第17章

ButtherelationshipbetweenCongressandthePresident\'sministerswouldgraduallycometoresemblethatwhichexistsbetweenParliamentandtheQueen\'sministers。TheSecretariesofStateandoftheTreasurywouldafterawhileobtainthathonorofleadingtheHouseswhichisexercisedbyourhighpoliticalofficers，andthedignityaddedtothepositionswouldmaketheplacesworthyoftheacceptanceofgreatmen。Itishardlysoatpresent。ThecareerofoneofthePresident\'sministersisnotaveryhighcareerasthingsnowstand；noristhemansupposedtohaveachievedmuchwhohasachievedthatposition。Ithinkitwouldbeotherwiseiftheministersweretheleadersofthelegislativehouses。ToCongressitselfwouldbegiventhepowerofquestioningandultimatelyofcontrollingtheseministers。ThepowerofthePresidentwouldnodoubtbediminishedasthatofCongresswouldbeincreased。Butanalterationinthatdirectionisinitselfdesirable。ItisthefaultofthepresentsystemofgovernmentintheUnitedStatesthatthePresidenthastoomuchofpowerandweight，whiletheCongressofthenationlackspowerandweight。Asmattersnowstand，Congresshasnotthatdignityofpositionwhichitshouldhold；anditiswithoutitbecauseitisnotendowedwiththatcontrolovertheofficersofthegovernmentwhichourParliamentisenabledtoexercise。

ThewantofthiscloseconnectionwithCongressandthePresident\'sministershasbeensomuchfeltthatithasbeenfoundnecessarytocreateamediumofcommunication。Thishasbeendonebyasystemwhichhasnowbecomearecognizedpartofthemachineryofthegovernment，butwhichis，Ibelieve，foundedonnoregularlyorganizedauthority；atanyrate，noprovisionismadeforitintheConstitution，nor，asfarasIamaware，hasitbeenestablishedbyanyspecialenactmentorwrittenrule。Nevertheless，IbelieveIamjustifiedinsayingthatithasbecomearecognizedlinkinthesystemofgovernmentadoptedbytheUnitedStates。IneachHousestandingcommitteesarenamed，towhicharedelegatedthespecialconsiderationofcertainaffairsofState。Thereare，forinstance，CommitteesofForeignAffairs，ofFinance，theJudiciaryCommittee，andothersofasimilarnature。TothesecommitteesarereferredallquestionswhichcomebeforetheHousebearingonthespecialsubjecttowhicheachisdevoted。QuestionsoftaxationarereferredtotheFinanceCommitteebeforetheyarediscussedintheHouse；andtheHouse，whenitgoesintosuchdiscussion，hasbeforeitthereportofthecommittee。InthiswayverymuchoftheworkofthelegislatureisdonebybranchesofeachHouse，andbyselectedmenwhosetimeandintellectsaredevotedtospecialsubjects。Itiseasytoseethatmuchtimeanduselessdebatemaybethussaved；andIamdisposedtobelievethatthissystemofcommitteeshasworkedefficientlyandbeneficially。ThemodeofselectionofthemembershasbeensocontrivedastogivetoeachpoliticalpartythatamountofpreponderanceineachcommitteewhichsuchpartyholdsintheHouse。IftheDemocratshaveintheSenateamajority，itwouldbewithintheirpowertovotenonebutDemocratsintotheCommitteeonFinance；butthiswouldbemanifestlyunjusttotheRepublicanparty，andtheinjusticewoulditselffrustratetheobjectofthepartyinpower；thereforetheDemocratssimplyvotetothemselvesamajorityineachcommittee，keepingtothemselvesasgreatapreponderanceinthecommitteeastheyhaveinthewholeHouse，andarrangingalsothatthechairmanofthecommitteeshallbelongtotheirownparty。Bythesecommitteesthechieflegislativemeasuresofthecountryareoriginatedandinaugurated，astheyarewithusbytheministersoftheCrown；andthechairmanofeachcommitteeissupposedtohaveacertainamicablerelationwiththatministerwhopresidesovertheofficewithwhichhiscommitteeisconnected。Mr。SumnerisatpresentchairmanoftheCommitteeonForeignAffairs，andheispresumedtobeinconnectionwithMr。Seward，who，asSecretaryofState，hasthemanagementoftheforeignrelationsofthegovernment。

Butitseemstomethatthissupposedconnectionbetweenthecommitteesandtheministersisonlyamakeshift，showingbyitsexistencetheabsolutenecessityofclosecommunicationbetweentheexecutiveandthelegislative，butshowingalsobyitsimperfectionsthegreatwantofsomebettermethodofcommunication。Inthefirstplace，thechairmanofthecommitteeisinnowayboundtoholdanycommunicationwiththeminister。HeissimplyaSenator，andassuchhasnoministerialdutiesandcanhavenone。HeholdsnoappointmentunderthePresident，andhasnopalpableconnectionwiththeexecutive。Andthen，itisquiteaslikelythathemaybeopposedinpoliticstotheministerasthathemayagreewithhim。

Ifthetwobeopposedtoeachotherongeneralpolitics，itmaybepresumedthattheycannotacttogetherinunionononespecialsubject；nor，whethertheyactinunionordonotsoact，caneitherhaveanyauthorityovertheother。TheministerisnotresponsibletoCongress，noristhechairmanofthecommitteeinanywayboundtosupporttheminister。Itispresumedthatthechairmanmustknowtheminister\'ssecrets；butthechairmanmaybeboundbypartyconsiderationstousethosesecretsagainsttheminister。

Thesystemofcommitteesappearstometobegoodasregardstheworkoflegislation。Itseemswelladaptedtoeffecteconomyoftimeandtheapplicationofspecialmentospecialservices。ButI

amdriventothinkthatthatconnectionbetweenthechairmenofthecommitteesandtheministerswhichIhaveattemptedtodescribeisanarrangementveryimperfectinitself，butplainlyindicatingthenecessityofsomesuchcloserelationbetweentheexecutiveandthelegislatureoftheUnitedStatesasdoesexistinthepoliticalsystemofGreatBritain。WithustheQueen\'sministerhasagreaterweightinParliamentthanthePresident\'sministercouldholdinCongress，becausetheQueenisboundtoemployaministerinwhomtheParliamenthasconfidence。Assoonassuchconfidenceceases，theministerceasestobeminister。AstheCrownhasnopoliticsofitsown，itissimplynecessarythattheministerofthedayshouldholdthepoliticsofthepeopleastestifiedbytheirrepresentatives。ThemachineryofthePresident\'sgovernmentcannotbemadetoworkafterthisfashion。ThePresidenthimselfisapoliticalofficer，andthecountryisboundtobearwithhispoliticsforfouryears，whateverthosepoliticsmaybe。Theministrywhichheselects，oncomingtohisseat，willprobablyrepresentamajorityinCongress，seeingthatthesamesuffrageswhichhaveelectedthePresidentwillalsohaveelectedtheCongress。ButthereexistsnonecessityonthepartofthePresidenttoemployministerswhoshallcarrywiththemthesupportofCongress。If，however，theministersatinCongress——ifitwererequiredofeachministerthatheshouldhaveaseateitherinoneHouseorintheother——thePresidentwould，Ithink，findhimselfconstrainedtochangeaministryinwhichCongressshoulddeclinetoconfide。Itmightnotbesoatfirst，buttherewouldbeatendencyinthatdirection。

ThegoverningpowersdonotrestexclusivelywiththePresidentorwiththePresidentandhisministers；theyaresharedinacertaindegreewiththeSenate，whichsitsfromtimetotimeinexecutivesession，layingasideatsuchperiodsitslegislativecharacter。ItisthisexecutiveauthoritywhichlendssogreatadignitytotheSenate，givesittheprivilegeofpreponderatingovertheotherHouse，andmakesitthepoliticalsafeguardofthenation。ThequestionsofgovernmentastowhichtheSenateisempoweredtointerferearesoontold。AlltreatiesmadebythePresidentmustbesanctionedbytheSenate；andallappointmentsmadebythePresidentmustbeconfirmedbytheSenate。Thelistisshort；andoneisdisposedtothink，whenfirsthearingit，thatthethingitselfdoesnotamounttomuch。Butitdoesamounttoverymuch；itenablestheSenatetofetterthePresident，iftheSenateshouldbesoinclined，bothasregardsforeignpoliticsandhomepolitics。ASecretaryforForeignAffairsatWashingtonmaywritewhatdispatcheshepleaseswithoutreferencetotheSenate；buttheSenateinterferesbeforethosedispatchescanhaveresultedinanyfactwhichmaybedetrimentaltothenation。ItisnotonlythattheSenateisresponsibleforsuchtreatiesasaremade，butthatthePresidentisdeterredfromthemakingoftreatiesforwhichtheSenatewoulddeclinetomakeitselfresponsible。EventhoughnotreatyshouldeverberefuseditssanctionbytheSenate，theprotectingpoweroftheSenateinthatmatterwouldnotonthataccounthavebeenlessnecessaryorlessefficacious。Thoughthebarswithwhichweprotectourhousemayneverhavebeentriedbyathief，wedonotthereforebelievethatourhousewouldhavebeensafeifsuchbarshadbeenknowntobewanting。Andthen，astothatmatterofStateappointments，isitnotthefactthatallgoverningpowerconsistsintheselectionoftheagentsbywhomtheactionofgovernmentshallbecarriedon？Itmustcometothis，Iimagine，whentheargumentispushedhome。Thepowerofthemostpowerfulmandependsonlyontheextentofhisauthorityoverhisagents。AccordingtotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，thePresidentcanselectnoagenteitherathomeorabroad，forpurposeseitherofpeaceorwar，ortotheemploymentofwhomtheSenatedoesnotagreewithhim。

Sucharuleasthisshouldsavethenationfromtheuseofdisreputableagentsaspublicservants。Itmightperhapshavedonemuchmoretowardsuchsalvationthanithasasyeteffected，anditmaywellbehopedthatitwillinfuturedomore。

SucharetheexecutivepowersoftheSenate；anditis，Ithink，remarkablethattheSenatehasalwaysusedthesepowerswithextrememoderation。Ithasnevershownafactiousinclinationtohindergovernmentbyunnecessaryinterference，oradispositiontoclipthePresident\'swingsbyputtingitselfaltogetheratvariancewithhim。

Iamnotquitesurewhethersomefaultmaynothavelainontheotherside；whethertheSenatemaynothavebeensomewhatslackinexercisingtheprotectiveprivilegesgiventoitbytheConstitution。AndhereIcannotbutremarkhowgreatisthedeferencepaidtoallgovernorsandedictsofgovernmentthroughouttheUnitedStates。OnewouldhavebeendisposedtothinkthatsuchafeelingwouldbestrongerinanoldcountrysuchasGreatBritainthaninayoungcountrysuchastheStates。ButIthinkthatitisnotso。ThereislessdispositiontoquestiontheactionofgovernmenteitheratWashingtonoratNewYork，thanthereisinLondon。MeninAmericaseemtobecontentwhentheyhavevotedintheirgovernors，andtofeelthatforthemallpoliticalactionisoveruntilthetimeshallcomeforvotingforothers。Andthisfeeling，whichseemstoprevailamongthepeople，prevailsalsoinbothHousesofCongress。BitterdenunciationsagainstthePresident\'spolicyorthePresident\'sministersareseldomheard。

Speechesarenotoftenmadewiththeobjectofimpedingtheactionofgovernment。ThatsosmallandsograveabodyastheSenateshouldabstainfromfactiousoppositiontothegovernmentwhenemployedonexecutivefunctions，wasperhapstobeexpected。Itisofcoursewellthatitshouldbeso。Iconfess，however，thatithasappearedtomethattheSenatehasnotusedthepowerplacedinitshandsasfreelyastheConstitutionhasintended，ButIlookatthematterasanEnglishman，andasanEnglishmanIcanendurenogovernmentactionwhichisnotimmediatelysubjecttoparliamentarycontrol。

SucharethegoverningpowersoftheUnitedStates。Ithinkitwillbeseenthattheyaremuchmorelimitedintheirscopeofactionthanwithus；butwithinthatscopeofactionmuchmoreindependentandself-sufficient。And，inadditiontothis，thosewhoexercisepowerintheUnitedStatesarenotonlyfreefromimmediateresponsibility，butarenotmadesubjecttothehopeorfearoffuturejudgment。Successwillbringnoaward，andfailurenopunishment。IamnotawarethatanypoliticaldelinquencyhaseveryetbroughtdownretributionontheheadoftheoffenderintheUnitedStates，orthatanygreatdeedhasbeenheldasentitlingthedoerofittohiscountry\'sgratitude。Titlesofnobilitytheyhavenone；pensionstheynevergive；andpoliticaldisgraceisunknown。

Thelineofpoliticswouldseemtobecoldandunalluring。Itiscold；andwouldbeunalluring，wereitnotthatasaprofessionitisprofitable。InmuchofthisIexpectthatachangewillgraduallytakeplace。Thetheoryhasbeenthatpublicaffairsshouldbeinthehandsoflittlemen。Thetheorywasintelligiblewhilethepublicaffairsweresmall；buttheyaresmallnolonger，andthattheory，Ifancy，willhavetoalteritself。Greatmenareneededforthegovernment，andinordertoproducegreatmenacareerofgreatnessmustbeopenedtothem。Icanseenoreasonwhythecareerandthemenshouldnotbeforthcoming。

CHAPTERXI。

THELAWCOURTSANDLAWYERSOFTHEUNITEDSTATES。

IdonotproposetomakeanyattempttoexplainindetailthepracticesandrulesoftheAmericancourtsoflaw。Noonebutalawyershouldtrusthimselfwithsuchatask，andnolawyerwouldbeenabledtodosointhefewpageswhichIshallheredevotetothesubject。Mypresentobjectistoexplain，asfarasImaybeabletodoso，theexistingpoliticalpositionofthecountry。Asthismustdependmoreorlessuponthepowervestedinthehandsofthejudges，anduponthetenurebywhichthosejudgesholdtheiroffices，IshallendeavortodescribethecircumstancesofthepositioninwhichtheAmericanjudgesareplaced；themodeinwhichtheyareappointed；thedifferencewhichexistsbetweentheNationaljudgesandtheStatejudges，andtheextenttowhichtheyareorarenotheldinhighesteembythegeneralpublicwhomtheyserve。

Itwill，Ithink，beacknowledgedthatthislastmatterisoneofalmostparamountimportancetothewelfareofacountry。AthomeinEnglandwedonotrealizetheimportancetousinapoliticalaswellassocialviewofthedignityandpurityofourjudges，becausewetakefromthemallthatdignityandpuritycangiveasamatterofcourse。Thehonestyofourbenchistousalmostasthehonestyofheaven。Noonedreamsthatitcanbequestionedorbecomequestionable，andthereforetherearebutfewwhoarethankfulforitsblessings。FewEnglishmencaretoknowmuchabouttheirowncourtsoflaw，orareevenawarethatthejudgesaretheprotectorsoftheirlibertiesandproperty。Therearethemen，honoredonallsides，trustedbyeveryone，removedabovetemptation，holdingpositionswhicharecovetedbyalllawyers。Thatitissoisenoughforus；andasthegoodthencederivedcomestoussoeasily，weforgettorememberthatwemightpossiblybewithoutit。ThelawcourtsoftheStateshavemuchintheirsimplicityandthegeneralintelligenceoftheirarrangementstorecommendthem。Inallordinarycausesjusticeisdonewitheconomy，withexpedition，andI

believewithprecision。ButtheystrikeanEnglishmanatonceasbeingdeficientinsplendoranddignity，aswantingthatreverencewhichwethinkshouldbepaidtowordsfallingfromthebench，andasbeingindangerastothatpuritywithoutwhichajudgebecomesacurseamongapeople，achiefofthieves，andanarch-ministeroftheEvilOne。Isayasbeingindanger；notthatImeantohintthatsuchwantofpurityhasbeenshown，orthatIwishittobebelievedthatjudgeswithitchingpalmsdositupontheAmericanbench；butbecausethepresentpoliticaltendencyoftheStatearrangementsthreatenstoproducesuchdanger。WeinEnglandtrustimplicitlyinourjudges——notbecausetheyareEnglishmen，butbecausetheyareEnglishmencarefullyselectedfortheirhighpositions。Weshouldsoondistrustthemiftheywereelectedbyuniversalsuffragefromallthebarristersandattorneyspracticinginthedifferentcourts；andsoelectedonlyforaperiodofyears，asisthecasewithreferencetomanyoftheStatejudgesinAmerica。Suchamodeofappointmentwould，inourestimation，atoncerobthemoftheirprestige。Andourdistrustwouldnotbediminishedifthepayaccordedtotheworkweresosmallthatnolawyeringoodpracticecouldaffordtoacceptthesituation。Whenwelookatajudgeincourt，venerablebeneathhiswigandadornedwithhisermine，wedonotadmittoourselvesthatthathighofficerishonestbecauseheisplacedabovetemptationbythemagnitudeofhissalary。Wedonotsuspectthathe，asanindividual，wouldacceptbribesandfavorsuitorsifhewereinwantofmoney。But，still，weknowasafactthatanhonestman，likeanyothergoodarticle，mustbepaidforatahighprice。Judgesandbishopsexpectthoserewardswhichallmenwinwhorisetothehigheststepsontheladderoftheirprofession。Andthebettertheyarepaid，withinmeasure，thebettertheywillbeasjudgesandbishops。Now，thejudgesinAmericaarenotwellpaid，andthebestlawyerscannotaffordtosituponthebench。

Withusthepracticeofthelawandthejudicatureofourlawcourtsaredivided。Wehavechancerybarristersandcommonlawbarristers；

andwehavechancerycourtsandcourtsofcommonlaw。IntheStatesthereisnosuchdivision。ItprevailsneitherintheNationalorFederalcourtsoftheUnitedStates，norinthecourtsofanyoftheseparateStates。ThecodeoflawsusedbytheAmericansistakenalmostentirelyfromourEnglishlaws——orrather，Ishouldsay，theFederalcodeusedbythenationissotaken，andalsothevariouscodesofthedifferentStates——aseachStatetakeswhateverlawsitmaythinkfittoadopt。EventheprecedentsofourcourtsareheldasprecedentsintheAmericancourts，unlesstheychancetojaragainstotherdecisionsgivenspeciallyintheirowncourtswithreferencetocasesoftheirown。InthisrespectthefoundersoftheAmericanlawproceedingshaveshownaconservationbiasandapredilectionforEnglishwrittenandtraditionallawwhicharemuchatvariancewiththatgeneraldemocraticpassionforchangebywhichwegenerallypresumetheAmericanstohavebeenactuatedattheirRevolution。Butthoughtheyhavekeptourlaws，andstillrespectourreadingofthoselaws，theyhavegreatlyalteredandsimplifiedourpractice。Whetheradoublesetofcourtsoflawandequityareorarenotexpedient，eitherintheonecountryorintheother，I

donotpretendtoknow。Itis，however，thefactthatthereisnosuchdivisionintheStates。

Moreover，thereisnodivisioninthelegalprofession。Withuswehavebarristersandattorneys。IntheStatesthesamemanisbothbarristerandattorney；and——whichisperhapsineffectmorestartling——everylawyerispresumedtoundertakelawcasesofeverydescription。Thesamemanmakesyourwill，sellsyourproperty，bringsanactionforyouoftrespassagainstyourneighbor，defendsyouwhenyouareaccusedofmurder，recoversforyoutwoandsixpence，andpleadsforyouinanargumentofthreedays\'lengthwhenyouclaimtobethesoleheirtoyourgrandfather\'senormousproperty。Ineednotdescribehowterriblydistinctwithusisthedifferencebetweenanattorneyandabarrister，orhowmuchfartherthanpolesasunderisthefutureLordChancellor，pleadingbeforetheLordsJusticesatLincoln\'sInn，fromthegentlemanwho，attheOldBailey，isendeavoringtosecurethepersonallibertyoftheruffianwho，aweekortwosince，walkedoffwithallyoursilverspoons。IntheStatesnosuchdifferencesareknown。Alawyerthereisalawyer，andissupposedtodoforanyclientanyworkthatalawyermaybecalledontoperform。Butthoughthisisthetheory——andasregardsanydifferencebetweenattorneyandbarristerisaltogetherthefact——theassumedpracticeisnot，andcannotbe，maintainedasregardsthevariousbranchesofalawyer\'swork。Whenthepopulationwassmaller，andthelawcaseswerelesscomplicated，thetheoryandthepracticewerenodoubtalike。Asgreatcitieshavegrownup，andpropertieslargeinamounthavecomeunderlitigation，certainlawyershavefounditexpedientandpracticabletodevotethemselvestospecialbranchesoftheirprofession。Butthis，evenuptothepresenttime，hasnotbeendoneopenly，asitwere，orwithanydeclarationmadebyamanastohisownbranchofhiscalling。Ibelievethatnosuchdeclarationonhispartwouldbeinaccordancewiththerulesoftheprofession。Hetakesapartner，however，andthusattainshisobject；ormorethanonepartner，andthenthebusinessofthehouseisdividedamongthemaccordingtotheirindividualspecialties。Onewillpleadincourt，anotherwillgivechambercounsel，andathirdwilltakethatlowerbusinesswhichmustbedone，butwhichfirst-ratemenhardlyliketodo。

Itwilleasilybeperceivedthatlawinthiswaywillbemadecheapertothelitigant。Whetherornothatmaybeanunadulteratedadvantage，Ihavemydoubts。IfancythattheunitedprofessionalincomesofallthelawyersintheStateswouldexceedinamountthosemadeinEngland。InAmericaeverymanofnoteseemstobealawyer；andIamtoldthatanylawyerwhowillworkmaymakeasureincome。Ifitbeso，itwouldseemthatAmericansperheadpayasmuch(ormore)fortheirlawasmendoinEngland。Itmaybeansweredthattheygetmorelawfortheirmoney。Thatmaybepossible，andevenyettheymaynotbegainers。Ihavebeeninclinedtothinkthattherewasanunnecessarilyslowandexpensiveceremonialamongusintheemploymentofbarristersthroughathirdparty；ithasseemedthatthemanoflearning，onwhoseeffortsthelitigantreallydepends，isdividedofffromhisclientandemployerbyanunfairbarrier，usedonlytoenhancehisowndignityandgiveanunnecessarygrandeurtohisposition。Istillthinkthatthefaultwithusliesinthisdirection。ButIfeelthatIamlessinclinedtodemandanimmediatealterationinourpracticethanI

wasbeforeIhadseenanyoftheAmericancourtsoflaw。

ItshouldbegenerallyunderstoodthatlawyersaretheleadingmenintheStates，andthatthegovernanceofthecountryhasbeenalmostentirelyintheirhandseversincethepoliticallifeofthenationbecamefullandstrong。Allpublicbusinessofimportancefallsnaturallyintotheirhands，aswithusitfallsintothehandsofmenofsettledwealthandlandedproperty。Indeed，thefactonwhichIinsistismuchmoreclearanddefinedintheStatesthanitiswithus。InEnglandthelawyersalsoobtainnoinconsiderableshareofpoliticalandmunicipalpower。Thelatterisperhapsmoreinthehandsofmerchantsandmenintradethanofanyotherclass；

andeventhehighestseatsofpoliticalgreatnessaremoreopenwithustotheworldatlargethantheyseemtobeintheStatestoanythatarenotlawyers。SincethedaysofWashingtoneveryPresidentoftheUnitedStateshas，Ithink，beenalawyer，exceptingGeneralTaylor。OtherPresidentshavebeengenerals，butthentheyhavealsobeenlawyers。GeneralJacksonwasasuccessfullawyer。Almostalltheleadingpoliticiansofthepresentdayarelawyers。Seward，Cameron，Welles，Stanton，Chase，Sumner，Crittenden，Harris，Fessenden，arealllawyers。Webster，Clay，Calhoun，andCasswerelawyers。HamiltonandJaywerelawyers。Anymanwithanambitiontoenteruponpubliclifebecomesalawyerasamatterofcourse。

Itseemsasthoughastudyandpracticeofthelawwerenecessaryingredientsinaman\'spreparationforpoliticallife。Ihavenodoubtthataverylargeproportionofbothhousesoflegislaturewouldbefoundtoconsistoflawyers。IdonotrememberthatIknowofthecircumstanceofmorethanoneSenatorwhoisnotalawyer。

LawyersformtherulingclassinAmerica，asthelandownersdowithus。Withusthatrulingclassisthewealthiestclass；butthisisnotsointheStates。Itmightbewishedthatitwereso。

Thegreatandever-presentdifferencebetweentheNationalorFederalaffairsoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentandtheaffairsofthegovernmentofeachindividualState，shouldbeborneinmindatalltimesbythosewhodesiretounderstandthepoliticalpositionoftheStates。Tillthisberealizednoonecanhaveanycorrectideaofthebearingsofpoliticsinthatcountry。AsamatterofcourseweinEnglandhavebeeninclinedtoregardthegovernmentandCongressofWashingtonasparamountthroughouttheStates，inthesamewaythatthegovernmentofDowningStreetandtheParliamentofWestminsterareparamountthroughtheBritishisles。Suchamistakeisnatural；butnotthelesswoulditbeafatalbartoanycorrectunderstandingoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates。TheNationalandStategovernmentsareindependentofeachother，andsoalsoaretheNationalandStatetribunals。Eachoftheseseparatetribunalshasitsownjudicature，itsownjudges，itsowncourts，anditsownfunctions。NorcanthesupremetribunalatWashingtonexerciseanyauthorityovertheproceedingsofthecourtsinthedifferentStates，orinfluencethedecisionoftheirjudges。FornotonlyaretheNationaljudgesandStatejudgesindependentofeachother，butthelawsinaccordancewithwhichtheyareboundtoactmaybeessentiallydifferent。Thetwotribunals——thoseofthenationandoftheState——areindependentandfinalintheirseveralspheres。OnamatterofStatejurisprudencenoappealliesfromthesupremetribunalofNewYorkorMassachusettstothesupremetribunalofthenationatWashington。

TheNationaltribunalsareoftwoclasses。First，thereistheSupremeCourtspeciallyordainedbytheConstitution。AndthentherearesuchinferiorcourtsasCongressmayfromtimetotimeseefittoestablish。CongresshasnopowertoabolishtheSupremeCourt，ortoerectanothertribunalsuperiortoit。ThiscourtsitsatWashington，andisafinalcourtofappealfromtheinferiornationalcourtsoftheFederalempire。Asystemofinferiorcourts，inauguratedbyCongress，hasexistedforaboutsixtyyears。EachStateforpurposesofnationaljurisprudenceisconstitutedasadistrict；somefewlargeStates，suchasNewYork，Pennsylvania，andIllinois，beingdividedintotwodistricts。Eachdistricthasonedistrictcourt，presidedoverbyonejudge。Nationalcausesingeneral，bothcivilandcriminal，arecommencedinthesedistrictcourts，andthoseinvolvingonlysmallamountsareendedthere。

AbovethesedistrictcourtsaretheNationalcircuitcourts，thedistrictsorStateshavingbeengroupedintocircuitsasthecountiesaregroupedwithus。ToeachofthesecircuitsisassignedoneofthejudgesoftheSupremeCourtofWashington，whoistheex-

officiojudgeofthatcircuit，andwhothereforetravelsasdoourcommonlawjudges。Ineachdistricthesitswiththejudgeofthatdistrict，andtheytwotogetherformthecircuitcourt。Appealsfromthedistrictcourtlietothecircuitcourtincasesoveracertainamount，andalsoincertaincriminalcases。Itfollowsthereforethatappealsliefromonejudgetothesamejudgewhensittingwithanother——anarrangementwhichwouldseemtobefraughtwithsomeinconvenience。Certaincauses，bothcivilandcriminal，arecommencedinthecircuitcourts。FromthecircuitcourtstheappealliestotheSupremeCourtatWashington；butsuchappealbeyondthecircuitcourtisnotallowedincaseswhichareofsmallmagnitudeorwhichdonotinvolveprinciplesofimportance。IftherebeadivisionofopinioninthecircuitcourtthecasegoestotheSupremeCourt；fromwhenceitmightbeinferredthatallcasesbroughtfromthedistrictcourttothecircuitcourtwouldbesentontotheSupremeCourt，unlessthecircuitjudgeagreedwiththedistrictjudge；forthedistrictjudgehavinggivenhisjudgmentintheinferiorcourt，wouldprobablyadheretoitinthesuperiorcourt。NoappealliestotheSupremeCourtatWashingtonincriminalcases。

AllquestionsthatconcernmorethanoneState，orthatarelitigatedbetweencitizensofdifferentStates，orwhichareinternationalintheirbearing，comebeforethenationaljudges。

Allcasesinwhichforeignersareconcerned，ortherightsofforeigners，arebroughtormaybebroughtintothenationalcourts。

SoalsoareallcausesaffectingtheUnionitself，orwhicharegovernedbythelawsofCongressandnotbythelawsofanyindividualState。Allquestionsofadmiraltylawandmaritimejurisdiction，andcasesaffectingambassadorsorconsuls，aretheretried。Mattersrelatingtothepost-office，tothecustoms，thecollectionofnationaltaxes，topatents，tothearmyandnavy，andtothemint，aretriedinthenationalcourts。Thetheoryis，thatthenationaltribunalsshallexpoundandadministerthenationallawsandtreaties，protectnationalofficesandnationalrights；andthatforeignersandcitizensofotherStatesshallnotberequiredtosubmittothedecisionsoftheStatetribunals；infact，thatnationaltribunalsshalltakecognizanceofallmattersastowhichthegeneralgovernmentofthenationisresponsible。Inmostofsuchcasesthenationaltribunalshaveexclusivejurisdiction。Inothersitisoptionalwiththeplaintifftoselecthistribunal。Itisthenoptionalwiththedefendant，ifbroughtintoaStatecourt，toremainthereortoremovehiscauseintothenationaltribunal。

Theprincipleis，thateitheratthebeginning，orultimately，suchquestionsshallormaybedecidedbythenationaltribunals。IfinanysuitproperlycognizableinaStatecourtthedecisionshouldturnonaclauseintheConstitution，oronalawoftheUnitedStates，orontheactofanationaloffense，oronthevalidityofanationalact，anappealliestotheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesandtoitsofficers。Theobjecthasbeentogivetothenationaltribunalsofthenationfullcognizanceofitsownlaws，treaties，andcongressionalacts。

Thejudgesofallthenationaltribunals，ofwhatevergradeorrank，holdtheirofficesforlife，andareremovableonlyonimpeachment。

TheyarenotevenremovableonanaddressofCongress；thusholdingonafirmertenureeventhanourownjudges，whomay，Ibelieve，bemovedonanaddressbyParliament。ThejudgesinAmericaarenotentitledtoanypensionorretiringallowances；andasthereisnot，asregardsthejudgesofthenationalcourts，anyprovisothattheyshallceasetositafteracertainage，theyareinfactimmovablewhatevermaybetheirinfirmities。Theirpositioninthisrespectisnotgood，seeingthattheirsalarieswillhardlyadmitoftheirmakingadequateprovisionfortheeveningoflife。ThesalaryoftheChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStatesisonly1300l。perannum。

Alljudgesofthenationalcourts，ofwhateverrank，areappointedbythePresident，buttheirappointmentsmustbeconfirmedbytheSenate。Thisproviso，however，givestotheSenatepracticallybutlittlepower，andisrarelyusedinoppositiontothewillofthePresident。IfthePresidentnameonecandidate，whoonpoliticalgroundsisdistastefultoamajorityoftheSenate，itisnotprobablethatasecondnominationmadebyhimwillbemoresatisfactory。Thisseemsnowtobeunderstood，andthenominationofthecabinetministersandofthejudges，asmadebythePresident，areseldomsetasideorinterferedwithbytheSenate，unlessongroundsofpurelypersonalobjection。

ThepositionofthenationaljudgesastotheirappointmentsandmodeoftenureisverydifferentfromthatoftheStatejudges，towhominafewlinesIshallmorespeciallyallude。Thisshould，I

think，bespeciallynoticedbyEnglishmenwhencriticisingthedoingsoftheAmericancourts。IhaveobservedstatementsmadetotheeffectthatdecisionsgivenbyAmericanjudgesastointernationalormaritimeaffairsaffectingEnglishinterestscouldnotbetrusted，becausethejudgessogivingthemwouldhavebeenelectedbypopularvote，andwouldbedependentonthepopularvoiceforreappointment。Thisisnotso。JudgesareappointedbypopularvoteinverymanyoftheStates。Butallmattersaffectingshippingandallquestionstouchingforeignersaretriedinthenationalcourtsbeforejudgeswhohavebeenappointedforlife。IshouldnotmyselfhavehadanyfearwithreferencetotheultimatedecisionintheaffairofSlidellandMasonhadthe“Trent“beencarriedintoNewYork。Iwould，however，bynomeanssaysomuchhadthecausebeenonefortrialbeforethetribunalsoftheStateofNewYork。

IhavebeentoldthatweinEnglandhaveoccasionallyfallenintotheerrorofattributingtotheSupremeCourtatWashingtonaquasipoliticalpowerwhichitdoesnotpossess。Thiscourtcangivenoopiniontoanydepartmentofthegovernment，norcanitdecideuponorinfluenceanysubjectthathasnotcomebeforeitasaregularlylitigatedcaseinlaw。ThoughespeciallyfoundedbytheConstitution，ithasnopeculiarpowerundertheConstitution，andstandsinnopeculiarrelationeithertothatortoactsofCongress。IthasnootherpowertodecideontheconstitutionallegalityofanactofCongressoranactofaStatelegislature，orofapublicofficer，thaneverycourt，StateandNational，highandlow，possessesandisboundtoexercise。Itissimplythenationalcourtoflastappeal。

InthedifferentStatessuchtribunalshavebeenestablishedaseachStatebyitsconstitutionandlegislationhasseenfittoadopt。

TheStatesareentirelyfreeonthispoint。TheusualcourseistohaveoneSupremeCourt，sometimescalledbythatname，sometimestheCourtofAppeals，andsometimestheCourtofErrors。Thentheyhavesuchespecialcourtsastheirconveniencemaydictate。TheStatejurisprudenceincludesallcausesnotexpresslyorbynecessaryimplicationsecuredtothenationalcourts。ThetribunalsoftheStateshaveexclusivecontroloverdomesticrelations，religion，education，thetenureanddescentofland，theinheritanceofproperty，policeregulations，municipaleconomy，andallmattersofinternaltrade。Inthiscategory，ofcourse，cometherelationsofhusbandandwife，parentandchild，masterandservant，ownerandslave，guardianandward，tradesmanandapprentice。Soalsodoallpoliceandcriminalregulationsnotexternalintheircharacter——

highways，railroads，canals，schools，colleges，thereliefofpaupers，andthosethousandotheraffairsoftheworldbywhichmenaredailysurroundedintheirownhomesandtheirowndistricts。AstosuchsubjectsCongresscanmakenolaw，andoverthemCongressandthenationaltribunalshavenojurisdiction。CongresscannotsaythatamanshallbehungformurderinNewYork，norifamanbecondemnedtobehunginNewYorkcanthePresidentpardonhim。ThelegislatureofNewYorkmustsaywhetherornohangingshallbethepunishmentadjudgedtomurderinthatState；andtheGovernoroftheStateofNewYorkmustpronouncetheman\'spardon——ifitbethatheistobepardoned。ButCongressmustdecidewhetherornoamanshallbehungformurdercommittedonthehighseas，orinthenationalfortsorarsenals；andinsuchacaseitisforthePresidenttogiveortorefusethepardon。

ThejudgesoftheStatesareappointedastheconstitutionorthelawsofeachStatemaydirectinthatmatter。Theappointments，I

think，inalltheoldStates，wereformerlyvestedinthegovernor。

InsomeStatessuchisstillthecase。Insome，ifIamnotmistaken，thenominationisnowmade，directly，bythelegislature。

ButinmostoftheStatesthepowerofappointinghasbeenclaimedbythepeople，andthejudgesarevotedinbypopularelection，justasthePresidentoftheUnionandtheGovernorsofthedifferentStatesarevotedin。Therehasforsomeyearsbeenagrowingtendencyinthisdirection，andthepeopleinmostoftheStateshaveclaimedthepower——orratherthepowerhasbeengiventothepeoplebypoliticianswhohavewishedtogetintotheirhands，inthisway，thepatronageofthecourts。Butnow，atthepresentmoment，thereisarisingastrongfeelingoftheinexpediencyofappointingjudgesinsuchamanner。Ananti-democraticbiasistakingpossessionofmen\'sminds，causingareactionagainstthattendencytouniversalsuffrageineverythingwhichprevailedbeforethewarbegan。Astothismatterofthemodeofappointingjudges，Ihaveheardbutoneopinionexpressed；andIaminclinedtothinkthatachangewillbemadeinoneStateafteranother，astheconstitutionsofthedifferentStatesarerevised。Suchrevisionstakeplacegenerallyatperiodsofabouttwenty-fiveyears\'

duration。If，therefore，itbeacknowledgedthatthesystembebad，theerrorcanbesooncorrected。

NoristhismodeofappointmenttheonlyevilthathasbeenadoptedintheStatejudicatures。ThejudgesinmostoftheStatesarenotappointedforlife，norevenduringgoodbehavior。Theyentertheirplacesforacertaintermofyears，varyingfromfifteendown，I

believe，toseven。Idonotknowwhetheranyareappointedforatermoflessthansevenyears。Whentheygoouttheyhavenopensions；andasalawyerwhohasbeenonthebenchforsevenyearscanhardlyrecallhispractice，andfindhimselfatonceinreceiptofhisoldprofessionalincome，itmayeasilybeimaginedhowgreatwillbethejudge\'sanxietytoretainhispositiononthebench。

Thishecandoonlybytheuniversalsuffragesofthepeople，bypoliticalpopularity，andageneralstandingofthatnaturewhichenablesamantocomeforthasthefavoritecandidateofthelowerorders。Thismayormaynotbewellwhentheplacesoughtforisoneofpoliticalpower——whenthedutiesrequiredarepoliticalinalltheirbearings。Butnoonecanthinkitwellwhentheplacesoughtforisajudge\'sseatonthebench——whenthedutiesrequiredaresolelyjudicial。WhateverhithertomayhavebeentheconductofthejudgesinthecourtsofthedifferentStates，whetherornoimpurityhasyetcreptin，andthesanctityofjusticehasyetbeenoutraged，noonecandoubtthetendencyofsuchanarrangement。Atpresentevenafewvisitstothecourtsconstitutedinthismannerwillconvinceanobserverthatthejudgesonthebenchareratherinferiorthansuperiortothelawyerswhopracticebeforethem。Themannerofaddress，thetoneofvoice，thelackofdignityinthejudge，andtheassumptionbythelawyerbeforehimofahigherauthoritythanhis，alltellthistale。Andthenthejudgesinthesecourtsarenotpaidataratewhichwillsecuretheservicesofthebestmen。TheyvaryinthedifferentStates，runningfromabout600l。toabout1000l。perannum。Butasuccessfullawyer，practicinginthecourtsinwhichthesejudgessit，notunfrequentlyearns3000l。ayear。Aprofessionalincomeof2000l。ayearisnotconsideredveryhigh。Whenthedifferentconditionsofthebenchareconsidered，whenitisrememberedthatthejudgemaylosehisplaceafterashorttermofyears，andthatduringthatshorttermofyearshereceivesapaymentmuchlessthanthatearnedbyhissuccessfulprofessionalbrethren，itcanhardlybeexpectedthatfirst-ratejudgesshouldbefound。Theresultisseendailyinsociety。YoumeetJudgeThisandJudgeThat，notknowingwhethertheyareex-judgesorin-judges；butyousoonlearnthatyourfriendsdonotholdanyveryhighsocialpositiononaccountoftheirforensicdignity。

Itis，perhaps，butjusttoaddthatinMassachusetts，whichI

cannotbutregardasinmanyrespectsthenoblestoftheStates，thejudgesareappointedbytheGovernor，andareappointedforlife。

CHAPTERXII。

THEFINANCIALPOSITION。

TheAmericansareproudofmuchthattheyhavedoneinthiswar，andindeedmuchhasbeendonewhichmayjustifypride；butofnothingaretheysoproudasofthenobledimensionsandquickgrowthoftheirgovernmentdebt。ThatMr。SecretaryChase，theAmericanChancelloroftheExchequer，participatesinthisfeelingIwillnotventuretosay；butifhedonot，heiswell-nightheonlymanintheStateswhodoesnotdoso。Theamountofexpenditurehasbeenasubjectofalmostnationalpride，andthetwomillionsofdollarsaday，whichhasbeenroughlyputdownastheaveragecostofthewar，hasalwaysbeenmentionedbyNorthernmeninatoneoftriumph。

Thisfeelingis，Ithink，intelligible；andalthoughwecannotalludetoitwithoutacertainamountofinwardsarcasm，alittlegentlelaughinginthesleeve，atthenatureofthisnationaljoy，I

amnotpreparedtosaythatitisaltogetherridiculous。Ifthecountrybefoundableandwillingtopaythebill，thistriumphintheamountofthecostwillhereafterberegardedashavingbeenanythingbutridiculous。Inprivatelifeanindividualwilloccasionallybeknowntolavishhiswholefortuneontheaccomplishmentofanobjectwhichheconceivestobenecessarytohishonor。Iftheobjectbeinitselfgood，andifthemoneybereallypaid，wedonotlaughatsuchamanforthesacrificeswhichhemakes。

Formyself，IthinkthattheobjectoftheNorthernStatesinthiswarhasbeengood。Ithinkthattheycouldnothaveavoidedthewarwithoutdishonor，andthatitwasincumbentonthemtomakethemselvesthearbitersofthefuturepositionoftheSouth，whetherthatfuturepositionshallorshallnotbeoneofsecession。Thistheycouldonlydobyfighting。Hadtheyaccededtosecessionwithoutacivilwar，theywouldhavebeenregardedthroughoutEuropeashavingshownthemselvesinferiortotheSouth，andwouldformanyyearstocomehavelostthatprestigewhichtheirspiritandenergyhadundoubtedlywonforthem；andintheirowncountrysuchsubmissionontheirpartwouldhavepracticallygiventotheSouththepowerofdrawingthelineofdivisionbetweenthetwonewcountries。Thatline，sodrawn，wouldhavegivenVirginia，Maryland，Kentucky，andMissouritotheSouthernRepublic。ThegreateffectofthewartotheNorthwillbe，thattheNorthernmenwilldrawthelineofsecession，ifanysuchlinebedrawn。Istillthinkthatsuchlinewillultimatelybedrawn，andthattheSouthernStateswillbeallowedtosecede。Butifitbeso，Virginia，Maryland，Kentucky，andMissouriwillnotbefoundamongthesesecedingStates；andthelinemaynotimprobablybedrivensouthofNorthCarolinaandTennessee。Ifthiscanbeso，theobjectofthewarwill，Ithink，hereafterbeadmittedtohavebeengood。

WhatevermaybethecostinmoneyofjoiningtheStateswhichIhavenamedtoafree-soilNorthernpeople，insteadofallowingthemtobeburiedinthatdismalswampwhichaconfederacyofSouthernslaveStateswillproduce，thatcostcanhardlybetoomuch。AtthepresentmomentthereexistsinEnglandastrongsympathywiththeSouth，producedpartlybytheunreasonablevituperationwithwhichtheNorthtreatedourgovernmentatthebeginningofthewar，andbythecaptureofMasonandSlidell；partlyalsobythatfeelingofgood-willwhichalookeronatacombatalwayshasfortheweakerside。But，althoughthissympathydoesundoubtedlyexist，IdonotimaginethatmanyEnglishmenareofopinionthataconfederacyofSouthernslaveStateswilleveroffertothegeneralcivilizationoftheworldverymanyattractions。ItcannotbethoughtthattheSouthwillequaltheNorthinriches，inenergy，ineducation，orgeneralwell-being。Suchhasnotbeenourexperienceofanyslavecountry；suchhasnotbeenourexperienceofanytropicalcountry；

andsuchespeciallyhasnotbeenourexperienceoftheSouthernStatesoftheNorthAmericanUnion。Iamnoabolitionist，buttomeitseemsimpossiblethatanyEnglishmanshouldreallyadvocatethecauseofslaveryagainstthecauseoffreesoil。Therearetheslaves，andIknowthattheycannotbeabolished——neithertheynortheirchains；but，formyself，Iwillnotwillinglyjoinmylotwiththeirs。IdonotwishtohavedealingswiththeAfricannegro，eitherasafreemanorasaslave，ifIcanavoidthem，believingthathisemploymentbymeineithercapacitywouldleadtomyowndegradation。*Such，Ithink，arethefeelingsofEnglishmengenerallyonthismatter。Andifsuchbethecase，willitnotbeacknowledgedthattheNorthernmenhavedonewelltofightforalinewhichshalladdfiveorsixStatestothatUnionwhichwillintruthbeaunionoffreemen，ratherthantothatconfederacywhich，evenifsuccessful，mustoweitssuccesstoslavery？

*InsayingthisIfearthatIshallbemisunderstood，letmeusewhatfootnoteorothermodeofprotestationImaytoguardmyself。

InthusspeakingoftheAfricannegro，IdonotventuretodespisetheworkofGod\'shands。ThatHehasmadethenegro，forHisowngoodpurposes，asHehastheEsquimaux，Iamaware。AndIamawarethatitismyduty，asitisthedutyofusall，toseethatnoinjurybedonetohim，and，ifpossible，toassisthiminhiscondition。WhenIdeclarethatIdesirenodealingswiththenegro，IspeakofhiminthepositioninwhichInowfindhim，eitherasafreeservantoraslave。Ineitherpositionheimpedesthecivilizationandtheprogressofthewhiteman。

InconsideringthismatteritmustberememberedthatthefiveorsixStatesofwhichwearespeakingareatpresentslaveStates，butthat，withtheexceptionofVirginia——ofpartonlyofVirginia——theyarenotweddedtoslavery。ButeveninVirginia——greatashasbeenthegainwhichhasaccruedtothatunhappyStatefromthebreedingofslavesfortheSouthernmarket——eveninVirginiaslaverywouldsoondieoutifsheweredividedfromtheSouthandjoinedtotheNorth。InthoseotherStates，inMaryland，inKentucky，andinMissouri，thereisnodesiretoperpetuatetheinstitution。TheyhavebeenslaveStates，andassuchhaveresentedtherabidabolitionofcertainNorthernorators。Haditnotbeenforthoseorators，andtheiroratory，thesoilofKentuckywouldnowhavebeenfree。ThosefiveorsixStatesarenowslaveStates；butalineofsecessiondrawnsouthofthemwillbethelinewhichcutsoffslaveryfromtheNorth。IfthoseStatesbelongtotheNorthwhensecessionshallbeaccomplished，theywillbelongtoitasfreeStates；butiftheybelongtotheSouth，theywillbelongtotheSouthasslaveStates。IftheybelongtotheNorth，theywillbecomerichastheNorthis，andwillshareintheeducationoftheNorth。IftheybelongtotheSouth，theywillbecomepoorastheSouthis，andwillshareintheignoranceoftheSouth。Ifwepresumethatsecessionwillbeaccomplished——andIforoneamofthatopinion——hasitnotbeenwellthatawarshouldbewagedwithsuchanobjectasthis？IfthosefiveorsixStatescanbegained，stretchingeastandwestfromtheAtlantictothecenterofthecontinent，hundredsofmilesbeyondtheMississippi，andnorthandsouthoverfourdegreesoflatitude——ifthatextentofcontinentcanbeaddedtothefreesoiloftheNorthernterritory，willnotthecontestthathasdonethishavebeenworthanymoneythatcanhavebeenspentonit？

Somuchastotheobjecttobegainedbythemoneyspentonthewar！

AndIthinkthatinestimatingthenatureofthefinancialpositionwhichthewarhasproduceditwasnecessarythatweshouldconsiderthevalueoftheobjectwhichhasbeenindispute。Theobject，I

maintain，hasbeengood。Thencomesthequestionwhetherornothebillwillbefairlypaid——whethertheywhohavespentthemoneywillsetaboutthatdisagreeabletaskofsettlingtheaccountwithatruepurposeandanhonestenergy。Andthisquestionsplitsitselfintotwoparts。WilltheAmericanshonestlywishtopaythebill；andiftheydosowish，willtheyhavethepowertopayit？Againthatlastquestionmustbeoncemoredivided。Willtheyhavethepowertopay，asregardstheactualpossessionofthemeans，andifpossessingthem，willtheyhavethepowerofaccesstothosemeans？

Thenationhasobtainedforitselfanevilnameforrepudiation。WeallknowthatPennsylvaniabehavedbadlyabouthermoneyaffairs，althoughshedidatlastpayherdebts。WeallknowthatMississippihasbehavedverybadlyabouthermoneyaffairs，andhasneverpaidherdebts，nordoessheintendtopaythem。And，whichisworsethanthis，foritappliestothenationgenerallyandnottoindividualStates，weallknowthatitwasmadeamatterofboastintheStatesthatintheeventofawarwithEnglandtheenormousamountofpropertyheldbyEnglishmenintheStatesshouldbeconfiscated。ThatboastwasespeciallymadeinthemercantileCityofNewYork；andwhenthematterwasdiscusseditseemedasthoughnoAmericanrealizedtheiniquityofsuchathreat。Itwasnotapparentlyunderstoodthatsuchaconfiscationonaccountofawarwouldbeanactofnationalrobberyjustifiedsimplybythefactthatthepowerofcommittingitwouldbeinthehandsoftherobbers。Confiscationofsolargeanamountofwealthwouldbeasmartthing，andmendidnotseemtoperceivethatanydisgracewouldattachtoitintheeyesoftheworldatlarge。IamveryanxiousnottospeakharshwordsoftheAmericans；butwhenquestionsariseastopecuniaryarrangements，Ifindmyselfforcedtoacknowledgethatgreatprecautionisatanyratenecessary。

But，nevertheless，IamnotsurethatweshallbefairifweallowourselvestoargueastothenationalpurposeinthismatterfromsuchindividualinstancesofdishonestyasthosewhichIhavementioned。IdonotthinkitistobepresumedthattheUnitedStatesasanationwillrepudiateitsdebtsbecausetwoseparateStatesmayhavebeenguiltyofrepudiation。NoramIdisposedtojudgeofthehonestyofthepeoplegenerallyfromthedishonestthreateningsofNewYork，madeatamomentinwhichawarwithEnglandwasconsideredimminent。Idobelievethatthenation，asanation，willbeasreadytopayforthewarasithasbeenreadytocarryonthewar。That“ignorantimpatienceoftaxation，“towhichitissupposedthatweBritonsaresubject，hasnotbeenacomplaintrifeamongtheAmericansgenerally。We，inEngland，areinclinedtobelievethathithertotheyhaveknownnothingofthemeritsanddemeritsoftaxation，andhavefeltnoneofitsannoyances，becausetheirentirenationalexpenditurehasbeendefrayedbylightcustomduties；buttheleviesmadeintheseparateStatesforStatepurposes，orchieflyformunicipalpurposes，havebeenveryheavy。

Theyare，however，collectedeasily，and，asfarasIamaware，withoutanydisplayofignorantimpatience。Indeed，anAmericanisrarelyimpatientofanyordainedlaw。Whetherhebetoldtodothis，ortopayforthat，ortoabstainfromtheother，hedoesdoandpayandabstainwithoutgrumbling，providedthathehashadahandinvotingforthosewhomadethelawandforthosewhocarryoutthelaw。Thepeoplegenerallyhave，Ithink，recognizedthefactthattheywillhavetoputtheirnecksbeneaththeyoke，asthepeoplesofothernationshaveputtheirs，andsupporttheweightofagreatnationaldebt。Whenthetimecomesforthestruggle，forthefirstuphillheavingagainsttheterribleloadwhichtheywillhenceforthhavetodragwiththemintheircareer，Ithinkitwillbefoundthattheyarenotillinclinedtoputtheirshoulderstothework。

Thenastotheirpowerofpayingthebill！Wearetoldthatthewealthofanationconsistsinitslabor，andthatthatnationisthemostwealthywhichcanturnoutofhandthegreatestamountofwork。Ifthisbeso，theAmericanStatesmustformaverywealthynation，andassuchbeabletosupportaveryheavyburden。Noone，Ipresume，doubtsthatthatnationwhichworksthemost，orworksrathertothebesteffect，istherichest。OnthisaccountEnglandisricherthanothercountries，andisabletobear，almostwithoutthesignofaneffort，aburdenwhichwouldcrushanyotherland。

ButofthiswealththeStatesownalmostasmuchasGreatBritainowns。ThepopulationoftheNorthernStatesisindustrious，ambitiousofwealth，andcapableofworkasisourpopulation。Itpossesses，orispossessedby，thatrestlesslongingforlaborwhichcreateswealthalmostunconsciously。Whetherthismanberichorbeabankrupt，whetherthebankersofthatcityfailormaketheirmillions，thecreativeenergiesoftheAmericanpeoplewillnotbecomedull。Idlenessisimpossibletothem，andthereforepovertyisimpossible。Industryandintellecttogetherwillalwaysproducewealth；andneitherindustrynorintellectiseverwantingtoanAmerican。Theyarethetwogiftswithwhichthefairyhasendowedhim。Whensheshallhaveaddedhonestyasathird，thetax-gatherercandesirenobettercountryinwhichtoexercisehiscalling。

Icannotmyselfthinkthatallthemillionsthatarebeingspentwouldweighuponthecountrywithmuchoppression，iftheweightwereonceproperlyplaceduponthemusclesthatwillhavetobearit。Thedifficultywillbeintheplacingoftheweight。Ithas，I

know，beenarguedthatthecircumstancesunderwhichournationaldebthasextendeditselftoitspresentmagnificentdimensionscannotbequotedasparalleltothoseofthepresentAmericandebt，becausewe，whilewewerecreatingthedebt，weretaxingourselvesveryheavily，whereastheAmericanshavegoneaheadwiththecreationoftheirdebtbeforetheyhaveleviedashillingonthemselvestowardthepaymentofthoseexpensesforwhichthedebthasbeenencountered。Butthisargument，evenifitweretrueinitsgist，goesnowaytowardprovingthattheAmericanswillbeunabletopay。Thepopulationofthepresentfree-soilStatesisaboveeighteenmillions；thatoftheStateswhichwillprobablybelongtotheUnionifsecessionbeaccomplishedisabouttwenty-twomillions。Atatimewhenourdebthadamountedtosixhundredmillionssterlingwehadnopopulationsuchasthattobeartheburden。Itmaybesaidthatwehadmoreamassedwealththantheyhave。ButItakeitthattheamassedwealthofanycountrycangobutaverylittlewayindefrayingthewantsorinpayingthedebtsofapeople。Weagaincomebacktotheoldmaxim，thatthelaborofacountryisitswealth；andthatacountrywillberichorpoorinaccordancewiththeintellectualindustryofitspeople。

Buttheargumentdrawnfromthatcomparisonbetweenourownconductwhenwewerecreatingourdebt，andtheconductoftheAmericanswhiletheyhavebeencreatingtheirdebt——duringthetwelvemonthsfromApril1，1861，toMarch31，1862，letussay——ishardlyafairargument。We，atanyrate，knewhowtotaxourselves——ifonlythetaxesmightbeforthcoming。Wewerealreadywellusedtothework；

andaministerwithawillingHouseofCommonshadallhismaterialreadytohishand。IthasnotbeensointheUnitedStates。Thedifficultyhasnotbeenwiththepeoplewhoshouldpaythetaxes，butwiththeministerandtheCongresswhichdidnotknowhowtolevythem。CertainlynotasyethavethosewhoarenowcriticisingthedoingsontheothersideofthewaterarighttosaythattheAmericanpeopleareunwillingtomakepersonalsacrificesforthecarryingoutofthiswar。Nosignhasasyetbeenshownofanunwillingnessonthepartofthepeopletobetaxed。Butwhereverasigncouldbegiven，ithasbeengivenontheotherside。TheseparateStateshavetaxedthemselvesveryheavilyforthesupportofthefamiliesoftheabsentsoldiers。Theextraallowancesmadetomaimedmen，amountinggenerallytotwenty-fourshillingsamonth，havebeenpaidbytheStatesthemselves，andhavebeenpaidalmostwithtoomuchalacrity。

IamofopinionthattheAmericanswillshownounwillingnesstopaytheamountoftaxationwhichmustbeexactedfromthem；andIalsothinkthatasregardstheiractualmeanstheywillhavethepowertopayit。Butasregardstheirpowerofobtainingaccesstothosemeans，ImustconfessthatIseemanydifficultiesintheirway。Inthefirstplacetheyhavenofinancier，nomanwhobynaturalaptitudeandbylong-continuedcontactwithgreatquestionsoffinance，hasenabledhimselftohandlethemoneyaffairsofanationwithamaster\'shand。InsayingthisIdonotintendtoimputeanyblametoMr。Chase，thepresentSecretaryoftheTreasury。Ofhisabilitytodotheworkproperlyhadhereceivedthepropertraining，Iamnotabletojudge。ItisnotthatMr。Chaseisincapable。Hemaybecapableorincapable。Butitisthathehasnothadtheeducationofanationalfinancier，andthathehasnooneathiselbowtohelphimwhohashadthatadvantage。

AndhereweareagainbroughttothatgeneralabsenceofstatecraftwhichhasbeentheresultoftheAmericansystemofgovernment。I

amnotawarethatourChancellorsoftheExchequerhaveinlateyearsalwaysbeengreatmastersoffinance；buttheyhaveatanyratebeenamongmoneymenandmoneymatters，andhavehadfinanciersattheirelbowsiftheyhavenotdeservedthenamethemselves。TheveryfactthataChancelloroftheExchequersitsinthehouseofCommonsandisforcedinthatHousetoanswerallquestionsonthesubjectoffinance，rendersitimpossiblethatheshouldbeignorantoftherudimentsofthescience。Ifyouputawhitecaponaman\'sheadandplacehiminakitchen，hewillsoonlearntobeacook。

Buthewillneverbemadeacookbystandinginthedining-roomandseeingthedishesastheyarebroughtup。TheChancelloroftheExchequerisourcook；andtheHouseofCommons，nottheTreasurychambers，ishiskitchen。LettheSecretaryoftheUnitedStatesTreasurysitintheHouseofRepresentatives！Hewouldlearnmoretherebycontestwithopposingmembersthanhecandobyanyamountofstudyinhisownchamber。

ButtheHouseofRepresentativesitselfhasnotasyetlearneditsownlessonwithreferencetotaxation。WhenIsaythattheUnitedStatesareinwantofafinancier，IdonotmeanthatthedeficiencyrestsentirelywithMr。Chase。Thisnecessityfortaxation，andfortaxationatsotremendousarate，hascomesuddenly，andhasfoundtherepresentativesofthepeopleunpreparedforsuchwork。Tous，asIconceive，thescienceoftaxation，inwhichwecertainlyoughttobegreat，hascomegradually。Wehavelearnedbyslowlessonswhattaxeswillbeproductive，underwhatcircumstancestheywillbemostproductive，andatwhatpointtheywillbemadeunproductivebytheirownweight。Wehavelearnedwhattaxesmaybeleviedsoastoaffordfundsthemselves，withoutinjuringtheproceedsofothertaxes，andweknowwhattaxesshouldbeeschewedasbeingspeciallyoppressivetothegeneralindustryandinjurioustothewell-beingofthenation。Thishascomeofmuchpractice，andevenwe，withallourexperience，haveevengotsomethingtolearn。ButthepublicmenintheStateswhoarenowdevotingthemselvestothismatteroftaxingthepeoplehave，asyet，nosuchexperience。Thattheyhaveinclinationenoughfortheworkis，Ithink，sufficientlydemonstratedbythenationaltaxbill，thewordingofwhichisnowbeforeme，andwhichwillhavebeenpassedintolawbeforethisvolumecanbepublished。Itcontainsalistofeverytaxablearticleontheearthorundertheearth。Amoresweepingcatalogueoftaxationwasprobablyneverputforth。TheAmericans，ithasbeensaidbysomeofus，haveshownnodispositiontotaxthemselvesforthiswar；butbeforethewarhasasyetbeenwelltwelvemonthsinoperation，abillhascomeoutwithalistoftaxationsooppressivethatitmust，asregardsmanyofitsitems，actagainstitselfandcutitsownthroat。Itwillproduceterriblefraudinitsevasion，andcreateanarmyofexciseofficerswhowillbeaslocustsoverthefaceofthecountry。TaxesaretobelaidonarticleswhichIshouldhavesaidthatuniversalconsenthaddeclaredtobeunfitfortaxation。Salt，soap，candles，oil，andotherburningfluids，gas，pins，paper，ink，andleather，aretobetaxed。Itwasatfirstproposedthatwheatflourshouldbetaxed，butthatitemhas，Ibelieve，beenstruckoutofthebillinitspassagethroughtheHouse。Allarticlesmanufacturedofcotton，wool，silk，worsted，flax，hemp，jute，India-rubber，gutta-percha，wood(？)，glass，potterywares，leather，paper，iron，steel，lead，tin，copper，zinc，brass，goldandsilver，horn，ivory，bone，bristles，whollyorinpart，orofothermaterials，aretobetaxed——

providedalwaysthatbooks，magazines，pamphlets，newspapers，andreviewsshallnotberegardedasmanufactures。Itwillbesaidthattheamountoftaxationtobeleviedontheimmensenumberofmanufacturedarticleswhichmustbeincludedinthislistwillbelight，thetaxitselfbeingonly3percent。advalorem。Butwithreferencetoeveryarticle，therewillbethenecessityofcollectingthis3percent。Asregardseacharticlethatismanufactured，somegovernmentofficialmustinterferetoappraiseitsvalueandtolevythetax。Whoshalldeclarethevalueofabarrelofwoodennutmegs；orhowshalltheexciseofficergethistaxfromeverycobbler\'sstallinthecountry？Andthentradesmenaretopaylicensesfortheirtrades——aconfectioner2l。，atallow-

chandler2l。，ahorsedealer2l。Everymanwhosebusinessitistosellhorsesshallbeahorsedealer。True。Butwhoshallsaywhetherornoitbeaman\'sbusinesstosellhorses？Anapothecary2l。，aphotographer2l。，apeddler4l。，3l。，2l。，or1l。，accordingtohismodeoftraveling。Butifthegrossreceiptsofanyoftheconfectioners，tallow-chandlers，horsedealers，apothecaries，photographers，peddlers，orthelikedonotexceed200l。ayear，thensuchtradesmenshallnotberequiredtopayforanylicenseatall。Surelysuchaprovisocanonlyhavebeeninsertedwiththeexpressviewofcreatingfraudandillblood！Butthegreatestaudacityhas，Ithink，beenshowninthelevyingofpersonaltaxes，——

suchtaxesashavebeenheldtobepeculiarlydisagreeableamongus，andhavespeciallybroughtdownuponusthecontemptoflightly-

taxedpeople，who，liketheAmericans，haveknownnothingofdomesticinterference。Carriagesaretobetaxed，astheyarewithus。Pianosalsoaretobetaxed，andplate。Itisnotsignifiedbythisclausethatsucharticlesshallpayatax，onceforall，whileinthemaker\'shands，whichtaxwouldnodoubtfallonthefutureownerofsuchpianoorplate；insuchcasetheownerwouldpay，butwouldpaywithoutanypersonalcontactwiththetax-gatherer。Buteveryownerofapianoorofplateistopayannuallyaccordingtothevalueofthearticlesheowns。Butperhapsthemostaudaciousofalltheproposedtaxesisthatonwatches。Everyownerofawatchistopay4s。ayearforagoldwatchand2s。ayearforasilverwatch！TheAmericantax-gathererswillnotliketobecheated。Theywillbeverykeeninsearchingforwatches。Butwhocansaywhethertheyorthecarriersofwatcheswillhavethebestofitinsuchahunt。Thetax-gathererswillbeashoundseveratworkonacoldscent。Theywillnowbehotandangry，andthendullanddisheartened。Butthecarriersofwatcheswhodonotchoosetopaywillgenerally，onemaypredict，beabletomaketheirpointsgood。

Withsuchataxbill——whichIbelievecameintoactiononthe1stofMay，1862——theAmericansarenotfairlyopentothechargeofbeingunwillingtotaxthemselves。Theyhaveavoidednoneoftheirritatingannoyancesoftaxation，asalsotheyhavenotavoided，orattemptedtolightenforthemselves，thedeadweightoftheburden。

Thedeadweighttheyarerighttoendurewithoutflinching；buttheirmodeoflayingitontheirownbacksjustifiesme，Ithink，insayingthattheydonotyetknowhowtoobtainaccesstotheirownmeans。Butthisbillappliessimplytomattersofexcise。AsI

havesaidbefore，Congress，whichhashithertosupportedthegovernmentbycustomduties，hasalsothepoweroflevyingexciseduties，andnow，initsfirstsessionsincethecommencementofthewar，hasbeguntousethatpowerwithoutmuchhesitationorbashfulness。Asregardstheirtaxesleviedatthecustom-house，thegovernmentoftheUnitedStateshasalwaysbeeninclinedtohighduties，withtheviewofprotectingtheinternaltradeandmanufacturesofthecountry。Theamountrequiredfornationalexpenseswaseasilyobtained；andthesedutieswerenotregulated，asIthink，somuchwithaviewtotheamountwhichmightbecollectedastothatoftheeffectwhichthetaxmighthaveinfosteringnativeindustry。That，ifIunderstandit，wasthemeaningofMr。Morrill\'sbill，whichwaspassedimmediatelyonthesecessionoftheSouthernmembersofCongress，andwhichinstantlyenhancedthepriceofallforeignmanufacturedgoodsintheStates。

Butnowthedesireforprotection，simplyasprotection，hasbeenswallowedupintheacknowledgednecessityforrevenue；andtheonlyobjecttoberecognizedinthearrangementofthecustomdutiesisthecollectionofthegreatestnumberofdollars。Thisisfairenough。Ifthecountrycan，atsuchacrisis，raiseabetterrevenuebyclaimingashillingapoundoncoffeethanitcanbyclaimingsixpence，theshillingmaybewiselyclaimed，eventhoughmanymaythusbeprohibitedfromtheuseofcoffee。Butthencomesthegreatquestion，Whatdutywillreallygivethegreatestproduct？

Atwhatrateshallwetaxcoffeesoastogetatthepeople\'smoney？

Ifitbesotaxedthatpeoplewon\'tuseit，thetaxcutsitsownthroat。Thereissomepointatwhichthetaxwillbemostproductive；andalsothereisapointuptowhichthetaxwillnotoperatetotheseriousinjuryofthetrade。Withouttheknowledgewhichshouldindicatethesepoints，aChancelloroftheExchequer，withhismyrmidons，wouldbegropinginthedark。Asfaraswecanyetsee，thereisnotmuchofsuchknowledgeeitherintheTreasurychambersortheHouseofRepresentativesatWashington。

ButthegreatestdifficultywhichtheStateswillfeelinobtainingaccesstotheirownmeansoftaxationisthatwhichiscreatedbytheConstitutionitself，andtowhichIalludedwhenspeakingofthetaxingpowerswhichtheConstitutionhadgiventoCongressandthosewhichithaddeniedtoCongress。Astocustomdutiesandexciseduties，Congresscandowhatitpleases，ascantheHouseofCommons。ButCongresscannotlevydirecttaxationaccordingtoitsownjudgment。InthosemattersofcustomsandexciseCongressandtheSecretaryoftheTreasurywillprobablymakemanyblunders；but，havingthepower，theywillblunderthrough，andthemoneywillbecollected。ButdirecttaxationinanavailableshapeisbeyondthepowerofCongressundertheexistingruleoftheConstitution。Noincometax，forinstance，canbelaidonthegeneralincomesoftheUnitedStatesthatshallbeuniversalthroughouttheStates。Anincometaxcanbelevied，butitmustbeleviedinproportiontotherepresentation。ItisasthoughourChancelloroftheExchequer，incollectinganincometax，wereobligedtodemandthesameamountofcontributionfromthetownofChesterasfromthetownofLiverpool，becausebothChesterandLiverpoolreturntwomemberstoParliament。

InfittinghistaxtothecapacityofChester，hewouldbeforcedtoallowLiverpooltoescapeunscathed。NoskillinmoneymattersonthepartoftheTreasurySecretary，andnoaptnessforfinanceonthepartoftheCommitteeofWaysandMeans，canavailhere。TheConstitutionmustapparentlybealteredbeforeanyserviceableresortcanbehadtodirecttaxation。Andyet，atsuchanemergencyasthatnowexisting，directtaxationwouldprobablygivemorereadyassistancethancanbeaffordedeitherbythecustomsortheexcise。

IthasbeenstatedtomethatthisdifficultyinthewayofdirecttaxationcanbeovercomewithoutanychangeintheConstitution。

CongresscouldonlylevyfromRhodeIslandthesameamountofincometaxthatitmightlevyfromIowa；butitwillbecompetenttothelegislatureofRhodeIslanditselftolevywhatincometaxitmaypleaseonitself，andtodevotetheproceedstoNationalorFederalpurposes。RhodeIslandmaydoso，andsomayMassachusetts，NewYork，Connecticut，andtheotherrichAtlanticStates。Theymaytaxthemselvesaccordingtotheirriches，whileIowa，Illinois，Wisconsin，andsuchlikeStatesaretaxingthemselvesaccordingtotheirpoverty。IcannotmyselfthinkthatitwouldbewelltotrusttothegenerosityoftheseparateStatesforthefinancesneededbythenationalgovernment。WeshouldnotwillinglytrusttoYorkshireorSussextogiveustheircontributionstothenationalincome，especiallyifYorkshireandSussexhadsmallHousesofCommonsoftheirowninwhichthatquestionofgivingmightbedebated。ItmaybeverywellforRhodeIslandorNewYorktobepatriotic！ButwhatshallbedonewithanyStatethatdeclinestoevincesuchpatriotism？ThelegislaturesofthedifferentStatesmaybeinvitedtoimposeataxoffivepercent。onallincomesineachState；butwhatwillbedoneifPennsylvania，forinstance，shoulddecline，orIllinoisshouldhesitate？WhatifthelegislatureofMassachusettsshouldoffersixpercent。，orthatofNewJerseydecidethatfourpercent。wassufficient？Forawhilethearrangementmightpossiblybemadetoanswerthedesiredpurpose。DuringthefirstebullitionofhighfeelingthedifferentStatesconcernedmightpossiblyvotetheamountoftaxesrequiredforFederalpurposes。Ifearitwouldnotbeso，butwemayallowthatthechanceisonthecard。Butitisnotconceivablethatsuchanarrangementshouldbecontinuedwhen，afterayearortwo，mencametotalkoverthewarwithcalmerfeelingsandamorecriticaljudgment。TheStatelegislatureswouldbecomeinquisitive，opinionative，andprobablyfactious。Theywouldbeunwillingtoact，insogreatamatter，underthedictationoftheFederalCongress；and，bydegrees，oneandthenanotherwoulddeclinetogiveitsaidtothecentralgovernment。Howeverbroadlytheacknowledgmentmayhavebeenmadethatthelevyingofdirecttaxeswasnecessaryforthenation，eachStatewouldbetemptedtoarguethatawrongmodeandawrongrateoflevyinghadbeenadopted，andwordswouldbeforthcominginsteadofmoney。Aresorttosuchamodeoftaxationwouldbeabadsecurityforgovernmentstock。

Allmattersoftaxation，moreover，shouldbefreefromanytaintofgenerosity。Amanwhoshouldattempttolessentheburdensofhiscountrybygiftsofmoneytoitsexchequerwouldbelayinghiscountryunderanobligationforwhichhiscountrywouldnotthankhim。ThegiftsherewouldbefromStates，andnotfromindividualsbuttheprinciplewouldbethesame。IcannotimaginethattheUnitedStatesgovernmentwouldbewillingtooweitsrevenuetothegood-willofdifferentStates，oritswantofrevenuetotheircaprice。IfundersuchanarrangementtheWesternStatesweretodeclinetovotethequotaofincometaxorpropertytaxtowhichtheEasternStateshadagreed——andinallprobabilitytheywoulddecline——theywouldinfactbeseceding。Theywouldthussecedefromtheburdensoftheirgeneralcountry；butinsucheventnoonecouldaccusesuchStatesofunconstitutionalsecession。

ItisnoteasytoascertainwithprecisionwhatisthepresentamountofdebtduebytheUnitedStates；norprobablyhasanytolerablyaccurateguessbeenyetgivenoftheamounttowhichitmaybeextendedduringthepresentwar。AstatementmadeintheHouseofRepresentativesbyMr。Spaulding，amemberoftheCommitteeofWaysandMeans，onthe29thofJanuarylast，mayperhapsbetakenasgivingastrustworthyinformationasanythatcanbeobtained。I

havechangedMr。Spaulding\'sfiguresfromdollarsintopounds，thattheymaybemorereadilyunderstoodbyEnglishreaders:——

TherewasdueuptoJuly1，186118，173，566pounds。

“addedinJulyandAugust5，379，357“

“borrowedinAugust10，000，000“

“borrowedinOctober10，000，000“

“borrowedinNovember10，000，000“

“amountofTreasuryDemandNotesissued7，800，000“——

61，352，923“

ThiswastheamountofthedebtdueuptoJanuary15th，1862。Mr。

SpauldingthencalculatesthatthesumrequiredtocarryonthegovernmentuptoJuly1st，1862，willbe68，647，077l。Andthatafurthersumof110，000，000l。willbewantedonorbeforethe1stofJuly，1863。Thusthedebtatthatlatterdatewouldstandasfollows:——

AmountofdebtuptoJanuary，186261，352，923pounds。

AddedbyJuly1st，186268，647，077“

AgainaddedbyJuly1st，1803110，000，000“——

240，000，000“

Thefirstoftheseitemsmaynodoubtbetakenasaccurate。Thesecondhasprobablybeenfoundedonfactswhichleavelittledoubtastoitssubstantialtruth。Thethird，whichprofessestogivetheproposedexpenseofthewarfortheforthcomingyear，viz。，fromJuly1st，1862，toJune30th，1863，mustnecessarilyhavebeenobtainedbyaverylooseestimate。Noonecansaywhatmaybetheconditionofthecountryduringthenextyear——whetherthewarmaythenberagingthroughouttheSouthernStates，orwhetherthewarmaynothaveceasedaltogether。TheNorthknowslittleornothingofthecapacityoftheSouth。HowlittleitknowsmaybesurmisedfromthefactthatthewholeSouthernarmyofVirginiaretreatedfromtheirpositionatManassasbeforetheNortherngeneralsknewthattheyweremoving；andthatwhentheyweregonenowordwhateverwasleftoftheirnumbers。IdonotbelievethattheNortherngovernmentisevenyetabletomakeanyprobableconjectureastothenumberoftroopswhichtheSouthernConfederacyismaintaining；

andifthisbeso，theycancertainlymakenotrustworthyestimatesastotheirownexpensesfortheensuingyear。

Twohundredandfortymillionsis，however，thesumnamedbyagentlemanpresumedtobeconversantwiththematter，astheamountofdebtwhichmaybeexpectedbymidsummer，1863；andifthewarbecontinuedtillthen，itwillprobablybefoundthathehasnotexceededthemark。Itisright，however，tostatethatMr。Chaseinhisestimatedoesnotratethefiguressohigh。HehasgivenitashisopinionthatthedebtwillbeaboutonehundredandfourmillionsinJuly，1862，andonehundredandeightymillionsinJuly，1863。Astothefirstamount，withreferencetowhichatolerablyaccuratecalculationmayprobablybemade，Iaminclinedtoprefertheestimateasgivenbythememberofthecommittee；andastotheother，whichhardly，asIthink，admitsofanycalculation，hiscalculationisatanyrateasgoodasthatmadeintheTreasury。

Butitistheimmediatewantoffunds，andnottheprospectivedebtofthecountry，whichisnowdoingthedamage。InthisopinionMr。

Chasewillprobablyagreewithme；butreadersonthissideofthewaterwillreceivewhatIsaywithasmile。Suchastateofaffairsiscertainlyonethathasnotuncommonlybeenreachedbyfinanciers；

ithasalsooftenbeenexperiencedbygentlemeninthemanagementoftheirprivateaffairs。IthasbeencommoninIreland，andinLondonhascreatedthewealthofthepawnbrokers。IntheStatesatthepresenttimethegovernmentisverymuchinthiscondition。Theprospectivewealthofthecountryisalmostunbounded，butthereisgreatdifficultyinpersuadinganypawnbrokertoadvancemoneyonthepledge。InFebruarylastMr。Chasewasdriventoobtainthesanctionofthelegislatureforpayingthenationalcreditorsbybillsdrawnattwelvemonths\'date，andbearing6percent。

interest。Itistheoldstoryofthetailorwhocallswithhislittleaccount，anddrawsonhisinsolventdebtoratninetydays。

Iftheinsolventdebtorbenotutterlygoneasregardssolvencyhewilltakeupthebillwhendue，eventhoughhemaynotbeabletopayasimpledebt。But，then，ifhebeutterlyinsolvent，hecandoneithertheonenortheother！TheSecretaryoftheTreasury，whenheaskedforpermissiontoacceptthesebills——ortoissuethesecertificates，ashecallsthem——acknowledgedtopressingdebtsofoverfivemillionssterlingwhichhecouldnotpay；andtofurtherdebtsofeightmillionswhichhecouldnotpay，butwhichhetermedfloating；debts，ifIunderstandhim，whichwerenotasyetquitepressing。NowIimaginethattobealamentableconditionforanyChancellorofanExchequer——especiallyasaconfessionisatthesametimemadethatnoadvantageousborrowingistobedoneundertheexistingcircumstances。WhenaChancelloroftheExchequerconfessesthathecannotborrowonadvantageousterms，thetermswithinhisreachmustbeverybadindeed。Thispositionisindeedasadone，andatanyratejustifiesmeinstatingthattheimmediatewantoffundsisseverelyfelt。