mostofwhicharealsofoundinAustralia，andtherestarepeculiartoTimor。

Thelandmammalsareonlyseveninnumber，asfollows：1。Thecommonmonkey，Macacuscynomolgus，whichisfoundinalltheIndo-Malayanislands，andhasspreadfromJavathroughBaliandLombocktoTimor。

Thisspeciesisveryfrequentonthebanksofrivers，andmayhavebeenconveyedfromislandtoislandontreescarrieddownbyhoods。2。

Paradoxurusfasciatus；acivetcat，verycommonoveralargepartoftheArchipelago。3。Felismegalotis；atigercat，saidtobepeculiartoTimor，whereitexistsonlyintheinterior，andisveryrare。ItsnearestalliesareinJava。4。Cervustimoriensis；adeer，closelyalliedtotheJavanandMoluccanspecies，ifdistinct。5。Awildpig，Sustimoriensis；perhapsthesameassomeoftheMoluccanspecies。6。

Ashrewmouse，Sorextenuis；supposedtobepeculiartoTimor。7。AnEasternopossum，Cuscusorientalis；foundalsointheMoluccas，ifnotadistinctspecies。

ThefactthatnotoneofthesespeciesisAustraliaornearlyalliedtoanyAustralianform，isstronglycorroborativeoftheopinionthatTimorhasneverformedapartofthatcountry；asinthatcasesomekangarooorothermarsupialanimalwouldalmostcertainlybefoundthere。ItisnodoubtverydifficulttoaccountforthepresenceofsomeofthefewmammalsthatdoexistinTimor，especiallythetigercatandthedeer。Wemustconsider，however，thatduringthousands，andperhapshundredsofthousandsofyears，theseislandsandtheseasbetweenthemhavebeensubjectedtovolcanicaction。Thelandhasbeenraisedandhassunkagain；thestraitshavebeennarrowedorwidened；

manyoftheislandsmayhavebeenjoinedanddisseveredagain；violentfloodshaveagainandagaindevastatedthemountainsandplains，carryingouttoseahundredsofforesttrees，ashasoftenhappenedduringvolcaniceruptionsinJava；anditdoesnotseemimprobablethatonceinathousand，ortenthousandyears，thereshouldhaveoccurredsuchafavourablecombinationofcircumstancesaswouldleadtothemigrationoftwoorthreelandanimalsfromoneislandtoanother。ThisisallthatweneedasktoaccountfortheveryscantyandfragmentarygroupofMammaliawhichnowinhabitthelargeislandofTimor。Thedeermayveryprobablyhavebeenintroducedbyman，fortheMalaysoftenkeeptamefawns；anditmaynotrequireathousand，orevenfivehundredyears，toestablishnewcharactersinananimalremovedtoacountrysodifferentinclimateandvegetationasisTimorfromtheMoluccas。Ihavenotmentionedhorses，whichareoftenthoughttobewildinTimor，becausetherearenogroundswhateverforsuchabelief。TheTimorponieshaveeveryoneanowner，andarequiteasmuchdomesticatedanimalsasthecattleonaSouthAmericanhacienda。

IhavedweltatsomelengthupontheoriginoftheTimoresefaunabecauseitappearstobeamostinterestingandinstructiveproblem。

Itisveryseldomthatwecantracetheanimalsofadistrictsoclearlyaswecaninthiscasetotwodefinitesources，andstillmorerarelythattheyfurnishsuchdecisiveevidenceofthetime，themanner，andtheproportionsoftheirintroduction。WehavehereagroupofOceanicIslandsinminiature——islandswhichhaveneverformedpartoftheadjacentlands，althoughsocloselyapproachingthem；andtheirproductionshavethecharacteristicsoftrueOceanicislandsslightlymodified。Thesecharacteristicsare：theabsenceallMammaliaexceptbats；andtheoccurrenceofpeculiarspeciesofbirds，insects，andlandshells，which，thoughfoundnowhereelse，areplainlyrelatedtothoseofthenearestland。Thus，wehaveanentireabsenceofAustralianmammals，andthepresenceofonlyafewstragglersfromthewestwhichcanbeaccountedforinthemanneralreadyindicated。Batsaretolerablyabundant。

Birdshavemanypeculiarspecies，withadecidedrelationshiptothoseofthetwonearestmassesofland。Theinsectshavesimilarrelationswiththebirds。Asanexample，fourspeciesofthePapilionidaearepeculiartoTimor，threeothersarealsofoundinJava，andoneinAustralia。OfthefourpeculiarspeciestwoaredecidedmodificationsofJavaneseforms，whiletheothersseenalliedtothoseoftheMoluccasandCelebes。Theveryfewlandshellsknownareall，curiouslyenough，alliedtooridenticalwithMoluccanorCelebesforms。ThePieridae(whiteandyellowbutterflies)whichwandermore，andfromfrequentingopengrounds，aremoreliabletobeblownouttosea，seemaboutequallyrelatedtothoseofJava，Australia，andtheMoluccas。

IthasbeenobjectedtoinMr。Darwin\'stheory，ofOceanicIslandshavingneverbeenconnectedwiththemainland，thatthiswouldimplythattheiranimalpopulationwasamatterofchance；ithasbeentermedthe"flotsamandjetsamtheory，"andithasbeenmaintainedthatnaturedoesnotworkbythe"chapterofaccidents。"ButinthecasewhichIhaveheredescribed，wehavethemostpositiveevidencethatsuchhasbeenthemodeofpeoplingtheislands。Theirproductionsareofthatmiscellaneouscharacterwhichweshouldexpectfrontsuchanorigin；andtosupposethattheyhavebeenportionsofAustraliaorofJavawillintroduceperfectlygratuitousdifficulties，andrenderitquiteimpossibletoexplainthosecuriousrelationswhichthebestknowngroupofanimals(thebirds)havebeenshowntoexhibit。Ontheotherhand，thedepthofthesurroundingseas，theformofthesubmergedbanks，andthevolcaniccharacterofmostoftheislands，allpointtoanindependentorigin。

Beforeconcluding，Imustmakeoneremarktoavoidmisapprehension。

WhenIsaythatTimorhasneverformedpartofAustralia，Ireferonlytorecentgeologicalepochs。InSecondaryorevenEoceneorMiocenetimes，TimorandAustraliamayhavebeenconnected；butifso，allrecordofsuchaunionhasbeenlostbysubsequentsubmergence，andinaccountingforthepresentland-inhabitantsofanycountrywehaveonlytoconsiderthosechangeswhichhaveoccurredsinceitslastelevationabovethewaterssincesuchlastelevation，IfeelconfidentthatTimorhasnotformedpartofAustralia。

CHAPTERXV。

CELEBES。

(MACASSAR，SEPTEMBERTONOVEMBER，1856。)

ILEFTLombockonthe30thofAugust，andreachedMacassarinthreedays。ItwaswithgreatsatisfactionthatIsteppedonashorewhichIhadbeenvainlytryingtoreachsinceFebruary，andwhereIexpectedtomeetwithsomuchthatwasnewandinteresting。

ThecoastofthispartofCelebesislowandflat，linedwithtreesandvillagessoastoconcealtheinterior，exceptatoccasionalopeningswhichshowawideextentofcareandmarshyrice-fields。Afewhillsofnogreatheightwerevisibleinthebackground；butowingtotheperpetualhazeoverthelandatthistimeoftheyear，Icouldnowherediscernthehighcentralrangeofthepeninsula，orthecelebratedpeakofBontyneatitssouthernextremity。IntheroadsteadofMacassartherewasafine42-gunfrigate，theguardshipoftheplace，aswellasasmallwarsteamerandthreeorfourlittlecuttersusedforcruisingafterthepirateswhichinfesttheseseas。Therewerealsoafewsquare-riggedtrading-vessels，andtwentyorthirtynativeprausofvarioussizes。IbroughtlettersofintroductiontoaDutchgentleman，Mr。Mesman，andalsotoaDanishshopkeeper，whocouldbothspeakEnglishandwhopromisedtoassistmeinfindingaplacetostay，suitableformypursuits。Inthemeantime，Iwenttoakindofclubhouse，indefaultofanyhotelintheplace。

MacassarwasthefirstDutchtownIhadvisited，andIfounditprettierandcleanerthananyIhadyetseenintheEast。TheDutchhavesomeadmirablelocalregulations。AllEuropeanhousesmustbekeptwellwhite-washed，andeverypersonmust，atfourintheafternoon，watertheroadinfrontofhishouse。Thestreetsarekeptclearofrefuse，andcovereddrainscarryawayallimpuritiesintolargeopensewers，intowhichthetideisadmittedathigh-waterandallowedtoflowoutwhenithasebbed，carryingallthesewagewithitintothesea。Thetownconsistschieflyofonelongnarrowstreetalongtheseaside，devotedtobusiness，andprincipallyoccupiedbytheDutchandChinesemerchants\'officesandwarehouses，andthenativeshopsorbazaars。Thisextendsnorthwardsformorethanamile，graduallymergingintonativehousesoftenofamostmiserabledescription，butmadetohaveaneatappearancebybeingallbuiltupexactlytothestraightlineofthestreet，andbeinggenerallybackedbyfruittrees。ThisstreetisusuallythrongedwithanativepopulationofBugisandMacassarmen，whowearcottontrousersabouttwelveincheslong，coveringonlyfromthehiptohalf-waydownthethigh，andtheuniversalMalaysarong，ofgaycheckedcolours，wornaroundthewaistoracrosstheshouldersinavarietyofways。ParalleltothisstreetruntwoshortoneswhichformtheoldDutchtown，andareenclosedbygates。Theseconsistofprivatehouses，andattheirsouthernendisthefort，thechurch，andaroadatrightanglestothebeach，containingthehousesoftheGovernorandoftheprincipalofficials。Beyondthefort，againalongthebeach，isanotherlongstreetofnativehutsandmanycountry-housesofthetradesmenandmerchants。Allaroundextendtheflatrice-fields，nowbareanddryandforbidding，coveredwithdustystubbleandweeds。Afewmonthsbackthesewereamassofverdure，andtheirbarrenappearanceatthisseasonofferedastrikingcontrasttotheperpetualcropsonthesamekindofcountryinLombockandBali，wheretheseasonsareexactlysimilar，butwhereanelaboratesystemofirrigationproducestheeffectofaperpetualspring。

ThedayaftermyarrivalIpaidavisitofceremonytotheGovernor，accompaniedbymyfriendtheDanishmerchant，whospokeexcellentEnglish。HisExcellencywasverypolite，andofferedmeeveryfacilityfortravellingaboutthecountryandprosecutingmyresearchesinnaturalhistory。WeconversedinFrench，whichallDutchofficialsspeakverywell。

Findingitveryinconvenientandexpensivetostayinthetown，Iremovedattheendofaweektoalittlebamboohouse，kindlyofferedmebyMr。Mesman。Itwassituatedabouttwomilesaway，onasmallcoffeeplantationandfarm，andaboutamilebeyondMr。M。\'sowncountry-house。Itconsistedoftworoomsraisedaboutsevenfeetabovetheground，thelowerpartbeingpartlyopen(andservingexcellentlytoskinbirdsin)andpartlyusedasagranaryforrice。Therewasakitchenandotherouthouses，andseveralcottagesnearby，occupiedbymeninMr。M。\'semploy。

Afterbeingsettledafewdaysinmynewhouse，Ifoundthatnocollectionscouldbemadewithoutgoingmuchfurtherintothecountry。Therice-fieldsforsomemilesaroundresembledEnglishstubbleslateinautumn，andwerealmostasunproductiveofbirdorinsectlife。Therewereseveralnativevillagesscatteredabout，soembosomedinfruittreesthatatadistancetheylookedlikeclumpsorpatchesofforest。Theseweremyonlycollectingplaces；buttheyproducedaverylimitednumberofspecies，andweresoonexhausted。BeforeIcouldmovetoanymorepromisingdistrictitwasnecessarytoobtainpermissionfromtheRajahofGoa，whoseterritoriesapproachtowithintwomilesofthetownofMacassar。IthereforepresentedmyselfattheGovernor\'sofficeandrequestedalettertotheRajah，toclaimhisprotection，andpermissiontotravelinhisterritorieswheneverImightwishtodoso。Thiswasimmediatelygranted，andaspecialmessengerwassentwithmetocarrytheletter。

MyfriendMr。Mesmankindlylentmeahorse，andaccompaniedmeonmyvisittotheRajah，withwhomhewasgreatfriends。WefoundhisMajestyseatedoutofdoors，watchingtheerectionofanewhouse。Hewasnakedfromthewaistup，wearingonlytheusualshorttrousersandsarong。Twochairswerebroughtoutforus，butallthechiefsandothernativeswereseatedontheground。

Themessenger，squattingdownattheRajah\'sfeet，producedtheletter，whichwassewnupinacoveringofyellowsilk。Itwashandedtooneofthechiefofficers，whorippeditopenandreturnedittotheRajah，whoreadit，andthenshowedittoMr。

M。，whobothspeaksandreadstheMacassarlanguagefluently，andwhoexplainedfullywhatIrequired。PermissionwasimmediatelygrantedmetogowhereIlikedintheterritoriesofGoa，buttheRajahdesired，thatshouldIwishtostayanytimeataplaceI

wouldfirstgivehimnotice，inorderthathemightsendsomeonetoseethatnoinjurywasdoneme。Somewinewasthenbroughtus，andafterwardssomedetestablecoffeeandwretchedsweetmeats，foritisafactthatIhavenevertastedgoodcoffeewherepeoplegrowitthemselves。

Althoughthiswastheheightofthedryseason，andtherewasafinewindallday，itwasbynomeansahealthytimeofyear。MyboyAlihadhardlybeenadayonshorewhenhewasattackedbyfever，whichputmetogreatinconvenience，asatthehousewhereIwasstaying，nothingcouldbeobtainedbutatmealtime。AfterhavingcuredAli，andwithmuchdifficultygotanotherservanttocookforme，Iwasnosoonersettledatmycountryabodethanthelatterwasattackedwiththesamedisease；and，havingawifeinthetown，leftme。HardlywashegonethanIfellillmyselfwithstrongintermittentfevereveryotherday。InaboutaweekIgotoverit，byaliberaluseofquinine，whenscarcelywasIonmylegsthanAliagainbecameworsethanever。Ali\'sfeverattackedhimdaily，butearlyinthemorninghewasprettywell，andthenmanagedtocookenoughformefortheday。InaweekIcuredhim，andalsosucceededingettinganotherboywhocouldcookandshoot，andhadnoobjectiontogointotheinterior。HisnamewasBaderoon，andashewasunmarriedandhadbeenusedtoarovinglife，havingbeenseveralvoyagestoNorthAustraliatocatchtrepangor"bechedemer"，Iwasinhopesofbeingabletokeephim。Ialsogotholdofalittleimpudentrascaloftwelveorfourteen，whocouldspeaksomeMalay，tocarrymygunorinsect-

netandmakehimselfgenerallyuseful。Alihadbythistimebecomeaprettygoodbird-skinner，sothatIwasfairlysuppliedwithservants。

Imademanyexcursionsintothecountry，insearchofagoodstationforcollectingbirdsandinsects。Someofthevillagesafewmilesinlandarescatteredaboutinwoodygroundwhichhasoncebeenvirginforest，butofwhichtheconstituenttreeshavebeenforthemostpartreplacedbyfruittrees，andparticularlybythelargepalm，Arengasaccharifera，fromwhichwineandsugararemade，andwhichalsoproducesacoarseblackfibreusedforcordage。Thatnecessaryoflife，thebamboo，hasalsobeenabundantlyplanted。InsuchplacesIfoundagoodmanybirds，amongwhichwerethefinecream-colouredpigeon，Carpophagaluctuosa，andtherareblue-headedroller，Coraciastemmincki，whichhasamostdiscordantvoice，andgenerallygoesinpairs，flyingfromtreetotree，andexhibitingwhileatrestthatall-

in-a-heapappearanceandjerkingmotionoftheheadandtailwhicharesocharacteristicofthegreatFissirostralgrouptowhichitbelongs。Fromthishabitalone，thekingfishers，bee-

eaters，rollers，trogons，andSouthAmericanpuff-birds，mightbegroupedtogetherbyapersonwhohadobservedtheminastateofnature，butwhohadneverhadanopportunityofexaminingtheirformandstructureindetail。Thousandsofcrows，rathersmallerthanourrook，keepupaconstantcawingintheseplantations；

thecuriouswood-swallows(Artami)，whichcloselyresembleswallowsintheirhabitsandflightbutdiffermuchinformandstructure，twitterfromthetree-tops；whilealyre-taileddrongo-shrike，withbrilliantblackplumageandmilk-whiteeyes，continuallydeceivesthenaturalistbythevarietyofitsunmelodiousnotes。