第4章

BRAMBANAM——NearthecentreofJava，betweenthenativecapitalsofDjoko-kertaandSurakerta，isthevillageofBrambanam，nearwhichareabundanceofruins，themostimportantbeingthetemplesofLoro-JongranandChandiSewa。AtLoro-Jongranthereweretwentyseparatebuildings，sixlargeandfourteensmalltemples。Theyarenowamassofruins，butthelargesttemplesaresupposedtohavebeenninetyfeethigh。Theywereallconstructedofsolidstone，everywheredecoratedwithcarvingsandbas-reliefs，andadornedwithnumbersofstatues，manyofwhichstillremainentire。AtChandiSewa，orthe"ThousandTemples，"aremanyfinecolossalfigures。CaptainBaker，whosurveyedtheseruins，saidhehadneverinhislifeseen"suchstupendousandfinishedspecimensofhumanlabour，andofthescienceandtasteofageslongsinceforgot，crowdedtogetherinsosmallacompassasinthisspot。"Theycoveraspaceofnearlysixhundredfeetsquare，andconsistofanouterrowofeighty-

foursmalltemples，asecondrowofseventy-six，athirdofsixty-four，afourthofforty-four，andthefifthforminganinnerparallelogramoftwenty-eight，inalltwohundredandninety-sixsmalltemples；disposedinfiveregularparallelograms。Inthecentreisalargecruciformtemplesurroundedbyloftyflightsofstepsrichlyornamentedwithsculpture，andcontainingmanyapartments。Thetropicalvegetationhasruinedmostofthesmallertemples，butsomeremaintolerablyperfect，fromwhichtheeffectofthewholemaybeimagined。

Abouthalfamileoffisanothertemple，calledChandiKaliBening，seventy-twofeetsquareandsixtyfeethigh，inveryfinepreservation，andcoveredwithsculpturesofHindumythologysurpassinganythatexistinIndia，otherruinsofpalaces，halls，andtemples，withabundanceofsculptureddeities，arefoundinthesameneighbourhood。

BOROBODO——Abouteightymileswestward，intheprovinceofKedu，isthegreattempleofBorobodo。Itisbuiltuponasmallhill，andconsistsofacentraldomeandsevenrangesofterracedwallscoveringtheslopeofthehillandformingopengallerieseachbelowtheother，andcommunicatingbystepsandgateways。Thecentraldomeisfiftyfeetindiameter；arounditisatriplecircleofseventy-twotowers，andthewholebuildingissixhundredandtwentyfeetsquare，andaboutonehundredfeethigh。

Intheterracewallsarenichescontainingcross-leggedfigureslargerthanlifetothenumberofaboutfourhundred，andbothsidesofalltheterracewallsarecoveredwithbas-reliefscrowdedwithfigures，andcarvedinhardstoneandwhichmustthereforeoccupyanextentofnearlythreemilesinlength！TheamountofhumanlabourandskillexpendedontheGreatPyramidofEgyptsinksintoinsignificancewhencomparedwiththatrequiredtocompletethissculpturedhill-templeintheinteriorofJava。

GUNONGPRAU——AboutfortymilessouthwestofSamarang，onamountaincalledGunongPrau，anextensiveplateauiscoveredwithruins。Toreachthesetemples，fourflightsofstonestepsweremadeupthemountainfromoppositedirections，eachflightconsistingofmorethanathousandsteps。Tracesofnearlyfourhundredtempleshavebeenfoundhere，andmany(perhapsall)weredecoratedwithrichanddelicatesculptures。ThewholecountrybetweenthisandBrambanam，adistanceofsixtymiles，aboundswithruins，sothatfinesculpturedimagesmaybeseenlyingintheditches，orbuiltintothewallsofenclosures。

IntheeasternpartofJava，atKediriandinMalang，thereareequallyabundanttracesofantiquity，butthebuildingsthemselveshavebeenmostlydestroyed。Sculpturedfigures，however，abound；andtheruinsofforts，palaces，baths，aqueducts，andtemples，canbeeverywheretraced。ItisaltogethercontrarytotheplanofthisbooktodescribewhatI

havenotmyselfseen；but，havingbeenledtomentionthem，I

feltboundtodosomethingtocallattentiontothesemarvellousworksofart。Oneisoverwhelmedbythecontemplationoftheseinnumerablesculptures，workedwithdelicacyandartisticfeelinginahard，intractable，trachyticrock，andallfoundinonetropicalisland。Whatcouldhavebeenthestateofsociety，whattheamountofpopulation，whatthemeansofsubsistencewhichrenderedsuchgiganticworkspossible，will，perhaps，everremainamystery；anditisawonderfulexampleofthepowerofreligiousideasinsociallife，thatintheverycountrywhere，fivehundredyearsago，thesegrandworkswerebeingyearlyexecuted，theinhabitantsnowonlybuildrudehousesofbambooandthatch，andlookupontheserelicsoftheirforefatherswithignorantamazement，astheundoubtedproductionsofgiantsorofdemons。ItismuchtoberegrettedthattheDutchGovernmentdoesnottakevigorousstepsforthepreservationoftheseruinsfromthedestroyingagencyoftropicalvegetation；andforthecollectionofthefinesculptureswhichareeverywherescatteredovertheland。

Wonosalemissituatedaboutathousandfeetabovethesea，butunfortunatelyitisatadistancefromtheforest，andissurroundedbycoffeeplantations，thicketsofbamboo，andcoarsegrasses。Itwastoofartowalkbackdailytotheforest，andinotherdirectionsIcouldfindnocollectinggroundforinsects。

Theplacewas，however，famousforpeacocks，andmyboysoonshotseveralofthesemagnificentbirds，whosefleshwefoundtobetender，white，anddelicate，andsimilartothatofaturkey。TheJavapeacockisadifferentspeciesfromthatofIndia，theneckbeingcoveredwithscale-likegreenfeathers，andthecrestofadifferentform；buttheeyedtrainisequallylargeandequallybeautiful。ItisasingularfactingeographicaldistributionthatthepeacockshouldnotbefoundinSumatraorBorneo，whilethesuperbArgus，Fire-backedandOcellatedpheasantsofthoseislandsareequallyunknowninJava。ExactlyparallelisthefactthatinCeylonandSouthernIndia，wherethepeacockabounds，therearenoneofthesplendidLophophoriandothergorgeouspheasantswhichinhabitNorthernIndia。Itwouldseemasifthepeacockcanadmitofnorivalsinitsdomain。Werethesebirdsrareintheirnativecountry，andunknownaliveinEurope，theywouldassuredlybeconsideredasthetrueprincesofthefeatheredtribes，andaltogetherunrivalledforstatelinessandbeauty。Asitis，Isupposescarcelyanyoneifaskedtofixuponthemostbeautifulbirdintheworldwouldnamethepeacock，anymorethanthePapuansavageortheBugistraderwouldfixuponthebirdofparadiseforthesamehonour。

ThreedaysaftermyarrivalatWonosalem，myfriendMr。Ballcametopaymeavisit。Hetoldmethattwoeveningsbefore，aboyhadbeenkilledandeatenbyatigerclosetoModjo-agong。Hewasridingonacartdrawnbybullocks，andwascominghomeaboutduskonthemainroad；andwhennothalfamilefromthevillageatigerspranguponhim，carriedhimoffintothejunglecloseby，anddevouredhim。Nextmorninghisremainswerediscovered，consistingonlyofafewmangledbones。TheWaidonohadgottogetheraboutsevenhundredmen，andwereinchaseoftheanimal，which，Iafterwardsheard，theyfoundandkilled。Theyonlyusespearswheninpursuitofatigerinthisway。Theysurroundalargetractofcountry，anddrawgraduallytogetheruntiltheanimalisenclosedinacompactringofarmedmen。Whenheseesthereisnoescapehegenerallymakesaspring，andisreceivedonadozenspears，andalmostinstantlystabbedtodeath。Theskinofananimalthuskilledis，ofcourse，worthless，andinthiscasetheskull，whichIhadbeggedMr。

Balltosecureforme，washackedtopiecestodividetheteeth，whicharewornascharms。

AfteraweekatWonosalem，Ireturnedtothefootofthemountain，toavillagenamedDjapannan，whichwassurroundedbyseveralpatchesofforest，andseemedaltogetherprettywellspitedtomypursuits。Thechiefofthevillagehadpreparedtwosmallbambooroomsononesideofhisowncourtyardtoaccommodateme，andseemedinclinedtoassistmeasmuchashecould。Theweatherwasexceedinglyhotanddry，norainhavingfallenforseveralmonths，andtherewas，inconsequence，agreatscarcityofinsects，andespeciallyofbeetles。Ithereforedevotedmyselfchieflytoobtainingagoodsetofthebirds，andsucceededinmakingatolerablecollection。Allthepeacockswehadhithertoshothadhadshortorimperfecttails，butInowobtainedtwomagnificentspecimensmorethansevenfeetlong，oneofwhichIpreservedentire，whileIkeptthetrainonlyattachedtothetailoftwoorthreeothers。Whenthisbirdisseenfeedingontheground，itappearswonderfulhowitcanriseintotheairwithsuchalongandcumbersometrainoffeathers。Itdoessohoweverwithgreatease，byrunningquicklyforashortdistance，andthenrisingobliquely；andwillflyovertreesofaconsiderableheight。Ialsoobtainedhereaspecimenoftheraregreenjungle-fowl(Gallusfurcatus)，whosebackandneckarebeautifullyscaledwithbronzyfeathers，andwhosesmooth-edgedovalcombisofavioletpurplecolour，changingtogreenatthebase。Itisalsoremarkableinpossessingasinglelargewattlebeneathitsthroat，brightlycolouredinthreepatchesofred，yellow，andblue。Thecommonjungle-cock(Gallusbankiva)wasalsoobtainedhere。Itisalmostexactlylikeacommongame-cock，butthevoiceisdifferent，beingmuchshorterandmoreabrupt；

henceitsnativenameisBekeko。Sixdifferentkindsofwoodpeckersandfourkingfisherswerefoundhere，thefinehornbill，Buceroslunatus，morethanfourfeetlong，andtheprettylittlelorikeet，Loriculuspusillus，scarcelymorethanasmanyinches。

Onemorning，asIwaspreparingandarrangingspecimens，Iwastoldtherewastobeatrial；andpresentlyfourorfivemencameinandsquatteddownonamatundertheaudience-shedinthecourt。Thechiefthencameinwithhisclerk，andsatdownoppositethem。Eachspokeinturn，tellinghisowntale，andthenIfoundthatthosewhofirstenteredweretheprisoner，accuser，policemen，andwitness，andthattheprisonerwasindicatedsolelybyhavingaloosepieceofcordtwilledaroundhiswrists，butnottied。Itwasacaseofrobbery，andaftertheevidencewasgiven，andafewquestionshadbeenaskedbythechief，theaccusedsaidafewwords，andthensentencewaspronounced，whichwasafine。Thepartiesthengotupandwalkedawaytogether，seemingquitefriendly；andthroughouttherewasnothinginthemannerofanyonepresentindicatingpassionorill-feeling——averygoodillustrationoftheMalayantypeofcharacter。

Inamonth\'scollectingatWonosaleniandDjapannanIaccumulatedninety-eightspeciesofbirds，butamostmiserablelotofinsects。IthendeterminedtoleaveEastJavaandtrythemoremoistandluxuriantdistrictsatthewesternextremityoftheisland。IreturnedtoSourabayabywater，inaroomyboatwhichbroughtmyself，servants，andbaggageatone-fifththeexpenseithadcostmetocometoModjo-kerto。Theriverhasbeenrenderednavigablebybeingcarefullybankedup，butwiththeusualeffectofrenderingtheadjacentcountryliableoccasionallytoseverefloods。Animmensetrafficpassesdownthisriver；andatalockwepassedthrough，amileofladenboatswerewaitingtwoorthreedeep，whichpassthroughintheirturnsixatatime。

AfewdaysafterwardsIwentbysteamertoBatavia，whereI

stayedaboutaweekatthechiefhotel，whileImadearrangementsforatripintotheinterior。Thebusinesspartofthecityisneartheharbour，butthehotelsandalltheresidencesoftheofficialsandEuropeanmerchantsareinasuburbtwomilesoff，laidoutinwidestreetsandsquaressoastocoveragreatextentofground。Thisisveryinconvenientforvisitors，astheonlypublicconveyancesarehandsometwo-horsecarriages，whoselowestchargeisfiveguilders(8s。4d。)forhalfaday，sothatanhour\'sbusinessinthemorningandavisitintheeveningcosts16s。8d。adayforcarriagehirealone。

BataviaagreesverywellwithMr。Money\'sgraphicaccountofit，exceptthathis"clearcanals"wereallmuddy，andhis"smoothgraveldrives"uptothehouseswereoneandallformedofcoarsepebbles，verypainfultowalkupon，andhardlyexplainedbythefactthatinBataviaeverybodydrives，asitcanhardlybesupposedthatpeopleneverwalkintheirgardens。TheH？teldesIndeswasverycomfortable，eachvisitorhavingasitting-roomandbedroomopeningonaverandah，wherehecantakehismorningcoffeeandafternoontea。Inthecentreofthequadrangleisabuildingcontaininganumberofmarblebathsalwaysreadyforuse；andthereisanexcellenttabled\'h？tebreakfastatten，anddinneratsix，forallwhichthereisamoderatechargeperday。

IwentbycoachtoBuitenzorg，fortymilesinlandandaboutathousandfeetabovethesea，celebratedforitsdeliciousclimateanditsBotanicalGardens。WiththelatterIwassomewhatdisappointed。Thewalkswereallofloosepebbles，makinganylengthenedwanderingsaboutthemverytiringandpainfulunderatropicalsun。ThegardensarenodoubtwonderfullyrichintropicalandespeciallyinMalayanplants，butthereisagreatabsenceofskillfullaying-out；therearenotenoughmentokeeptheplacethoroughlyinorder，andtheplantsthemselvesareseldomtobecomparedforluxurianceandbeautytothesamespeciesgrowninourhothouses。Thiscaneasilybeexplained。Theplantscanrarelybeplacedinnaturalorveryfavourableconditions。Theclimateiseithertoohotortoocool，toomoistortoodry，foralargeproportionofthem，andtheyseldomgettheexactquantityofshadeortherightqualityofsoiltosuitthem。Inourstovesthesevariedconditionscanbesuppliedtoeachindividualplantfarbetterthaninalargegarden，wherethefactthattheplantsaremostofthemgrowinginorneartheirnativecountryissupposedtopreclude，thenecessityofgivingthemmuchindividualattention。Still，however，thereismuchtoadmirehere。Thereareavenuesofstatelypalms，andclumpsofbamboosofperhapsfiftydifferentkinds；andanendlessvarietyoftropicalshrubsandtreeswithstrangeandbeautifulfoliage。AsachangefromtheexcessiveheatofBatavia，Buitenzorgisadelightfulabode。Itisjustelevatedenoughtohavedeliciouslycooleveningsandnights，butnotsomuchastorequireanychangeofclothing；andtoapersonlongresidentinthehotterclimateoftheplains，theairisalwaysfreshandpleasant，andadmitsofwalkingatalmostanyhouroftheday。Thevicinityismostpicturesqueandluxuriant，andthegreatvolcanoofGunungSalak，withitstruncatedandjaggedsummit，formsacharacteristicbackgroundtomanyofthelandscapes。Agreatmuderuptiontookplacein1699，sincewhichdatethemountainhasbeenentirelyinactive。

OnleavingBuitenzorg，Ihadcooliestocarrymybaggageandahorseformyself，bothtobechangedeverysixorsevenmiles。

Theroadrosegradually，andafterthefirststagethehillsclosedinalittleoneachside，formingabroadvalley；andthetemperaturewassocoolandagreeable，andthecountrysointeresting，thatIpreferredwalking。Nativevillagesimbeddedinfruittrees，andprettyvillasinhabitedbyplantersorretiredDutchofficials，gavethisdistrictaverypleasingandcivilizedaspect；butwhatmostattractedmyattentionwasthesystemofterrace-cultivation，whichishereuniversallyadopted，andwhichis，Ishouldthink，hardlyequalledintheworld。Theslopesofthemainvalley，andofitsbranches，wereeverywherecutinterracesuptoaconsiderableheight，andwhentheywoundroundtherecessesofthehillsproducedalltheeffectofmagnificentamphitheatres。Hundredsofsquaremilesofcountryarethusterraced，andconveyastrikingideaoftheindustryofthepeopleandtheantiquityoftheircivilization。Theseterracesareextendedyearbyyearasthepopulationincreases，bytheinhabitantsofeachvillageworkinginconcertunderthedirectionoftheirchiefs；anditisperhapsbythissystemofvillageculturealone，thatsuchextensiveterracingandirrigationhasbeenrenderedpossible。ItwasprobablyintroducedbytheBrahminsfromIndia，sinceinthoseMalaycountrieswherethereisnotraceofapreviousoccupationbyacivilizedpeople，theterracesystemisunknown。IfirstsawthismodeofcultivationinBaliandLombock，and，asIshallhavetodescribeitinsomedetailthere(seeChapterX。)，Ineedsaynomoreaboutitinthisplace，exceptthat，owingtothefineroutlinesandgreaterluxurianceofthecountryinWestJava，itproducestherethemoststrikingandpicturesqueeffect。ThelowerslopesofthemountainsinJavapossesssuchadelightfulclimateandluxuriantsoil；livingissocheapandlifeandpropertyaresosecure，thataconsiderablenumberofEuropeanswhohavebeenengagedinGovernmentservice，settlepermanentlyinthecountryinsteadofreturningtoEurope。Theyarescatteredeverywherethroughoutthemoreaccessiblepartsoftheisland，andtendgreatlytothegradualimprovementofthenativepopulation，andtothecontinuedpeaceandprosperityofthewholecountry。

TwentymilesbeyondBuitenzorgthepostroadpassesovertheMegamendongMountain，atanelevationofabout4，500feet。Thecountryisfinelymountainous，andthereismuchvirginforeststillleftuponthehills，togetherwithsomeoftheoldestcoffee-plantationsinJava，wheretheplantshaveattainedalmostthedimensionsofforesttrees。About500feetbelowthesummitlevelofthepassthereisaroad-keeper\'shut，halfofwhichI

hiredforafortnight，asthecountrylookedpromisingformakingcollections。IalmostimmediatelyfoundthattheproductionsofWestJavawereremarkablydifferentfromthoseoftheeasternpartoftheisland；andthatallthemoreremarkableandcharacteristicJavanesebirdsandinsectsweretobefoundhere。

Ontheveryfirstday，myhuntersobtainedformetheelegantyellowandgreentrogon(HarpactesReinwardti)，thegorgeouslittleminivetflycatcher(Pericrocotusminiatus)，whichlookslikeaflameoffireasitfluttersamongthebushes，andtherareandcuriousblackandcrimsonoriole(Analcipussanguinolentus)，allofthesespecieswhicharefoundonlyinJava，andevenseemtobeconfinedtoitswesternportion。

InaweekIobtainednolessthantwenty-fourspeciesofbirds，whichIhadnotfoundintheeastoftheisland，andinafortnightthisnumberincreasedtofortyspecies，almostallofwhicharepeculiartotheJavanesefauna。Largeandhandsomebutterflieswerealsotolerablyabundant。Indarkravines，andoccasionallyontheroadside，IcapturedthesuperbPapilioarjuna，whosewingsseempowderedwithgrainsofgoldengreen，condensedintobandsandmoon-shapedspots；whiletheelegantly-

formedPapiliocoonwassometimestobefoundflutteringslowlyalongtheshadypathways(seefigureatpage201)。Onedayaboybroughtmeabutterflybetweenhisfingers，perfectlyunhurt。Hehadcaughtitasitwassittingwithwingserect，suckinguptheliquidfromamuddyspotbytheroadside。Manyofthefinesttropicalbutterflieshavethishabit，andtheyaregenerallysointentupontheirmealthattheycanbeeasilybereachedandcaptured。ItprovedtobetherareandcuriousCharaxeskadenii，remarkableforhavingoneachhindwingtwocurvedtailslikeapairofcallipers。ItwastheonlyspecimenIeversaw，andisstilltheonlyrepresentativeofitskindinEnglishcollections。

IntheeastofJavaIhadsufferedfromtheintenseheatanddroughtofthedryseason，whichhadbeenveryinimicaltoinsectlife。HereIhadgotintotheotherextremeofdamp，wet，andcloudyweather，whichwasequallyunfavourable。DuringthemonthwhichIspentintheinteriorofWestJava，Ineverhadareallyhotfine，daythroughout。Itrainedalmosteveryafternoon，ordensemistscamedownfromthemountains，whichequallystoppedcollecting，andrendereditmostdifficulttodrymyspecimens，sothatIreallyhadnochanceofgettingafairsampleofJavaneseentomology。

ByfarthemostinterestingincidentinmyvisittoJavawasatriptothesummitofthePangerangoandGedehmountains；theformeranextinctvolcanicconeabout10，000feethigh，thelatteranactivecrateronalowerportionofthesamemountainrange。Tchipanas，aboutfourmilesovertheMegamendongPass，isatthefootofthemountain。AsmallcountryhousefortheGovernor-GeneralandabranchoftheBotanicGardensaresituatedhere，thekeeperofwhichaccommodatedmewithabedforanight。

Therearemanybeautifultreesandshrubsplantedhere，andlargequantitiesofEuropeanvegetablesaregrownfortheGovernor-

General\'stable。Bythesideofalittletorrentthatborderedthegarden，quantitiesoforchidswerecultivated，attachedtothetrunksoftrees，orsuspendedfromthebranches，forminganinterestingopenairorchid-house。AsIintendedtostaytwoorthreenightsonthemountain，Iengagedtwocooliestocarrymybaggage，andwithmytwohunterswestartedearlythenextmorning。

Thefirstmilewasoveropencountry，whichbroughtustotheforestthatcoversthewholemountainfromaheightofabout5，000feet。Thenextmileortwowasatolerablysteepascentthroughagrandvirginforest，thetreesbeingofgreatsize，andtheundergrowthconsistingoffineherbaceousplants，tree-ferns，andshrubbyvegetation。Iwasstruckbytheimmensenumberoffernsthatgrewbythesideoftheroad。Theirvarietyseemedendless，andIwascontinuallystoppingtoadmiresomenewandinterestingforms。IcouldnowwellunderstandwhatIhadbeentoldbythegardener，that300specieshadbeenfoundonthisonemountain。AlittlebeforenoonwereachedthesmallplateauofTjiburong，atthefootofthesteeperpartofthemountain，wherethereisaplank-housefortheaccommodationoftravellers。Closebyisapicturesquewaterfallandacuriouscavern，whichIhadnottimetoexplore。Continuingourascenttheroadbecamenarrow，ruggedandsteep，windingzigzagupthecone，whichiscoveredwithirregularmassesofrock，andovergrownwithadenseluxuriantbutlessloftyvegetation。Wepassedatorrentofwaterwhichisnotmuchlowerthantheboilingpoint，andhasamostsingularappearanceasitfoamsoveritsruggedbed，sendingupcloudsofsteam，andoftenconcealedbytheoverhangingherbageoffernsandlycopodia，whichherethrivewithmoreluxuriancethanelsewhere。

Atabout7，500feetwecametoanotherhutofopenbamboos，ataplacecalledKandangBadak，or"Rhinoceros-field，"whichweweregoingtomakeourtemporaryabode。Herewasasmallclearing，withabundanceoftree-fernsandsomeyoungplantationsofCinchona。Astherewasnowathickmistanddrizzlingrain，Ididnotattempttogoontothesummitthatevening，butmadetwovisitstoitduringmystay，aswellasonetotheactivecraterofGedeh。Thisisavastsemicircularchasm，boundedbyblackperpendicularwallsofrock，andsurroundedbymilesofruggedscoria-coveredslopes。Thecrateritselfisnotverydeep。Itexhibitspatchesofsulphurandvariously-colouredvolcanicproducts，andemitsfromseveralventscontinualstreamsofsmokeandvapour。TheextinctconeofPangerangowastomemoreinteresting。Thesummitisanirregularundulatingplainwithalowborderingridge，andonedeeplateralchasm。Unfortunately，therewasperpetualmistandraineitheraboveorbelowusallthetimeIwasonthemountain；sothatIneveroncesawtheplainbelow，orhadaglimpseofthemagnificentviewwhichinfineweatheristobeobtainedfromitssummit。NotwithstandingthisdrawbackIenjoyedtheexcursionexceedingly，foritwasthefirsttimeIhadbeenhighenoughonamountainneartheEquatortowatchthechangefromatropicaltoatemperateflora。IwillnowbrieflysketchthesechangesasIobservedtheminJava。

Onascendingthemountain，wefirstmeetwithtemperateformsofherbaceousplants，solowas3，000feet，wherestrawberriesandvioletsbegintogrow，buttheformeraretasteless，andthelatterhaveverysmallandpaleflowers。WeedycompositesalsobegintogiveaEuropeanaspecttothewaysideherbage。Itisbetween2，000and5，000feetthattheforestsandravinesexhibittheutmostdevelopmentoftropicalluxurianceandbeauty。TheabundanceofnobleTree-ferns，sometimesfiftyfeethigh，contributesgreatlytothegeneraleffect，sinceofalltheformsoftropicalvegetationtheyarecertainlythemoststrikingandbeautiful。Someofthedeepravineswhichhavebeenclearedoflargetimberarefullofthemfromtoptobottom；andwheretheroadcrossesoneofthesevalleys，theviewoftheirfeatherycrowns，invariedpositionsaboveandbelowtheeye，offersaspectacleofpicturesquebeautynevertobeforgotten。Thesplendidfoliageofthebroad-leavedMusceaeandZingiberaceae，withtheircuriousandbrilliantflowers；andtheelegantandvariedformsofplantsalliedtoBegoniaandMelastoma，continuallyattracttheattentioninthisregion。Fillinginthespacesbetweenthetreesandlargerplants，oneverytrunkandstumpandbranch，arehostsofOrchids，FernsandLycopods，whichwaveandhangandintertwineinever-varyingcomplexity。Atabout5，000feetIfirstsawhorsetails(Equisetum)，verylikeourownspecies。At6，000feet，raspberriesabound，andthencetothesummitofthemountaintherearethreespeciesofeatableRubus。

At7，000feetCypressesappear，andtheforesttreesbecomereducedinsize，andmorecoveredwithmossesandlichens。Fromthispointupwardtheserapidlyincrease，sothattheblocksofrockandscoriathatformthemountainslopearecompletelyhiddeninamossyvegetation。Atabout5，000feetEuropeanformsofplantsbecomeabundant。SeveralspeciesofHoneysuckle，St。

John\'s-wort，andGuelder-roseabound，andatabout9，000feetwefirstmeetwiththerareandbeautifulRoyalCowslip(Primulaimperialis)，whichissaidtobefoundnowhereelseintheworldbutonthissolitarymountainsummit。Ithasatall，stoutstem，sometimesmorethanthreefeethigh，therootleavesareeighteenincheslong，anditbearsseveralwhorlsofcowslip-likeflowers，insteadofaterminalclusteronly。Theforesttrees，gnarledanddwarfedtothedimensionsofbushes，reachuptotheveryrimoftheoldcrater，butdonotextendoverthehollowonitssummit。

Herewefindagooddealofopenground，withthicketsofshrubbyArtemisiasandGnaphaliums，likeoursouthernwoodandcudweed，butsixoreightfeethigh；whileButtercups，Violets，Whortleberries，Sow-thistles，Chickweed，whiteandyellowCruciferaePlantain，andannualgrasseseverywhereabound。Wheretherearebushesandshrubs，theSt。John\'s-wortandHoneysucklegrowabundantly，whiletheImperialCowsliponlyexhibitsitselegantblossomsunderthedampshadeofthethickets。

Mr。Motley，whovisitedthemountaininthedryseason，andpaidmuchattentiontobotany，givesthefollowinglistofgeneraofEuropeanplantsfoundonornearthesummit：TwospeciesofViolet，threeofRanunculus，threeofImpatiens，eightortenofRubus，andspeciesofPrimula，Hypericum，Swertia，Convallaria(LilyoftheValley)，Vaccinium(Cranberry)，Rhododendron，Gnaphalium，Polygonum，Digitalis(Foxglove)，Lonicera(Honey-

suckle)，Plantago(Rib-grass)，Artemisia(Wormwood)，Lobelia，Oxalis(Wood-sorrel)，Quercus(Oak)，andTaxus(Yew)。Afewofthesmallerplants(Plantagomajorandlanceolata，Sonchusoleraceus，andArtemisiavulgaris)areidenticalwithEuropeanspecies。

ThefactofavegetationsocloselyalliedtothatofEuropeoccurringonisolatedmountainpeaks，inanislandsouthoftheEquator，whileallthelowlandsforthousandsofmilesaroundareoccupiedbyafloraofatotallydifferentcharacter，isveryextraordinary；andhasonlyrecentlyreceivedanintelligibleexplanation。ThePeakofTeneriffe，whichrisestoagreaterheightandismuchnearertoEurope，containsnosuchAlpineflora；neitherdothemountainsofBourbonandMauritius。ThecaseofthevolcanicpeaksofJavaisthereforesomewhatexceptional，butthereareseveralanalogous，ifnotexactlyparallelcases，thatwillenableusbettertounderstandinwhatwaythephenomenamaypossiblyhavebeenbroughtabout。

ThehigherpeaksoftheAlps，andevenofthePyrenees，containanumberofplantsabsolutelyidenticalwiththoseofLapland，butnowherefoundintheinterveningplains。OnthesummitoftheWhiteMountains，intheUnitedStates，everyplantisidenticalwithspeciesgrowinginLabrador。Inthesecasesallordinarymeansoftransportfail。Mostoftheplantshaveheavyseeds，whichcouldnotpossiblybecarriedsuchimmensedistancesbythewind；andtheagencyofbirdsinsoeffectuallystockingtheseAlpineheightsisequallyoutofthequestion。Thedifficultywassogreat，thatsomenaturalistsweredriventobelievethatthesespecieswereallseparatelycreatedtwiceoveronthesedistantpeaks。Thedeterminationofarecentglacialepoch，however，soonofferedamuchmoresatisfactorysolution，andonethatisnowuniversallyacceptedbymenofscience。Atthisperiod，whenthemountainsofWaleswerefullofglaciers，andthemountainouspartsofCentralEurope，andmuchofAmericanorthofthegreatlakes，werecoveredwithsnowandice，andhadaclimateresemblingthatofLabradorandGreenlandatthepresentday，anArcticfloracoveredalltheseregions。Asthisepochofcoldpassedaway，andthesnowymantleofthecountry，withtheglaciersthatdescendedfromeverymountainsummit，recededuptheirslopesandtowardsthenorthpole，theplantsrecededalso，alwaysclingingasnowtothemarginsoftheperpetualsnowline。

ThusitisthatthesamespeciesarenowfoundonthesummitsofthemountainsoftemperateEuropeandAmerica，andinthebarrennorth-polarregions。

Butthereisanothersetoffacts，whichhelpusonanothersteptowardsthecaseoftheJavanesemountainflora。OnthehigherslopesoftheHimalayas，onthetopsofthemountainsofCentralIndiaandofAbyssinia，anumberofplantsoccurwhich，thoughnotidenticalwiththoseofEuropeanmountains，belongtothesamegenera，andaresaidbybotaniststorepresentthem；andmostofthesecouldnotexistinthewarminterveningplains。Mr。

Darwinbelievesthatthisclassoffactscanbeexplainedinthesameway；for，duringthegreatestseverityoftheglacialepoch，temperateformsofplantswillhaveextendedtotheconfinesofthetropics，andonitsdeparture，willhaveretreatedupthesesouthernmountains，aswellasnorthwardtotheplainsandhillsofEurope。Butinthiscase，thetimeelapsed，andthegreatchangeofconditions，haveallowedmanyoftheseplantstobecomesomodifiedthatwenowconsiderthemtobedistinctspecies。A

varietyofotherfactsofasimilarnaturehaveledhimtobelievethatthedepressionoftemperaturewasatonetimesufficienttoallowafewnorth-temperateplantstocrosstheEquator(bythemostelevatedroutes)andtoreachtheAntarcticregions，wheretheyarenowfound。TheevidenceonwhichthisbeliefrestswillbefoundinthelatterpartofChapterII。ofthe"OriginofSpecies"；and，acceptingitforthepresentasanhypothesis，itenablesustoaccountforthepresenceofafloraofEuropeantypeonthevolcanoesofJava。

Itwill，however，naturallybeobjectedthatthereisawideexpanseofseabetweenJavaandthecontinent，whichwouldhaveeffectuallypreventedtheimmigrationoftemperatefortesofplantsduringtheglacialepoch。Thiswouldundoubtedlybeafatalobjection，weretherenotabundantevidencetoshowthatJavahasbeenformerlyconnectedwithAsia，andthattheunionmusthaveoccurredatabouttheepochrequired。Themoststrikingproofofsuchajunctionis，thatthegreatMammaliaofJava，therhinoceros，thetiger，andtheBantengorwildox，occuralsoinSiamandBurmah，andthesewouldcertainlynothavebeenintroducedbyman。TheJavanesepeacockandseveralotherbirdsarealsocommontothesetwocountries；but，inthemajorityofcases，thespeciesaredistinct，thoughcloselyallied，indicatingthataconsiderabletime(requiredforsuchmodification)haselapsedsincetheseparation，whileithasnotbeensolongastocauseanentirechange。NowthisexactlycorrespondswiththetimeweshouldrequiresincethetemperateformsofplantsenteredJava。Thesearenowalmostdistinctspecies，butthechangedconditionsunderwhichtheyarenowforcedtoexist，andtheprobabilityofsomeofthemhavingsincediedoutonthecontinentofIndia，sufficientlyaccountsfortheJavanesespeciesbeingdifferent。

Inmymorespecialpursuits，Ihadverylittlesuccessuponthemountain——owing，perhaps，totheexcessivelyunpropitiousweatherandtheshortnessofmystay。Atfrom7，000to8，000feetelevation，IobtainedoneofalmostlovelyofthesmallFruitpigeons(Ptilonopusroseicollis)，whoseentireheadandneckareofanexquisiterosypinkcolour，contrastingfinelywithitsotherwiseblueplumage；andontheverysummit，feedingonthegroundamongthestrawberriesthathavebeenplantedthere，I

obtainedadull-colouredthrush，withtheformandhabitsofastarling(Turdusfumidus)。Insectswerealmostentirelyabsent，owingnodoubttotheextremedampness，andIdidnotgetasinglebutterflythewholetrip；yetIfeelsurethat，duringthedryseason，aweek\'sresidenceonthismountainwouldwellrepaythecollectorineverydepartmentofnaturalhistory。

AftermyreturntoToego，Iendeavouredtofindanotherlocalitytocollectin，andremovedtoacoffee-plantationsomemilestothenorth，andtriedinsuccessionhigherandlowerstationsonthemountain；but，IneversucceededinobtaininginsectsinanyabundanceandbirdswerefarlessplentifulthanontheMegamendongMountan。Theweathernowbecamemorerainythanever，andasthewetseasonseemedtohavesetininearnest，I

returnedtoBatavia，packedupandsentoffmycollections，andleftbysteameronNovember1stforBancaandSumatra。

CHAPTERVIII。

SUMATRA。

(NOVEMBER1861toJANUARY1862。)

ThemailsteamerfromBataviatoSingaporetookmetoMuntok(orasonEnglishmaps，"Minto")，thechieftownandportofBanca。

HereIstayedadayortwo，untilIcouldobtainaboattotakemeacrossthestraits，andalltherivertoPalembang。Afewwalksintothecountryshowedmethatitwasveryhilly，andfullofgraniticandlateriterocks，withadryandstuntedforestvegetation；andIcouldfindveryfewinsects。Agood-sizedopensailing-boattookmeacrosstothemouthofthePalembangriverwhere，atafishingvillage，arowing-boatwashiredtotakemeuptoPalembang——adistanceofnearlyahundredmilesbywater。

Exceptwhenthewindwasstrongandfavourablewecouldonlyproceedwiththetide，andthebanksoftheriverweregenerallyfloodedNipa-swamps，sothatthehourswewereobligedtolayatanchorpassedveryheavily。ReachingPalembangonthe8thofNovember，IwaslodgedbytheDoctor，towhomIhadbroughtaletterofintroduction，andendeavouredtoascertainwhereI

couldfindagoodlocalityforcollecting。EveryoneassuredmethatIshouldhavetogoaverylongwayfurthertofindanydryforest，foratthisseasonthewholecountryformanymilesinlandwasflooded。IthereforehadtostayaweekatPalembangbeforeIcoulddeterminemyfuturemovements。

Thecityisalargeone，extendingforthreeorfourmilesalongafinecurveoftheriver，whichisaswideastheThamesatGreenwich。Thestreamis，however，muchnarrowedbythehouseswhichprojectintoituponpiles，andwithinthese，again，thereisarowofhousesbuiltupongreatbamboorafts，whicharemooredbyrattancablestotheshoreortopiles，andriseandfallwiththetide。

Thewholeriverfrontonbothsidesischieflyformedofsuchhouses，andtheyaremostlyshopsopentothewater，andonlyraisedafootaboveit，sothatbytakingasmallboatitiseasytogotomarketandpurchaseanythingthatistobehadinPalembang。ThenativesaretrueMalays，neverbuildingahouseondrylandiftheycanfindwatertosetitin，andnevergoinganywhereonfootiftheycanreachtheplaceinaheat。A

considerableportionofthepopulationareChineseandArabs，whocarryonallthetrade；whiletheonlyEuropeansarethecivilandmilitaryofficialsoftheDutchGovernment。Thetownissituatedattheheadofthedeltaoftheriver，andbetweenitandtheseathereisverylittlegroundelevatedabovehighwatermark；whileformanymilesfurtherinland，thebanksofthemainstreamanditsnumeroustributariesareswampy，andinthewetseasonhoodedforaconsiderabledistance。Palembangisbuiltonapatchofelevatedground，afewmilesinextent，onthenorthbankoftheriver。Ataspotaboutthreemilesfromthetownthisturnsintoalittlehill，thetopofwhichisheldsacredbythenatives，shadedbysomefinetrees，andinhabitedbyacolonyofsquirrelswhichhavebecomehalf-tame。Onholdingoutafewcrumbsofbreadoranyfruit，theycomerunningdownthetrunk，takethemorseloutofyourfingers，anddartawayinstantly。

Theirtailsarecarriederect，andthehair，whichisringedwithgrey，yellow，andbrown，radiatesuniformlyaroundthem，andlooksexceedinglypretty。Theyhavesomewhatofthemotionsofmice，comingonwithlittlestarts，andgazingintentlywiththeirlargeblackeyesbeforeventuringtoadvancefurther。ThemannerinwhichMalaysoftenobtaintheconfidenceofwildanimalsisaverypleasingtraitintheircharacter，andisdueinsomedegreetothequietdeliberationoftheirmanners，andtheirloveofreposeratherthanofaction。Theyoungareobedienttothewishesoftheirelders，andseemtofeelnoneofthatpropensitytomischiefwhichEuropeanboysexhibit。HowlongwouldtamesquirrelscontinuetoinhabittreesinthevicinityofanEnglishvillage，evenifclosetothechurch？Theywouldsoonbepeltedanddrivenaway，orsnaredandconfinedinawhirlingcage。IhaveneverheardoftheseprettyanimalsbeingtamedinthiswayinEngland，butIshouldthinkitmightbeeasilydoneinanygentleman\'spark，andtheywouldcertainlybeaspleasingandattractiveastheywouldbeuncommon。

Aftermanyinquiries，Ifoundthataday\'sjourneybywaterabovePalembangtherecommencedamilitaryroadwhichextendeduptothemountainsandevenacrosstoBencoolen，andIdeterminedtotakethisrouteandtravelonuntilIfoundsometolerablecollectingground。BythismeansIshouldsecuredrylandandagoodroad，andavoidtherivers，whichatthisseasonareverytedioustoascendowingtothepowerfulcurrents，andveryunproductivetothecollectorowingtomostofthelandsintheirvicinitybeingunderwater。LeavingearlyinthemorningwedidnotreachLorok，thevillagewheretheroadbegins，untillateatnight。Istayedthereafewdays，butfoundthatmostallthegroundinthevicinitynotunderwaterwascultivated，andthattheonlyforestwasinswampswhichwerenowinaccessible。TheonlybirdnewtomewhichIobtainedatLorokwasthefinelong-

tailedparroquet(Palaeornislongicauda)。Thepeoplehereassuredmethatthecountrywasjustthesameasthisforaverylongway——morethanaweek\'sjourney，andtheyseemedhardlytohaveanyconceptionofanelevatedforest-cladcountry，sothatI

begantothinkitwouldbeuselessgoingon，asthetimeatmydisposalwastooshorttomakeitworthmywhiletospendmuchmoreofitinmovingabout。Atlength，however，Ifoundamanwhoknewthecountry，andwasmoreintelligent；andheatoncetoldmethatifIwantedforestImustgotothedistrictofRembang，whichIfoundoninquirywasabouttwenty-fiveorthirtymilesoff。

Theroadisdividedintoregularstagesoftenortwelvemileseach，and，withoutsendingoninadvancetohavecooliesready，onlythisdistancecanbetravelledinaday。Ateachstationtherearehousesfortheaccommodationofpassengers，withcooking-houseandstables，andsixoreightmenalwaysonguard。

Thereisanestablishedsystemforcooliesatfixedrates，theinhabitantsofthesurroundingvillagesalltakingtheirturntobesubjecttocoolieservice，aswellasthatofguardsatthestationforfivedaysatatime。Thisarrangementmakestravellingveryeasy，andwasagreatconvenienceforme。Ihadapleasantwalkoftenortwelvemilesinthemorning，andtherestofthedaycouldstrollaboutandexplorethevillageandneighbourhood，havingahousereadytooccupywithoutanyformalitieswhatever。InthreedaysIreachedMoera-dua，thefirstvillageinRembang，andfindingthecountrydryandundulating，withagoodsprinklingofforest，Ideterminedtoremainashorttimeandtrytheneighbourhood。Justoppositethestationwasasmallbutdeepriver，andagoodbathing-place；andbeyondthevillagewasafinepatchofforest，throughwhichtheroadpassed，overshadowedbymagnificenttrees，whichpartlytemptedmetostay；butafterafortnightIcouldfindnogoodplaceforinsects，andveryfewbirdsdifferentfromthecommonspeciesofMalacca。IthereforemovedonanotherstagetoLoboRaman，wheretheguard-houseissituatedquitebyitselfintheforest，nearlyamilefromeachofthreevillages。Thiswasveryagreeabletome，asIcouldmoveaboutwithouthavingeverymotionwatchedbycrowdsofmen，womenandchildren，andIhadalsoamuchgreatervarietyofwalkstoeachofthevillagesandtheplantationsaroundthem。

ThevillagesoftheSumatranMalaysaresomewhatpeculiarandverypicturesque。Aspaceofsomeacresissurroundedwithahighfence，andoverthisareathehousesarethicklystrewnwithouttheleastattemptatregularity。Tallcocoa-nuttreesgrowabundantlybetweenthem，andthegroundisbareandsmoothwiththetramplingofmanyfeet。Thehousesareraisedaboutsixfeetonposts，thebestbeingentirelybuiltofplanks，othersofbamboo。Theformerarealwaysmoreorlessornamentedwithcarvingandhavehigh-pitchedroofsandoverhangingeaves。Thegableendsandallthechiefpostsandbeamsaresometimescoveredwithexceedinglytastefulcarvedwork，andthisisstillmorethecaseinthedistrictofMenangkabo，furtherwest。Thefloorismadeofsplitbamboo，andisrathershaky，andthereisnosignofanythingweshouldcallfurniture。Therearenobenchesorchairsorstools，butmerelythelevelfloorcoveredwithmats，onwhichtheinmatessitorlie。Theaspectofthevillageitselfisveryneat，thegroundbeingoftensweptbeforethechiefhouses；butverybadodoursabound，owingtotherebeingundereveryhouseastinkingmud-hole，formedbyallwasteliquidsandrefusematter，poureddownthroughthefloorabove。

InmostotherthingsMalaysaretolerablyclean——insomescrupulouslyso；andthispeculiarandnastycustom，whichisalmostuniversal，arises，Ihavelittledoubt，fromtheirhavingbeenoriginallyamaritimeandwater-lovingpeople，whobuilttheirhousesonpostsinthewater，andonlymigratedgraduallyinland，firstuptheriversandstreams，andthenintothedryinterior。Habitswhichwereatoncesoconvenientandsocleanly，andwhichhadbeensolongpractisedastobecomeaportionofthedomesticlifeofthenation，wereofcoursecontinuedwhenthefirstsettlersbuilttheirhousesinland；andwithoutaregularsystemofdrainage，thearrangementofthevillagesissuchthatanyothersystemwouldbeveryinconvenient。

InalltheseSumatranvillagesIfoundconsiderabledifficultyingettinganythingtoeat。Itwasnottheseasonforvegetables，andwhen，aftermuchtrouble，Imanagedtoprocuresomeyamsofacuriousvariety，Ifoundthemhardandscarcelyeatable。Fowlswereveryscarce；andfruitwasreducedtooneofthepoorestkindsofbanana。Thenatives(duringthewetseasonatleast)

liveexclusivelyonrice，asthepoorerIrishdoonpotatoes。A

potofricecookedverydryandeatenwithsaltandredpeppers，twiceaday，formstheirentirefoodduringalargepartoftheyear。Thisisnosignofpoverty，butissimplycustom；fortheirwivesandchildrenareloadedwithsilverarmletsfromwristtoelbow，andcarrydozensofsilvercoinsstrungroundtheirnecksorsuspendedfromtheirears。

AsIhadmovedawayfromPalembang，IhadfoundtheMalayspokenbythecommonpeoplelessandlesspure，untilatlengthitbecamequiteunintelligible，althoughthecontinualrecurrenceofmanywell-knownwordsassuredmeitwasaformofMalay，andenabledmetoguessatthemainsubjectofconversation。Thisdistricthadaverybadreputationafewyearsago，andtravellerswerefrequentlyrobbedandmurdered。Fightsbetweenvillageandvillagewerealsooffrequentoccurrence，andmanyliveswerelost，owingtodisputesaboutboundariesorintrigueswithwomen。

Now，however，sincethecountryhasbeendividedintodistrictsunder"Controlleurs，"whovisiteveryvillageinturntohearcomplaintsandsettledisputes，suchthingsareheardofnomore。

ThisisoneofthenumerousexamplesIhavemetwithofthegoodeffectsoftheDutchGovernment。Itexercisesastrictsurveillanceoveritsmostdistantpossessions，establishesaformofgovernmentwelladaptedtothecharacterofthepeople，reformsabuses，punishescrimes，andmakesitselfeverywhererespectedbythenativepopulation。

LoboRamanisacentralpointoftheeastendofSumatra，beingaboutahundredandtwentymilesfromtheseatotheeast，north，andwest。Thesurfaceisundulating，withnomountainsorevenhills，andthereisnorock，thesoilbeinggenerallyaredpliableclay。Numbersofsmallstreamsandriversintersectthecountry，anditisprettyequallydividedbetweenopenclearingsandpatchesofforest，bothvirginandsecondgrowth，withabundanceoffruittrees；andthereisnolackofpathstogetaboutinanydirection。Altogetheritistheverycountrythatwouldpromisemostforanaturalist，andIfeelsurethatatamorefavourabletimeofyearitwouldproveexceedinglyrich；butitwasnowtherainyseason，when，intheverybestoflocalities，insectsarealwaysscarce，andtherebeingnofruitonthetrees，therewasalsoascarcityofbirds。Duringamonth\'scollecting，Iaddedonlythreeorfournewspeciestomylistofbirds，althoughIobtainedveryfinespecimensofmanywhichwererareandinteresting。InbutterfliesIwasrathermoresuccessful，obtainingseveralfinespeciesquitenewtome，andaconsiderablenumberofveryrareandbeautifulinsects。Iwillgiveheresomeaccountoftwospeciesofbutterflies，which，thoughverycommonincollections，presentuswithpeculiaritiesofthehighestinterest。

ThefirstisthehandsomePapiliomemnon，asplendidbutterflyofadeepblackcolour，dottedoverwithlinesandgroupsofscalesofaclearashyblue。Itswingsarefiveinchesinexpanse，andthehindwingsarerounded，withscallopededges。Thisappliestothemales；butthefemalesareverydifferent，andvarysomuchthattheywereoncesupposedtoformseveraldistinctspecies。

Theymaybedividedintotwogroups——thosewhichresemblethemaleinshape，and，thosewhichdifferentirelyfromhimintheoutlineofthewings。Thefirstvarymuchincolour，beingoftennearlywhitewithduskyyellowandredmarkings，butsuchdifferencesoftenoccurinbutterflies。Thesecondgrouparemuchmoreextraordinary，andwouldneverbesupposedtobethesameinsect，sincethehindwingsarelengthenedoutintolargespoon-

shapedtails，norudimentofwhichisevertobeperceivedinthemalesorintheordinaryformoffemales。Thesetailedfemalesareneverofthedarkandblue-glossedtintswhichprevailinthemaleandoftenoccurinthefemalesofthesameform，butareinvariablyornamentedwithstripesandpatchesofwhiteorbuff，occupyingthelargerpartofthesurfaceofthehindwings。Thispeculiarityofcolouringledmetodiscoverthatthisextraordinaryfemalecloselyresembles(whenflying)anotherbutterflyofthesamegenusbutofadifferentgroup(Papilioco？n)，andthatwehavehereacaseofmimicrysimilartothosesowellillustratedandexplainedbyMr。Bates。[Trans。Linn。

Soc。vol。xviii。p。495；"NaturalistontheAmazons，"vol。i。p。

290。]

Thattheresemblanceisnotaccidentalissufficientlyprovedbythefact，thatintheNorthofIndia，wherePapilioco？nisreplacedbyallalliedforms，(PapilioDoubledayi)havingredspotsinplaceofyellow，aclosely-alliedspeciesorvarietyofPapiliomemnon(P。androgens)hasthetailedfemalealsoredspotted。TheuseandreasonofthisresemblanceappearstobethatthebutterfliesimitatedbelongtoasectionofthegenusPapiliowhichfromsomecauseorotherarenotattackedbybirds，andbysocloselyresemblingtheseinformandcolourthefemaleofMemnonanditsally，alsoescapepersecution。Twootherspeciesofthissamesection(PapilioantiphusandPapiliopolyphontes)aresocloselyimitatedbytwofemaleformsofPapiliotbeseus(whichcomesinthesamesectionwithMemnon)，thattheycompletelydeceivedtheDutchentomologistDeHaan，andheaccordinglyclassedthemasthesamespecies！

Butthemostcuriousfactconnectedwiththesedistinctformsisthattheyareboththeoffspringofeitherform。AsinglebroodoflarvawerebredinJavabyaDutchentomologist，andproducedmalesaswellastailedandtaillessfemales，andthereiseveryreasontobelievethatthisisalwaysthecase，andthatformsintermediateincharacterneveroccur。Toillustratethesephenomena，letussupposearoamingEnglishmaninsomeremoteislandtohavetwowives——oneablack-haired/red-skinnedIndian，theotherawoolly-headed/sooty-skinnednegress；andthatinsteadofthechildrenbeingmulattoesofbrownorduskytints，minglingthecharacteristicsofeachparentinvaryingdegrees，alltheboysshouldbeasfair-skinnedandblue-eyedastheirfather，whilethegirlsshouldaltogetherresembletheirmothers。Thiswouldbethoughtstrangeenough，butthecaseofthesebutterfliesisyetmoreextraordinary，foreachmotheriscapablenotonlyofproducingmaleoffspringlikethefather，andfemalelikeherself，butalsootherfemaleslikeherfellowwife，andaltogetherdifferingfromherself！

TheotherspeciestowhichIhavetodirectattentionistheKallimaparalekta，abutterflyofthesamefamilygroupasourPurpleEmperor，andofaboutthesamesizeorlarger。Itsuppersurfaceisofarichpurple，variouslytingedwithashcolour，andacrosstheforewingsthereisabroadbarofdeeporange，sothatwhenonthewingitisveryconspicuous。Thisspecieswasnotuncommonindrywoodsandthickets，andIoftenendeavouredtocaptureitwithoutsuccess，forafterflyingashortdistanceitwouldenterabushamongdryordeadleaves，andhowevercarefullyIcreptuptothespotIcouldneverdiscoverituntilitwouldsuddenlystartoutagainandthendisappearinasimilarplace。IfatlengthIwasfortunateenoughtoseetheexactspotwherethebutterflysettled，andthoughIlostsightofitforsometime，Iwoulddiscoverthatitwasclosebeforemyeyes，butthatinitspositionofreposeitsocloselyresembledadeadleafattachedtoatwigasalmostcertainlytodeceivetheeyeevenwhengazingfulluponit。Icapturedseveralspecimensonthewing，andwasablefullytounderstandthewayinwhichthiswonderfulresemblanceisproduced。

Theendoftheupperwingsterminatesinafinepoint，justastheleavesofmanytropicalshrubsandtreesarepointed，whilethelowerwingsaresomewhatmoreobtuse，andarelengthenedoutintoashortthicktail。Betweenthesetwopointsthererunsadarkcurvedlineexactlyrepresentingthemidribofaleaf，andfromthisradiateoneachsideafewobliquemarkswhichwellimitatethelateralveins。Thesemarksaremoreclearlyseenontheouterportionofthebaseofthewings，andontheinnersidetowardsthemiddleandapex，andtheyareproducedbystriaeandmarkingswhichareverycommoninalliedspecies，butwhichareheremodifiedandstrengthenedsoastoimitatemoreexactlythevenationofaleaf。Thetintoftheundersurfacevariesmuch，butitisalwayssomeashybrownorreddishcolour，whichmatcheswiththoseofdeadleaves。Thehabitofthespeciesisalwaystorestonatwigandamongdeadordryleaves，andinthispositionwiththewingscloselypressedtogether，theiroutlineisexactlythatofamoderately-sizedleaf，slightlycurvedorshrivelled。

Thetailofthehindwingsformsaperfectstalk，andtouchesthestickwhiletheinsectissupportedbythemiddlepairoflegs，whicharenotnoticedamongthetwigsandfibresthatsurroundit。Theheadandantennaearedrawnbackbetweenthewingssoastobequiteconcealed，andthereisalittlenotchhollowedoutattheverybaseofthewings，whichallowstheheadtoberetractedsufficiently。Allthesevarieddetailscombinetoproduceadisguisethatissocompleteandmarvellousastoastonisheveryonewhoobservesit；andthehabitsoftheinsectsaresuchastoutilizeallthesepeculiarities，andrenderthemavailableinsuchamannerastoremovealldoubtofthepurposeofthissingularcaseofmimicry，whichisundoubtedlyaprotectiontotheinsect。

Itsstrongandswiftflightissufficienttosaveitfromitsenemieswhenonthewing，butifitwereequallyconspicuouswhenatrestitcouldnotlongescapeextinction，owingtotheattacksoftheinsectivorousbirdsandreptilesthataboundinthetropicalforests。

Averycloselyalliedspecies，Kallimainachis，inhabitsIndia，whereitisverycommon，andspecimensaresentineverycollectionfromtheHimalayas。Onexamininganumberofthese，itwillbeseenthatnotwoarealike，butallthevariationscorrespondtothoseofdeadleaves。Everytintofyellow，ash，brown，andredisfoundhere，andinmanyspecimensthereoccurpatchesandspotsformedofsmallblackdots，socloselyresemblingthewayinwhichminutefungigrowonleavesthatitisalmostimpossibleatfirstnottobelievethatfungihavegownonthebutterfliesthemselves！

Ifsuchanextraordinaryadaptationasthisstoodalone，itwouldbeverydifficulttoofferanyexplanationofit；butalthoughitisperhapsthemostperfectcaseofprotectiveimitationknown，therearehundredsofsimilarresemblancesinnature，andfromtheseitispossibletodeduceageneraltheoryofthemannerinwhichtheyhavebeenslowlybroughtabout。Theprincipleofvariationandthatof"naturalselection，"orsurvivalofthefittest，aselaboratedbyMr。Darwininhiscelebrated"OriginofSpecies，"offersthefoundationforsuchatheory；andIhavemyselfendeavouredtoapplyittoallthechiefcasesofimitationinanarticlepublishedinthe"WestminsterReview"for1867，entitled，"Mimicry，andotherProtectiveResemblancesAmongAnimals，"towhichanyreaderisreferredwhowishestoknowmoreaboutthissubject。

InSumatra，monkeysareveryabundant，andatLoboKamantheyusedtofrequentthetreeswhichoverhangtheguard-house，andgivemeafineopportunityofobservingtheirgambols。TwospeciesofSemnopithecusweremostplentiful——monkeysofaslenderform，withverylongtails。Notbeingmuchshotattheyareratherbold，andremainquiteunconcernedwhennativesalonearepresent；butwhenIcameouttolookatthem，theywouldstareforaminuteortwoandthenmakeoff。Theytaketremendousleapsfromthebranchesofonetreetothoseatanotheralittlelower，anditisveryamusingwhenaonestrongleadertakesaboldjump，toseetheothersfollowingwithmoreorlesstrepidation；anditoftenhappensthatoneortwoofthelastseemquiteunabletomakeuptheirmindstoleapuntiltherestaredisappearing，when，asifindesperationatbeingleftalone，theythrowthemselvesfranticallyintotheair，andoftengocrashingthroughtheslenderbranchesandfalltotheground。

Averycuriousape，theSiamang，wasalsoratherabundant，butitismuchlessboldthanthemonkeys，keepingtothevirginforestsandavoidingvillages。Thisspeciesisalliedtothelittlelong-

armedapesofthegenusHylobates，butisconsiderablylarger，anddiffersfromthembyhavingthetwofirstfingersofthefeetunitedtogether，nearlytotheendmasdoesitsLatinnative，Siamangasyndactyla。ItmovesmuchmoreslowlythantheactiveHylobates，keepinglowerdownintrees，andnotindulginginsuchtremendousleaps；butitisstillveryactive，andbymeansofitsimmenselongarms，fivefeetsixinchesacrossinanadultaboutthreefeethigh，canswingitselfalongamongthetreesatagreatrate。Ipurchasedasmallone，whichhadbeencaughtbythenativesandtiedupsotightlyastohurtit。Itwasrathersavageatfirst，andtriedtobite；butwhenwehadreleaseditandgivenittwopolesundertheverandahtohangupon，securingitbyashortcord，runningalongthepolewitharingsothatitcouldmoveeasily，itbecamemorecontented，andwouldswingitselfaboutwithgreatrapidity。Itatealmostanykindoffruitandrice，andIwasinhopestohavebroughtittoEngland，butitdiedjustbeforeIstarted。Ittookadisliketomeatfirst，whichItriedtogetoverbyfeedingitconstantlymyself。

Oneday，however，itbitmesosharplywhilegivingitfood，thatIlostpatienceandgaveitratheraseverebeating，whichI

regrettedafterwards，asfromthattimeitdislikedmemorethanever。ItwouldallowmyMalayboystoplaywithit，andforhourstogetherwouldswingbyitsarmsfrompoletopoleandontotheraftersoftheverandah，withsomucheaseandrapidity，thatitwasaconstantsourceofamusementtous。WhenIreturnedtoSingaporeitattractedgreatattention，asnoonehadseenaSiamangalivebefore，althoughitisnotuncommoninsomepartsoftheMalaypeninsula。

AstheOrangutanisknowntoinhabitSumatra，andwasinfactfirstdiscoveredthere，Imademanyinquiriesaboutit；butnoneofthenativeshadeverheardofsuchananimal，norcouldIfindanyoftheDutchofficialswhoknewanythingaboutit。Wemayconclude，therefore，thatitdoesnotinhabitthegreatforestplainsintheeastofSumatrawhereonewouldnaturallyexpecttofindit，butisprobablyconfinedtoalimitedregioninthenorthwestpartoftheislandentirelyinthehandsofnativerulers。TheothergreatMammaliaofSumatra，theelephantandtherhinoceros，aremorewidelydistributed；buttheformerismuchmorescarcethanitwasafewyearsago，andseemstoretirerapidlybeforethespreadofcultivation。LoboKamantusksandbonesareoccasionallyfoundaboutintheforest，butthelivinganimalisnowneverseen。Therhinoceros(Rhinocerossumatranus)

stillabounds，andIcontinuallysawitstracksanditsdung，andoncedisturbedonefeeding，whichwentcrashingawaythroughthejungle，onlypermittingmeamomentaryglimpseofitthroughthedenseunderwood。Iobtainedatolerablyperfectcranium，andanumberofteeth，whichwerepickedupbythenatives。

Anothercuriousanimal，whichIhadmetwithinSingaporeandinBorneo，butwhichwasmoreabundanthere，istheGaleopithecus，orflyinglemur。Thiscreaturehasabroadmembraneextendingallaounditsbodytotheextremitiesofthetoes，andtothepointoftheratherlongtail。Thisenablesittopassobliquelythroughtheairfromonetreetoanother。Itissluggishinitsmotions，atleastbyday，goingupatreebyshortrunsofafewfeet，andthenstoppingamomentasiftheactionwasdifficult。

Itrestsduringthedayclingingtothetrunksoftrees，whereitsoliveorbrownfur，mottledwithirregularwhitishspotsandblotches，resemblescloselythecolourofmottledbark，andnodoubthelpstoprotectit。Once，inabrighttwilight，Isawoneoftheseanimalsrunupatrunkinaratheropenplace，andthenglideobliquelythroughtheairtoanothertree，onwhichitalightednearitsbase，andimmediatelybegantoascend。Ipacedthedistancefromtheonetreetotheother，andfoundittobeseventyyards；andtheamountofdescentIestimatedatnotmorethanthirty-fiveorfortyfeet，orlessthanoneinfive。ThisI

thinkprovesthattheanimalmusthavesomepowerofguidingitselfthroughtheair，otherwiseinsolongadistanceitwouldhavelittlechanceofalightingexactlyuponthetrunk。LiketheCuscusoftheMoluccas，theGaleopithecusfeedschieflyonleaves，andpossessesaveryvoluminousstomachandlongconvolutedintestines。Thebrainisverysmall，andtheanimalpossessessuchremarkabletenacityoflife，thatitisexceedinglydifficulttokillitbyanyordinarymeans。Thetailisprehensile；andisprobablymadeuseofasanadditionalsupportwhilefeeding。Itissaidtohaveonlyasingleyoungoneatatime，andmyownobservationconfirmsthisstatement，forI

onceshotafemalewithaverysmallblindandnakedlittlecreatureclingingcloselytoitsbreast，whichwasquitebareandmuchwrinkled，remindingmeoftheyoungofMarsupials，towhichitseemedtoformatransition。Ontheback，andextendingoverthelimbsandmembrane，thefuroftheseanimalsisshort，butexquisitelysoft，resemblinginitstexturethatoftheChinchilla。

IreturnedtoPalembangbywater，andwhilestayingadayatavillagewhileaboatwasbeingmadewatertight，Ihadthegoodfortunetoobtainamale，female，andyoungbirdofoneofthelargehornbills。Ihadsentmyhunterstoshoot，andwhileIwasatbreakfasttheyreturned，bringingmeafinelargemaleoftheBucerosbicornis，whichoneofthemassuredmehehadshotwhilefeedingthefemale，whichwasshutupinaholeinatree。Ihadoftenreadofthiscurioushabit，andimmediatelyreturnedtotheplace，accompaniedbyseveralofthenatives。Aftercrossingastreamandabog，wefoundalargetreeleaningoversomewater，andonitslowerside，ataheightofabouttwentyfeet，appearedasmallhole，andwhatlookedlikeaquantityofmud，whichIwasassuredhadbeenusedinstoppingupthelargehole。Afterawhileweheardtheharshcryofabirdinside，andcouldseethewhiteextremityofitsbeakputout。Iofferedarupeetoanyonewhowouldgoupandgetthebirdout，withtheeggoryoungone；

buttheyalldeclareditwastoodifficult，andtheywereafraidtotry。Ithereforeveryreluctantlycameaway。Aboutanhourafterwards，muchtomysurprise，atremendousloud，hoarsescreamingwasheard，andthebirdwasbroughtme，togetherwithayoungonewhichhadbeenfoundinthehole。Thiswasamostcuriousobject，aslargeasapigeon，butwithoutaparticleofplumageonanypartofit。Itwasexceedinglyplumpandsoft，andwithasemi-transparentskin，sothatitlookedmorelikeabagofjelly，withheadandfeetstuckon，thanlikearealbird。

Theextraordinaryhabitofthemale，inplasteringupthefemalewithheregg，andfeedingherduringthewholetimeofincubation，anduntiltheyoungoneisfledged，iscommontoseveralofthelargehornbills，andisoneofthosestrangefactsinnaturalhistorywhichare"strangerthanfiction。"

CHAPTERIX。

NATURALHISTORYOFTHEINDO-MALAYISLANDS。

INthefirstchapterofthisworkIhavestatedgenerallythereasonswhichleadustoconcludethatthelargeislandsinthewesternportionoftheArchipelago——Java，Sumatra，andBorneo——aswellastheMalaypeninsulaandthePhilippineislands，havebeenrecentlyseparatedfromthecontinentofAsia。InowproposetogiveasketchoftheNaturalHistoryofthese，whichItermtheIndo-Malayislands，andtoshowhowfaritsupportsthisview，andhowmuchinformationitisabletogiveusoftheantiquityandoriginoftheseparateislands。

ThefloraoftheArchipelagoisatpresentsoimperfectlyknown，andIhavemyselfpaidsolittleattentiontoit，thatIcannotdrawfromitmanyfactsofimportance。TheMalayantypeofvegetationishoweveraveryimportantone；andDr。Hookerinformsus，inhis"FloraIndica，"thatitspreadsoverallthemoisterandmoreequablepartsofIndia，andthatmanyplantsfoundinCeylon，theHimalayas，theNilghiri，andKhasiamountainsareidenticalwiththoseofJavaandtheMalaypeninsula。Amongthemorecharacteristicformsofthisfloraaretherattans——

climbingpalmsofthegenusCalamus，andagreatvarietyoftall，aswellasstemlesspalms。Orchids，Aracae，Zingiberaceaeandferns，areespeciallyabundant，andthegenusGrammatophyllum——

agiganticepiphytalorchid，whoseclustersofleavesandflower-stemsaretenortwelvefeetlong——ispeculiartoit。Here，too，isthedomainofthewonderfulpitcherplants(Nepenthaceae)，whichareonlyrepresentedelsewherebysolitaryspeciesinCeylon，Madagascar，theSeychelles，Celebes，andtheMoluccas。Thosecelebratedfruits，theMangosteenandtheDurian，arenativesofthisregion，andwillhardlygrowoutoftheArchipelago。ThemountainplantsofJavahavealreadybeenalludedtoasshowingaformerconnexionwiththecontinentofAsia；andastillmoreextraordinaryandmoreancientconnectionwithAustraliahasbeenindicatedbyMr。Low\'scollectionsfromthesummitofKini-balou，theloftiestmountaininBorneo。

Plantshavemuchgreaterfacilitiesforpassingacrossarmsoftheseathananimals。Thelighterseedsareeasilycarriedbythewinds，andmanyofthemarespeciallyadaptedtobesocarried。

Otherscanfloatalongtuneunhurtinthewater，andaredriftedbywindsandcurrentstodistantshores。Pigeons，andotherfruit-eatingbirds，arealsothemeansofdistributingplants，sincetheseedsreadilygerminateafterpassingthroughtheirbodies。Itthushappensthatplantswhichgrowonshoresandlowlandshaveawidedistribution，anditrequiresanextensiveknowledgeofthespeciesofeachislandtodeterminetherelationsoftheirfloraswithanyapproachtoaccuracy。AtpresentwehavenosuchcompleteknowledgeofthebotanyoftheseveralislandsoftheArchipelago；anditisonlybysuchstrikingphenomenaastheoccurrenceofnorthernandevenEuropeangeneraonthesummitsoftheJavanesemountainsthatwecanprovetheformerconnectionofthatislandwiththeAsiaticcontinent。Withlandanimals，however，thecaseisverydifferent。Theirmeansofpassingawideexpanseofseaarefarmorerestricted。Theirdistributionhasbeenmoreaccuratelystudied，andwepossessamuchmorecompleteknowledgeofsuchgroupsasmammalsandbirdsinmostoftheislands，thanwedooftheplants。Itisthesetwoclasseswhichwillsupplyuswithmostofourfactsastothegeographicaldistributionoforganizedbeingsinthisregion。

ThenumberofMammaliaknowntoinhabittheIndo-Malayregionisveryconsiderable，exceeding170species。Withtheexceptionofthebats，noneofthesehaveanyregularmeansofpassingarmsoftheseamanymilesinextent，andaconsiderationoftheirdistributionmustthereforegreatlyassistusindeterminingwhethertheseislandshaveeverbeenconnectedwitheachotherorwiththecontinentsincetheepochofexistingspecies。

TheQuadrumanaormonkeytribeformoneofthemostcharacteristicfeaturesofthisregion。Twenty-fourdistinctspeciesareknowntoinhabitit，andthesearedistributedwithtolerableuniformityovertheislands，ninebeingfoundinJava，tenintheMalaypeninsula，eleveninSumatra，andthirteeninBorneo。Thegreatman-likeOrangutansarefoundonlyinSumatraandBorneo；thecuriousSiamang(nexttotheminsize)inSumatraandMalacca；thelong-nosedmonkeyonlyinBorneo；whileeveryislandhasrepresentativesoftheGibbonsorlong-armedapes，andofmonkeys。Thelemur-likeanimals，Nycticebus，Tarsius，andGaleopithecus，arefoundonalltheislands。

SevenspeciesfoundontheMalaypeninsulaextendalsointoSumatra，fourintoBorneo，andthreeintoJava；whiletworangeintoSiamandBurma，andoneintoNorthIndia。WiththeexceptionoftheOrangutan，theSiamang，theTarsiusspectrum，andtheGaleopithecus，alltheMalayangeneraofQuadrumanaarerepresentedinIndiabycloselyalliedspecies，although，owingtothelimitedrangeofmostoftheseanimals，sofewareabsolutelyidentical。

OfCarnivora，thirty-threespeciesareknownfromtheIndo-Malayregion，ofwhichabouteightarefoundalsoinBurmaandIndia。

Amongthesearethetiger，leopard，atiger-cat，civet，andotter；whileoutofthetwentygeneraofMalayanCarnivora，thirteenarerepresentedinIndiabymoreorlesscloselyalliedspecies。Asanexample，theMalayanbearisrepresentedinNorthIndiabytheTibetanbear，bothofwhichmaybeseenaliveattheZoologicalSociety\'sGardens。

Thehoofedanimalsaretwenty-twoinnumber，ofwhichaboutsevenextendintoBurmahandIndia。Allthedeerareofpeculiarspecies，excepttwo，whichrangefromMalaccaintoIndia。Ofthecattle，oneIndianspeciesreachesMalacca，whiletheBossondiacusofJavaandBorneoisalsofoundinSiamandBurma。Agoat-likeanimalisfoundinSumatrawhichhasitsrepresentativeinIndia；whilethetwo-hornedrhinocerosofSumatraandthesingle-hornedspeciesofJava，longsupposedtobepeculiartotheseislands，arenowbothascertainedtoexistinBurma，Pegu，andMoulmein。TheelephantofSumatra，Borneo，andMalaccaisnowconsideredtobeidenticalwiththatofCeylonandIndia。

InallothergroupsofMammaliathesamegeneralphenomenarecur。

AfewspeciesareidenticalwiththoseofIndia。Amuchlargernumberarecloselyalliedorrepresentativeforms，whiletherearealwaysasmallnumberofpeculiargenera，consistingofanimalsunlikethosefoundinanyotherpartoftheworld。Thereareaboutfiftybats，ofwhichlessthanone-fourthareIndianspecies；thirty-fourRodents(squirrels，rats，&c。)，ofwhichsixoreightonlyareIndian；andtenInsectivora，withoneexceptionpeculiartotheMalayregion。Thesquirrelsareveryabundantandcharacteristic，onlytwospeciesoutoftwenty-fiveextendingintoSiamandBurma。TheTupaiasarecuriousinsect-eaters，whichcloselyresemblesquirrels，andarealmostconfinedtotheMalayislands，as，arethesmallfeather-tailedPtiloceruslowiiofBorneo，andthecuriouslong-snoutedandnaked-tailedGymnurusrafllesii。

AstheMalaypeninsulaisapartofthecontinentofAsia，thequestionoftheformerunionoftheislandstothemainlandwillbebestelucidatedbystudyingthespecieswhicharefoundintheformerdistrict，andalsoinsomeoftheislands。Now，ifweentirelyleaveoutofconsiderationthebats，whichhavethepowerofflight，therearestillforty-eightspeciesofmammalscommontotheMalaypeninsulaandthethreelargeislands。AmongthesearesevenQuadrumana(apes，monkeys，andlemurs)，animalswhopasstheirwholeexistenceinforests，whoneverswim，andwhowouldbequiteunabletotraverseasinglemileofsea；

nineteenCarnivora，someofwhichnodoubtmightcrossbyswimming，butwecannotsupposesolargeanumbertohavepassedinthiswayacrossastraitwhich，exceptatonepoint，isfromthirtytofiftymileswide；andfivehoofedanimals，includingtheTapir，twospeciesofrhinoceros，andanelephant。BesidesthesetherearethirteenRodentsandfourInsectivora，includingashrew-mouseandsixsquirrels，whoseunaidedpassageovertwentymilesofseaisevenmoreinconceivablethanthatofthelargeranimals。

Butwhenwecometothecasesofthesamespeciesinhabitingtwoofthemorewidelyseparatedislands，thedifficultyismuchincreased。Borneoisdistantnearly150milesfromBiliton，whichisaboutfiftymilesfromBanca，andthisfifteenfromSumatra，yettherearenolessthanthirty-sixspeciesofmammalscommontoBorneoandSumatra。Javaagainismorethan250milesfromBorneo，yetthesetwoislandshavetwenty-twospeciesincommon，includingmonkeys，lemurs，wildoxen，squirrelsandshrews。Thesefactsseemtorenderitabsolutelycertainthattherehasbeenatsomeformerperiodaconnectionbetweenalltheseislandsandthemainland，andthefactthatmostoftheanimalscommontotwoormoreofthen，showlittleornovariation，butareoftenabsolutelyidentical，indicatesthattheseparationmusthavebeenrecentinageologicalsense；thatis，notearlierthantheNewerPlioceneepoch，atwhichtimelandanimalsbegantoassimilatecloselywiththosenowexisting。

Eventhebatsfurnishanadditionalargument，ifonewereneeded，toshowthattheislandscouldnothavebeenpeopledfromeachotherandfromthecontinentwithoutsomeformerconnection。Forifsuchhadbeenthemodeofstockingthemwithanimals，itisquitecertainthatcreatureswhichcanflylongdistanceswouldbethefirsttospreadfromislandtoisland，andthusproduceanalmostperfectuniformityofspeciesoverthewholeregion。Butnosuchuniformityexists，andthebatsofeachislandarealmost，ifnotquite，asdistinctastheothermammals。Forexample，sixteenspeciesareknowninBorneo，andofthesetenarefoundinJavaandfiveinSumatra，aproportionaboutthesameasthatoftheRodents，whichhavenodirectmeansofmigration。Welearnfromthisfact，thattheseaswhichseparatetheislandsfromeachotherarewideenoughtopreventthepassageevenofflyinganimals，andthatwemustlooktothesamecausesashavingledtothepresentdistributionofbothgroups。

Theonlysufficientcausewecanimagineistheformerconnectionofalltheislandswiththecontinent，andsuchachangeisinperfectharmonywithwhatweknowoftheearth\'spasthistory，andisrenderedprobablebytheremarkablefactthatariseofonlythreehundredfeetwouldconvertthewideseasthatseparatethemintoanimmensewindingvalleyorplainaboutthreehundredmileswideandtwelvehundredlong。Itmay，perhaps，bethoughtthatbirdswhichpossessthepowerofflightinsopre-eminentadegree，wouldnotbelimitedintheirrangebyarmsofthesea，andwouldthusaffordfewindicationsoftheformerunionorseparationoftheislandstheyinhabit。This，however，isnotthecase。Averylargenumberofbirdsappeartobeasstrictlylimitedbywaterybarriersasarequadrupeds；andastheyhavebeensomuchmoreattentivelycollected，wehavemorecompletematerialstoworkupon，andareabletodeducefromthemstillmoredefiniteandsatisfactoryresults。Somegroups，however，suchastheaquaticbirds，thewaders，andthebirdsofprey，aregreatwanderers；othergroupsarelittleknownexcepttoornithologists。Ishallthereforereferchieflytoafewofthebestknownandmostremarkablefamiliesofbirdsasasampleoftheconclusionsfurnishedbytheentireclass。

ThebirdsoftheIndo-MalayregionhaveacloseresemblancetothoseofIndia；forthoughaverylargeproportionofthespeciesarequitedistinct，thereareonlyaboutfifteenpeculiargenera，andnotasinglefamilygroupconfinedtotheformerdistrict。

If，however，wecomparetheislandswiththeBurmese，Siamese，andMalayancountries，weshallfindstilllessdifference，andshallbeconvincedthatallarecloselyunitedbythebondofaformerunion。Insuchwell-knownfamiliesasthewoodpeckers，parrots，trogons，barbets，kingfishers，pigeons，andpheasants，wefindsomeidenticalspeciesspreadingoverallIndia，andasfarasJavaandBorneo，whileaverylargeproportionarecommontoSumatraandtheMalaypeninsula。

TheforceofthesefactscanonlybeappreciatedwhenwecometotreattheislandsoftheAustro-Malayregion，andshowhowsimilarbarriershaveentirelypreventedthepassageofbirdsfromoneislandtoanother，sothatoutofatleastthreehundredandfiftylandbirdsinhabitingJavaandBorneo，notmorethantenhavepassedeastwardintoCelebes。YettheStraitsofMacassararenotnearlysowideastheJavasea，andatleastahundredspeciesarecommontoBorneoandJava。

Iwillnowgivetwoexamplestoshowhowaknowledgeofthedistributionofanimalsmayrevealunsuspectedfactsinthepasthistoryoftheearth。AttheeasternextremityofSumatra，andseparatedfromitbyastraitaboutfifteenmileswide，isthesmallrockyislandofBanca，celebratedforitstinmines。OneoftheDutchresidentstheresentsomecollectionsofbirdsandanimalstoLeyden，andamongthemwerefoundseveralspeciesdistinctfromthoseoftheadjacentcoastofSumatra。Oneofthesewasasquirrel(Sciurusbangkanus)，closelyalliedtothreeotherspeciesinhabitingrespectivelytheMalaypeninsula，Sumatra，andBorneo，butquiteasdistinctfromthemallastheyarefromeachother。TherewerealsotwonewgroundthrushesofthegenusPitta，closelyalliedto，butquitedistinctfrom，twootherspeciesinhabitingbothSumatraandBorneo，andwhichdidnotperceptiblydifferintheselargeandwidelyseparatedislands。ThisisjustasiftheIsleofManpossessedapeculiarspeciesofthrushandblackbird，distinctfromthebirdswhicharecommontoEnglandandIreland。