第16章

Itbehovesthecountrytolooktothis。Itistimenowthatsheshoulddoso。Thepeopleofthenationareeducatedandclever。

Thewomenarebrightandbeautiful。Hercharityisprofuse；herphilanthropyiseagerandtrue；hernationalambitionisnobleandhonest——honestinthecauseofcivilization。Butshehassoiledherselfwithpoliticalcorruption，andhasdisgracedthecauseofrepublicangovernmentbythedirtofthosewhomshehasplacedinherhighplaces。Letherlooktoitnow。Sheisnoblyambitiousofreputationthroughouttheearth；shedesirestobecalledgoodaswellasgreat；toberegardednotonlyaspowerful，butalsoasbeneficent。Sheiscreatinganarmy；sheisforgingcannon，andpreparingtobuildimpregnableshipsofwar。Butallthesewillfailtosatisfyherpride，unlessshecancleanseherselffromthatcorruptionbywhichherpoliticaldemocracyhasdebaseditself。A

politicianshouldbeamanworthyofallhonor，inthatheloveshiscountry；andnotoneworthyofallcontempt，inthatherobshiscountry。

ImustnotbeunderstoodassayingthateverySenatorandRepresentativewhotakeshispayiswrongintakingit。Indeed，I

havealreadyexpressedanopinionthatsuchpaymentswereatfirstnecessary，andIbynomeansnowsaythatthenecessityhasasyetdisappeared。Inthemindsofthoroughdemocratsitwillbeconsideredmuchthatthepoorestmanofthepeopleshouldbeenabledtogointothelegislature，ifsuchpoorestmanbeworthyofthathonor。Iamnotathoroughdemocrat，andconsiderthatmorewouldbegainedbyobtaininginthelegislaturethateducation，demeanor，andfreedomfrompoliticaltemptationwhicheasycircumstancesproduce。Iamnot，however，onthisaccountinclinedtoquarrelwiththedemocrats——notonthataccountiftheycansomanagetheiraffairsthattheirpoorandpopularpoliticiansshallbefairlyhonestmen。ButIamathoroughrepublican，regardingourownEnglishformofgovernmentasthemostpurelyrepublicanthatI

know，andassuchIhaveacloseandwarmsympathywiththoseTransatlanticanti-monarchicalrepublicanswhoareendeavoringtoprovetotheworldthattheyhaveatlengthfoundedapoliticalUtopia。Iforonedonotgrudgethemallthegoodtheycando，allthehonortheycanwin。ButIgrieveovertheevilnamewhichnowtaintsthem，andwhichhasaccompaniedthatwiderspreadofdemocracywhichthelasttwentyyearshasproduced。Thislongingforuniversalsuffrageinallthings——invotingforthePresident，invotingforjudges，invotingfortheRepresentatives，indictatingtoSenators——hascomeupsincethedaysofPresidentJackson，andwithithascomecorruptionanduncleanhands。

Democracymustlooktoit，ortheworldatlargewilldeclarehertohavefailed。

OnewouldsaythatatanyratetheSenatemightbefilledwithunpaidservantsofthepublic。EachStatemightsurelyfindtwomenwhocouldaffordtoattendtothepublicwealoftheircountrywithoutclaimingacompensationfortheirtime。InEnglandwefindnodifficultyinbeingsoserved。Thosecitiesamongusinwhichthedemocraticelementmoststronglyabounds，canprocurerepresentativestotheirminds，eventhoughthehonoroffillingthepositionisnotonlynotremunerative，butisverycostly。IcannotbutthinkthattheSenateoftheUnitedStateswouldstandhigherinthepublicestimationofitsowncountryifitwereanunpaidbodyofmen。

ItisenjoinedthatnopersonholdinganyofficeundertheUnitedStatesshallbeamemberofeitherHouseduringhiscontinuanceinoffice。Atfirstsightsucharuleasthisappearstobegoodinitsnature；butacomparisonofthepracticeoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentwiththatofourownmakesmethinkthatthisembargoonmembersofthelegislativebodiesisamistake。ItprohibitsthePresident\'sministersfromaseatineitherhouse，andtherebyrelievesthemfromtheweightofthatresponsibilitytowhichourministersaresubjected。ItisquitetruethattheUnitedStatesministerscannotberesponsibleasareourministers，seeingthatthePresidenthimselfisresponsible，andthattheQueenisnotso。

Indeed，accordingtothetheoryoftheAmericanConstitution，thePresidenthasnoministers。TheConstitutionspeaksonlyoftheprincipalofficersoftheexecutivedepartments。“He“(thePresident)“mayrequiretheopinioninwritingoftheprincipalofficerineachoftheexecutivedepartments。“Butinpracticehehashiscabinet，andtheirresponsibilityofthatcabinetwouldpracticallyceaseifthemembersofitweresubjectedtothequestioningsofthetwoHouses。WithustherulewhichprohibitsservantsoftheStatefromgoingintoParliamentis，likemanyofourconstitutionalrules，hardtobedefined，andyetperfectlyunderstood。Itmayperhapsbesaid，withthenearestapproachtoacorrectdefinition，thatpermanentservantsoftheStatemaynotgointoParliament，andthatthosemaydosowhoseservicesarepolitical，dependingforthedurationoftheirtermonthedurationoftheexistingministry。Buteventhiswouldnotbeexact，seeingthattheMasteroftheRollsandtheofficersofthearmyandnavycansitinParliament。TheabsenceofthePresident\'sministersfromCongresscertainlyoccasionsmuchconfusion，orratherprohibitsamorethoroughpoliticalunderstandingbetweentheexecutiveandthelegislaturethannowexists。InspeakingofthegovernmentoftheUnitedStatesinthenextchapter，Ishallbeconstrainedtoalludeagaintothissubject。*

*ItwillbeallegedbyAmericansthattheintroductionintoCongressofthePresident\'sministerswouldalteralltheexistingrelationsofthePresidentandofCongress，andwouldatonceproducethatparliamentaryformofgovernmentwhichEnglandpossesses，andwhichtheStateshavechosentoavoid。SuchachangewouldelevateCongressanddepressthePresident。Nodoubtthisistrue。Suchelevation，however，andsuchdepressionseemedtometobethetwothingsneeded。

ThedutiesoftheHouseofRepresentativesaresolelylegislative。

ThoseoftheSenatearelegislativeandexecutive，aswithusthoseoftheUpperHousearelegislativeandjudicial。TheHouseofRepresentativesisalwaysopentothepublic。TheSenateissoopenwhenitisengagedonlegislativework；butitisclosedtothepublicwhenengagedinexecutivesession。NotreatiescanbemadebythePresident，andnoappointmentstohighofficesconfirmed，withouttheconsentoftheSenate；andthisconsentmustbegiven——

asregardstheconfirmationoftreaties——bytwo-thirdsofthememberspresent。ThislawgivestotheSenatethepowerofdebatingwithcloseddoorsuponthenatureofalltreaties，andupontheconductofthegovernmentasevincedinthenominationoftheofficersofState。ItalsogivestotheSenateaconsiderablecontrolovertheforeignrelationsofthegovernment。Ibelievethatthispowerisoftenused，andthatbyittheinfluenceoftheSenateisraisedmuchabovethatoftheLowerHouse。ThisinfluenceisincreasedagainbytheadvantageofthatsuperiorstatecraftandpoliticalknowledgewhichthesixyearsoftheSenatorgiveshimoverthetwoyearsoftheRepresentative。ThetriedRepresentative，moreover，veryfrequentlyblossomsintoaSenatorbutaSenatordoesnotfrequentlyfadeintoaRepresentative。Suchoccasionallyisthecase，anditisnotevenunconstitutionalforanex-PresidenttoreappearineitherHouse。Mr。Benton，afterthirtyyears\'serviceintheSenate，satintheHouseofRepresentatives。Mr。Crittenden，whowasreturnedasSenatorbyKentucky，Ithinkseventimes，nowsitsintheLowerHouse；andJohnQuincyAdamsappearedasaRepresentativefromMassachusettsafterhehadfilledthepresidentialchair。

And，moreover，theSenateoftheUnitedStatesisnotdebarredfromaninterferencewithmoneybills，astheHouseofLordsisdebarredwithus。“Allbillsforraisingrevenue，“saystheseventhsectionofthefirstarticleoftheConstitution，“shalloriginatewiththeHouseofRepresentatives，buttheSenatemayproposeorconcurwithamendmentsasonotherbills。“BythistheSenateisenabledtohaveanauthorityinthemoneymattersofthenationalmostequaltothatheldbytheLowerHouse——anauthorityquitesufficienttopreservetoitthefullinfluenceofitsotherpowers。WithustheHouseofCommonsisaltogetherintheascendant，becauseitholdsandjealouslykeepstoitselftheexclusivecommandofthepublicpurse。

CongresscanlevycustomdutiesintheUnitedStates，andalwayshasdoneso；hithertothenationalrevenuehasbeenexclusivelyraisedfromcustomduties。Itcannotlevydutiesonexports。Itcanlevyexciseduties，andisnowdoingso；hithertoithasnotdoneso。Itcanlevydirecttaxes，suchasanincometaxandapropertytax；ithithertohasnotdoneso，butnowmustdoso。Itmustdoso，I

thinkIamjustifiedinsaying；butitspowerofdoingthisissohamperedbyconstitutionalenactment，thatitwouldseemthattheConstitutionasregardsthisheadingmustbealteredbeforeanyschemecanbearrangedbywhichamoderatelyjustincometaxcanbeleviedandcollected。ThisdifficultyIhavealreadymentioned，butperhapsitwillbewellthatIshouldendeavortomakethesubjectmoreplain。Itisspeciallydeclared:“Thatallduties，imposts，andexcisesshallbeuniformthroughouttheunitedStates。“Andagain:“Thatnocapitationorotherdirecttaxshallbelaid，unlessinproportiontothecensusorenumerationhereinbeforedirectedtobetaken。“Andagain，inthewordsbeforequoted:“RepresentativesanddirecttaxesshallbeapportionedamongtheseveralStateswhichshallbeincludedinthisUnion，accordingtotheirrespectivenumbers。“BytheserepeatedrulesithasbeenintendedtodecreethattheseparateStatesshallbeardirecttaxationaccordingtotheirpopulationandtheconsequentnumberoftheirRepresentatives；

andthisintentionhasbeenmadesoclearthatnodirecttaxationcanbeleviedinoppositiontoitwithoutanevidentbreachoftheConstitution。Toexplainthewayinwhichthiswillwork，IwillnamethetwoStatesofRhodeIslandandIowaasopposedtoeachother，andthetwoStatesofMassachusettsandIndianaasopposedtoeachother。RhodeIslandandMassachusettsarewealthyAtlanticStates，containing，asregardsenterpriseandcommercialsuccess，thecreamofthepopulationoftheUnitedStates。Comparingthemintheratioofpopulation，IbelievethattheyarericherthananyotherStates。TheyreturnbetweenthemthirteenRepresentatives，RhodeIslandsendingtwoandMassachusettseleven。IowaandIndianaalsosendthirteenRepresentatives，Iowasendingtwo，andbeingthusequaltoRhodeIsland；Indianasendingeleven，andbeingthusequaltoMassachusetts。IowaandIndianaareWesternStates；andthoughI

amnotpreparedtosaythattheyarethepoorestStatesoftheUnion，IcanassertthattheyareexactlyoppositeintheircircumstancestoRhodeIslandandMassachusetts。ThetwoAtlanticStatesofNewEnglandareoldestablished，rich，andcommercial。

ThetwoWesternStatesIhavenamedarefullofnewimmigrants，arecomparativelypoor，andareagricultural。NeverthelessanydirecttaxationleviedonthoseintheEastandonthoseintheWestmustbeequalinitsweight。IowamustpayasmuchasRhodeIsland；

IndianamustpayasmuchasMassachusetts。ButRhodeIslandandMassachusettscouldpay，withoutthesacrificeofanycomforttoitspeople，withoutanysensiblesuffering，anamountofdirecttaxationwhichwouldcrushtheStatesofIowaandIndiana——whichindeednotaxgatherercouldcollectoutofthoseStates。RhodeIslandandMassachusettscouldwiththeirreadymoneybuyIowaandIndiana；andyettheincometaxtobecollectedfromthepoorStatesistobethesameinamountasthatcollectedfromtherichStates。WithineachindividualStatethetotalamountofincometaxorofotherdirecttaxationtobeleviedfromthatStatemaybeapportionedastheStatemaythinkfit；butanincometaxoftwopercent。onRhodeIslandwouldprobablyproducemorethananincometaxoftenpercent。inIowa；whereasRhodeIslandcouldpayanincometaxoftenpercent。easierthancouldIowaoneoftwopercent。

ItwouldinfactappearthattheConstitutionasatpresentframedisfataltoalldirecttaxation。AnylawforthecollectionofdirecttaxationleviedundertheConstitutionwouldproduceinternecinequarrelbetweentheWesternStatesandthosewhichborderontheAtlantic。TheWesternStateswouldnotsubmittothetaxation。Thedifficultywhichoneherefeelsisthatwhichalwaysattendsanattemptatfinalityinpoliticalarrangements。Onewouldbeinclinedtosayatoncethatthelawshouldbealtered，andthatasthemoneyrequiredisforthepurposesoftheUnionandforStatepurposes，suchachangeshouldbemadeaswouldenableCongresstolevyanincometaxonthegeneralincomeofthenation。ButCongresscannotgobeyondtheConstitution。

ItistruethattheConstitutionisnotfinal，andthatitcontainsanexpressarticleordainingthemannerinwhichitmaybeamended。

AndperhapsImayaswellexplainherethemannerinwhichthiscanbedone，althoughbydoingsoIamdepartingfromtheorderinwhichtheConstitutioniswritten。Itisnotfinal，andamendmentshavebeenmadetoit。ButthemakingofsuchamendmentsisanoperationsoponderousandtroublesomethatthedifficultyattachedtoanysuchchangeenvelopstheConstitutionwithmanyofthetroublesoffinality。WithusthereisnothingbeyondanactofParliament。AnactofParliamentwithuscannotbeunconstitutional。ButnosuchpowerhasbeenconfidedtoCongress，ortoCongressandthePresidenttogether。NoamendmentoftheConstitutioncanbemadewithoutthesanctionoftheStatelegislatures。Congressmayproposeanyamendments，astotheexpediencyofwhichtwo-thirdsofbothHousesshallbeagreed；butbeforesuchamendmentscanbeacceptedtheymustberatifiedbythelegislaturesofthree-fourthsoftheStates，orbyconventionsinthree-fourthsoftheStates，“astheoneortheothermodeofratificationmaybeproposedbyCongress。“OrCongress，insteadofproposingtheamendments，may，onanapplicationfromthelegislaturesoftwo-thirdsofthedifferentStates，callaconventionfortheproposingofthem。InwhichlattercasetheratificationbythedifferentStatesmustbemadeafterthesamefashionasthatrequiredintheformercase。I

donotknowthatIhavesucceededinmakingclearlyintelligiblethecircumstancesunderwhichtheConstitutioncanbeamended；butI

thinkImayhavesucceededinexplainingthatthosecircumstancesaredifficultandtedious。InamatteroftaxationwhyshouldStatesagreetoanalterationproposedwiththeveryobjectofincreasingtheirproportionofthenationalburden？ButunlesssuchStateswillagree——unlessRhodeIsland，Massachusetts，andNewYorkwillconsenttoputtheirownnecksintotheyoke——directtaxationcannotbeleviedontheminamanneravailablefornationalpurposes。IdobelievethatRhodeIslandandMassachusettsatpresentpossessapatriotismsufficientforsuchanact。Butthemodeofdoingtheworkwillcreatedisagreement，oratanyrate，tediousdelayanddifficulty。HowshalltheConstitutionbeconstitutionallyamendedwhileone-thirdoftheStatesareinrevolt？

IntheeighthsectionofitsfirstarticletheConstitutiongivesalistofthedutieswhichCongressshallperform——ofthings，inshort，whichitshalldoorshallhavepowertodo:Toraisetaxes；

toregulatecommerceandthenaturalizationofcitizens；tocoinmoney，andprotectitwhencoined；toestablishpostalcommunication；tomakelawsfordefenseofpatentsandcopyrights；

toconstitutenationalcourtsoflawinferiortotheSupremeCourt；

topunishpiracies；todeclarewar；toraise，payfor，andgovernarmies，navies，andmilitia；andtoexerciseexclusivelegislationinacertaindistrictwhichshallcontaintheseatofgovernmentoftheUnitedStates，andwhichisthereforetoberegardedasbelongingtothenationatlarge，andnottoanyparticularState。

ThisdistrictisnowcalledtheDistrictofColumbia。ItissituatedonthePotomac，andcontainstheCityofWashington。

ThentheninthsectionofthesamearticledeclareswhatCongressshallnotdo。Certainimmigrationshallnotbeprohibited；THE

PRIVILEGEOFTHEWRITOFHABEASCORPUSSHALLNOTBESUSPENDED，exceptundercertaincircumstances；noexpostfactolawshallbepassed；nodirecttaxshallbelaidunlessinproportiontothecensus；notaxshallbelaidonexports；nomoneyshallbedrawnfromthetreasurybutbylegalappropriation；notitleofnobilityshallbegranted。

TheabovearelistsorcataloguesofthepowerswhichCongresshas，andofthepowerswhichCongresshasnot——ofwhatCongressmaydo，andofwhatCongressmaynotdo；andhavinggiventhemthusseriatim，ImayhereperhapsbebestenabledtosayafewwordsastothesuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpusintheUnitedStates。Itisgenerallyknownthatthisprivilegehasbeensuspendedduringtheexistenceofthepresentrebellionverymanytimes；thatthishasbeendonebytheExecutive，andnotbyCongress；andthatitismaintainedbytheExecutiveandbythosewhodefendtheconductofthenowactingExecutiveoftheUnitedStatesthatthepowerofsuspendingthewrithasbeengivenbytheConstitutiontothePresidentandnottoCongress。IconfessthatI

cannotunderstandhowanymanfamiliareitherwiththewordingorwiththespiritoftheConstitutionshouldholdsuchanargument。

TomeitappearsmanifestthattheExecutive，insuspendingtheprivilegeofthewritwithouttheauthorityofCongress，hascommittedabreachoftheConstitution。WerethecaseonereferringtoourBritishConstitution，aplainman，knowinglittleofparliamentaryusageandnothingoflawlore，wouldprobablyfeelsomehesitationinexpressinganydecidedopiniononsuchasubject，seeingthatourconstitutionisunwritten。ButtheintentionhasbeenthateverycitizenoftheUnitedStatesshouldknowandunderstandtherulesunderwhichheistolive，andthathethatrunsmayread。

AsthismatterhasbeenarguedbyMr。HoraceBinney，alawyerofPhiladelphia——muchtrusted，ofverygreatandofdeservedeminencethroughouttheStates——inapamphletinwhichhedefendsthesuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewritbythePresident，Iwilltakethepositionofthequestionassummedupbyhiminhislastpage，andcompareitwiththatclauseintheConstitutionbywhichthesuspensionoftheprivilegeundercertaincircumstancesisdecreed；andtoenablemetodothisIwill，inthefirstplace，quotethewordsoftheclauseinquestion:——

“Theprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpusshallnotbesuspendedunlesswhen，incaseofrebellionorinvasion，thepublicsafetymayrequireit。“ItisthesecondclauseofthatsectionwhichstateswhatCongressshallnotdo。

Mr。Binneyarguesasfollows:“Theconclusionofthewholematteristhis——thattheConstitutionitselfisthelawoftheprivilegeandoftheexceptiontoit；thattheexceptionisexpressedintheConstitution，andthattheConstitutiongiveseffecttotheactofsuspensionwhentheconditionsoccur；thattheconditionsconsistoftwomattersoffact——oneanakedmatteroffact；andtheotheramatter-of-factconclusionfromfacts:thatistosay，rebellionandthepublicdanger，ortherequirementofpublicsafety。“BythesewordsMr。BinneyintendstoimplythattheConstitutionitselfgavetheprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpus，anditselfprescribesthetakingawayofthatprivilegeundercertaincircumstances。Butthisisnotso。TheConstitutiondoesnotprescribethesuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewritunderanycircumstances。Itsaysthatitshallnotbesuspendedexceptundercertaincircumstances。Mr。

Binney\'sargument，ifIunderstandit，thengoesonasfollows:AstheConstitutionprescribesthecircumstancesunderwhichtheprivilegeofthewritshallbesuspended——theonecircumstancebeingthenakedmatteroffactrebellion，andtheothercircumstancethepublicsafetysupposedtohavebeenendangeredbysuchrebellion，whichMr。Binneycallsamatter-of-factconclusionfromfacts——theConstitutionmustbepresumeditselftosuspendtheprivilegeofthewrit。WhetherthePresidentorCongressbetheagentoftheConstitutioninthissuspension，isnotmatterofmoment。Eithercanonlybeanagent；andasCongresscannotactexecutively，whereasthePresidentmustultimatelybechargedwiththeexecutiveadministrationoftheorderforthatsuspension，whichhasinfactbeenissuedbytheConstitutionitself，thereforethepowerofexercisingthesuspensionofthewritmayproperlybepresumedtobeinthehandsofthePresidentandnottobeinthehandsofCongress。

IfIfollowMr。Binney\'sargument，itamountstosomuch。ButitseemstomethatMr。Binneyiswronginhispremisesandwronginhisconclusion。ThearticleoftheConstitutioninquestiondoesnotdefinetheconditionsunderwhichtheprivilegeofthewritshallbesuspended。Itsimplystatesthatthisprivilegeshallneverbesuspendedexceptundercertainconditions。Itshallnotbesuspendedunlesswhenthepublicsafetymayrequiresuchsuspensiononaccountofrebellionorinvasion。Rebellionorinvasionisnotnecessarilytoproducesuchsuspension。Thereis，indeed，nonakedmatteroffacttoguideeitherPresidentorCongressinthematter；

andthereforeIsaythatMr。Binneyiswronginhispremises。

Rebellionorinvasionmightoccurtwentytimesover，andmightevenendangerthepublicsafety，withoutjustifyingthesuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewritundertheConstitution。IsayalsothatMr。

Binneyiswronginhisconclusion。Thepublicsafetymustrequirethesuspensionbeforethesuspensioncanbejustified；andsuchrequirementmustbeamatterforjudgmentandfortheexerciseofdiscretion。Whetherornothereshallbeanysuspensionisamatterfordeliberation——notonesimplyforexecutiveaction，asthoughitwerealreadyordered。Thereisnomatter-of-factconclusionfromfacts。Shouldinvasionorrebellionoccur，andshouldthepublicsafety，inconsequenceofsuchrebellionorinvasion，requirethesuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewrit，then，andonlythen，maytheprivilegebesuspended。Buttowhomisthepower，orrathertheduty，ofexercisingthisdiscretiondelegated？Mr。Binneysaysthat“thereisnoexpressdelegationofthepowerintheConstitution？“

ImaintainthatMr。Binneyisagainwrong，andthattheConstitutiondoesexpresslydelegatethepower，nottothePresident，buttoCongress。Thisisdonesoclearly，tomymind，thatIcannotunderstandthemisunderstandingwhichhasexistedintheStatesuponthesubject。ThefirstarticleoftheConstitutiontreats“ofthelegislature。“Thesecondarticletreats“oftheexecutive？“Thethirdtreats“ofthejudiciary。“Afterthattherearecertain“miscellaneousarticles“socalled。Theeighthsectionofthefirstarticlegives，asIhavesaidbefore，alistofthingswhichthelegislatureorCongressshalldo。TheninthsectiongivesalistofthingswhichthelegislatureorCongressshallnotdo。Theseconditeminthislististheprohibitionofanysuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpus，exceptundercertaincircumstances。ThisprohibitionisthereforeexpresslyplaceduponCongress，andthisprohibitioncontainstheonlyauthorityunderwhichtheprivilegecanbeconstitutionallysuspended。Thencomesthearticleontheexecutive，whichdefinesthepowersthatthePresidentshallexercise。Inthatarticlethereisnowordreferringtothesuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewrit。Hethatrunsmayread。

Isay，therefore，thatMr。Lincoln\'sgovernmenthascommittedabreachoftheConstitutionintakinguponitselftosuspendtheprivilege；abreachagainsttheletteroftheConstitution。IthasassumedapowerwhichtheConstitutionhasnotgivenit——which，indeed，theConstitution，byplacingitinthehandsofanotherbody，hasmanifestlydeclinedtoputintothehandsoftheExecutive；andithasalsocommittedabreachagainstthespiritoftheConstitution。ThechiefpurportoftheConstitutionistoguardthelibertiesofthepeople，andtoconfidetoadeliberativebodytheconsiderationofallcircumstancesbywhichthoselibertiesmaybeaffected。ThePresidentshallcommandthearmy；butCongressshallraiseandsupportthearmy。Congressshalldeclarewar。

Congressshallcoinmoney。Congress，byoneofitsbodies，shallsanctiontreaties。CongressshallestablishsuchlawcourtsasarenotestablishedbytheConstitution。UndernocircumstancesisthePresidenttodecreewhatshallbedone。ButheistodothosethingswhichtheConstitutionhasdecreedorwhichCongressshalldecree。Itismonstroustosupposethatpowerovertheprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpuswould，amongsuchapeople，andundersuchaConstitution，begivenwithoutlimittothechiefofficer，theonlyconditionbeingthatthereshouldbesomerebellion。SuchrebellionmightbeinUtahTerritory；orsometroubleintheuttermostboundsofTexaswouldsuffice。Anyinvasion，suchasaninroadbythesavagesofOldMexicouponNewMexico，wouldjustifyanarbitraryPresidentinrobbingallthepeopleofalltheStatesoftheirliberties！AsquabbleonthebordersofCanadawouldputsuchapowerintothehandsofthePresidentforfouryears；orthepresenceofanEnglishfrigateintheSt。Juanchannelmightbeheldtodoso。Isaythatsuchatheoryismonstrous。

AndtheeffectofthisbreachoftheConstitutionatthepresentdayhasbeenverydisastrous。IthastaughtthosewhohavenotbeencloseobserversoftheAmericanstruggletobelievethat，afterall，theAmericansareindifferentastotheirliberties。Suchprankshavebeenplayedbeforehighheavenbymenutterlyunfittedfortheuseofgreatpower，ashavescaredallthenations。Mr。Lincoln，thePresidentbywhomthisunconstitutionalacthasbeendone，apparentlydelegatedhisassumedauthoritytohisminister，Mr。

Seward。Mr。Sewardhasreveledintheprivilegeofunrestrainedarrests，andhaslockedmenupwithreasonandwithout。Hehasinstitutedpassportsandsurveillance；andplacedhimselfattheheadofanomnipresentpolicesystemwithallthegustoofaFouche，thoughluckilywithoutaFouche\'scraftorcunning。ThetimewillprobablycomewhenMr。Sewardmustpayforthis——notwithhislifeorliberty，butwithhisreputationandpoliticalname。ButinthemeantimehislettresdecachethaveruneverywherethroughtheStates。Theprankswhichheplayedwereabsurd，andthearrestswhichhemadeweregrievous。Afterawhile，whenitbecamemanifestthatMr。Sewardhadnotfoundawaytosuccess，whenitwasseenthathehadinauguratednogreatmodeofputtingdownrebellion，heapparentlylosthispowerinthecabinet。Thearrestsceased，thepassportswerediscontinued，andtheprisondoorsweregraduallyopened。Mr。Sewardwasdeposed，notfromthecabinet，butfromthepremiershipofthecabinet。Thesuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpuswasnotcountermanded，buttheoperationofthesuspensionwasallowedtobecomelessandlessonerous；andnow，inApril，1862，withinayearofthecommencementofthesuspension，ithas，Ithink，nearlydiedout。Theobjectinhandnowisratherthatofgettingridofpoliticalprisonersthanoftakingothers。

Thisassumptionbythegovernmentofanunconstitutionalpowerhas，asIhavesaid，taughtmanylookersontothinkthattheAmericansareindifferenttotheirliberties。Imyselfdonotbelievethatsuchaconclusionwouldbejust。Duringthepresentcrisisthestrongfeelingofthepeople——thatfeelingwhichforthemomenthasbeendominant——hasbeenoneinfavorofthegovernmentasagainstrebellion。Therehasbeenapassionateresolutiontosupportthenationalityofthenation。Menhavefeltthattheymustmakeindividualsacrifices，andthatsuchsacrificesmustincludeatemporarysuspensionofsomeoftheirconstitutionalrights。ButI

thinkthatthistemporarysuspensionisalreadyregardedwithjealouseyes；withanincreasingjealousywhichwillhavecreatedareactionagainstsuchpolicyasthatwhichMr。Sewardhasattemped，longbeforethecloseofMr。Lincoln\'sPresidency。Iknowthatitiswronginawritertocommithimselftoprophecies，butIfinditimpossibletowriteuponthissubjectwithoutdoingso。AsImustexpressasurmiseonthissubject，IventuretoprophesythattheAmericansoftheStateswillsoonshowthattheyarenotindifferenttothesuspensionoftheprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpus。OnthatmatteroftheillegalityofthesuspensionbythePresident，I

feelinmyownmindthatthereisnodoubt。

ThesecondarticleoftheConstitutiontreatsoftheexecutive，andisveryshort。ItplacesthewholeexecutivepowerinthehandsofthePresident，andexplainswithmoredetailthemodeinwhichthePresidentshallbechosenthanthemannerafterwhichthedutiesshallbeperformed。ThefirstsectionstatesthattheexecutiveshallbevestedinaPresident，whoshallholdhisofficeforfouryears。WithhimshallbechosenaVice-President。ImayhereexplainthattheVice-President，assuch，hasnopowereitherpoliticaloradministrative。Heis，ex-officio，theSpeakeroftheSenate；andshouldthePresidentdie，orbebyothercauserenderedunabletoactasPresident，theVice-PresidentbecomesPresidenteitherfortheremainderofthepresidentialtermorfortheperiodofthePresident\'stemporaryabsence。Twice，sincetheConstitutionwaswritten，thePresidenthasdiedandtheVice-Presidenthastakenhisplace。NoPresidenthasvacatedhisposition，evenforaperiod，throughanycauseotherthandeath。

ThencometherulesunderwhichthePresidentandVice-Presidentshallbeelected——withreferencetowhichtherehasbeenanamendmentoftheConstitutionsubsequenttothefourthPresidentialelection。ThiswasfoundtobenecessarybythecircumstancesofthecontestbetweenJohnAdams，ThomasJefferson，andAaronBurr。

Itwasthenfoundthatthecomplicationsinthemethodofelectioncreatedbytheoriginalclausewereallbutunendurable，andtheConstitutionwasamended。

Iwillnotdescribeindetailthepresentmodeofelection，asthedoingsowouldbetediousandunnecessary。TwofactsIwish，however，tomakespeciallynoticeableandclear。Thefirstis，thatthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesisnowchosenbyuniversalsuffrage；andthesecondis，thattheConstitutionexpresslyintendedthatthePresidentshouldnotbechosenbyuniversalsuffrage，butbyabodyofmenwhoshouldenjoytheconfidenceandfairlyrepresentthewillofthepeople。TheframersoftheConstitutionintendedsotowritethewordsthatthepeoplethemselvesshouldhavenomoreimmediateconcerninthenominationofthePresidentthaninthatoftheSenate。Theyintendedtoprovidethattheelectionshouldbemadeinamannerwhichmaybedescribedasthoroughlyconservative。Thosewords，however，havebeeninefficientfortheirpurpose。Theyhavenotbeenviolated。

Butthespirithasbeenviolated，whilethewordshavebeenheldsacred；andthepresidentialelectionsarenowconductedonthewidestprinciplesofuniversalsuffrage。Theyareessentiallydemocratic。

Thearrangement，aswrittenintheConstitution，isthateachStateshallappointabodyofelectorsequalinnumbertotheSenatorsandRepresentativessentbythatStatetoCongress，andthatthusabodyorcollegeofelectorsshallbeformedequalinnumbertothetwojointHousesofCongress，bywhichthePresidentshallbeelected。

NomemberofCongress，however，canbeappointedanelector。ThusNewYork，withthirty-threeRepresentativesintheLowerHouse，wouldnamethirty-fiveelectors；andRhodeIsland，withtwomembersintheLowerHouse，wouldnamefourelectors——ineachcasetwobeingaddedforthetwoSenators。

Itmay，perhaps，bedoubtedwhetherthistheoryofanelectionbyelectorshaseverbeentrulycarriedout。ItwasprobablythecaseevenattheelectionofthefirstPresidentsafterWashington，thattheelectorswerepledgedinsomeinformalwayastothecandidateforwhomtheyshouldvote；buttheveryideaofanelectionbyelectorshasbeenabandonedsincethePresidencyofGeneralJackson。

AccordingtothetheoryoftheConstitution，theprivilegeandthedutyofselectingabestmanasPresidentwastobedelegatedtocertainbestmenchosenforthatpurpose。ThiswastheintentionofthosewhoframedtheConstitution。Itmay，asIhavesaid，bedoubtedwhetherthistheoryhaseveravailedforaction；butsincethedaysofJacksonithasbeenabsolutelyabandoned。Theintentionwassufficientlyconservative。Theelectorstowhomwastobeconfidedthisgreattrust，weretobechosenintheirownStatesaseachStatemightthinkfit。TheuseofuniversalsuffrageforthispurposewasneitherenjoinednorforbiddenintheseparateStates——

wasneithertreatedasdesirableorundesirablebytheConstitution。

EachStatewaslefttojudgehowitwouldelectitsownelectors。

ButthePresidenthimselfwastobechosenbythoseelectorsandnotbythepeopleatlarge。Theintentionissufficientlyconservative，buttheintentionisnotcarriedout。

TheelectorsarestillchosenbythedifferentStatesinconformitywiththebiddingoftheConstitution。TheConstitutionisexactlyfollowedinallitsbiddings，asfarasthewordingofitisconcerned；butthewholespiritofthedocumenthasbeenevadedinthefavorofdemocracy，anduniversalsuffrageinthepresidentialelectionshasbeenadopted。Theelectorsarestillchosen，itistrue；buttheyareonlychosenasthemouth-pieceofthepeople\'schoice，andnotasthemindbywhichthatchoiceshallbemade。WehaveallheardofAmericansvotingforaticket——fortheDemocraticticket，ortheRepublicanticket。AllpoliticalvotingintheStatesisnowmanagedbytickets。Asregardsthesepresidentialelections，eachpartydecidesonacandidate。Eventhisprimarydecisionisamatterofvotingamongthepartyitself。WhenMr。

Lincolnwasnominatedasitscandidatebytherepublicanparty，thenamesofnolessthanthirteencandidatesweresubmittedtothedelegateswhoweresenttoaconventionatChicago，assembledforthepurposeoffixinguponacandidate。AtthatconventionMr。

LincolnwaschosenastheRepublicancandidateandinthatconventionwasinfactfoughtthebattlewhichwaswoninMr。

Lincoln\'sfavor，althoughthatconventionwaswhatwemaycallaprivatearrangement，whollyirrespectiveofanyconstitutionalenactment。Mr。LincolnwasthenproclaimedastheRepublicancandidate，andallRepublicanswereheldasboundtosupporthim。

Whenthetimecamefortheconstitutionalelectionoftheelectors，certainnamesweregottogetherineachStateasrepresentingtheRepublicaninterest。ThesenamesformedtheRepublicanticket，andanymanvotingforthemvotedinfactforLincoln。Therewerethreeotherparties，eachrepresentedbyacandidate，andeachhaditsownticketinthedifferentStates。ItisnottobesupposedthatthesupportersofMr。LincolnwereveryanxiousabouttheirticketinAlabama，orthoseofMr。BreckinridgeastotheirsinMassachusetts。

InAlabama，aDemocraticslaveticketwould，ofcourse，prevail。InMassachusetts，aRepublicanfree-soilticketwoulddoso。Butitmay，Ithink，beseenthatinthiswaytheelectorshaveinrealityceasedtohaveanyweightintheelections——haveinverytruthceasedtohavetheexerciseofanywillwhatever。Theyaremerenames，andnomore。Statnominisumbra。TheelectionofthePresidentismadebyuniversalsuffrage，andnotbyacollegeofelectors。Thewordsastheyarewrittenarestillobeyed；buttheConstitutioninfacthasbeenviolated，forthespiritofithasbeenchangedinitsveryessence。

ThePresidentmusthavebeenbornacitizenoftheUnitedStates。

ThisisnotnecessaryfortheholderofanyotherofficeorforaSenatororRepresentative；hemustbethirty-fouryearsoldatthetimeofhiselection。

Hisexecutivepowerisalmostunbounded。Heismuchmorepowerfulthananyministercanbewithus，andissubjecttoamuchlighterresponsibility。HemaybeimpeachedbytheHouseofRepresentativesbeforetheSenate，butthatimpeachmentonlygoestotheremovalfromofficeandpermanentdisqualificationforoffice。Butinthesedays，asweallpracticallyunderstand，responsibilitydoesnotmeanthefearofanygreatpunishment，butthenecessityofaccountingfromdaytodayforpublicactions。Aleadingstatesmanhasbutslightdreadoftheaxe，butisinhourlyfearofhisopponent\'squestions。ThePresidentoftheUnitedStatesissubjecttonosuchquestionings，andashedoesnotevenrequireamajorityineitherHouseforthemaintenanceofhisauthority，hisresponsibilitysetsuponhimveryslightly。SeeingthatMr。Buchananhasescapedanypunishmentformaladministration，noPresidentneedfeartheangerofthepeople。

ThePresidentiscommander-in-chiefofthearmyandofthenavy。Hecangrantpardons——asregardsalloffensescommittedagainsttheUnitedStates。HehasnopowertopardonanoffensecommittedagainstthelawsofanyState，andastowhichtheculprithasbeentriedbeforethetribunalsofthatState。Hecanmaketreaties；butsuchtreatiesarenotvalidtilltheyhavebeenconfirmedbytwo-

thirdsoftheSenatorspresentinexecutivesession。Heappointsallambassadorsandotherpublicofficers——butsubjecttotheconfirmationoftheSenate。HecanconveneeitherorbothHousesofCongressatirregulartimes，andundercertaincircumstancescanadjournthem，hisexecutivepoweris，infact，almostunlimited；andthispowerissolelyinhisownhands，astheConstitutionknowsnothingofthePresident\'sministers。AccordingtotheConstitutiontheseofficersaremerelytheheadsofhisbureaus。AnEnglishman，however，inconsideringtheexecutivepowerofthePresident，andinmakinganycomparisonbetweenthatandtheexecutivepowerofanyofficerorofficersattachedtotheCrowninEngland，shouldalwaysbearinmindthatthePresident\'spower，andevenauthority，isconfinedtotheFederalgovernment，andthathehasnonewithreferencetotheindividualStates，religion，education，theadministrationofthegenerallawswhichconcerneverymanandwoman，andtherealdefactogovernmentwhichcomeshometoeveryhouse，——thesethingsarenotinanywaysubjecttothePresidentoftheUnitedStates。

Hislegislativepowerisalsogreat。HehasavetouponallactsofCongress，Thisvetoisbynomeansadeadletter，asisthevetooftheCrownwithus；butitisnotabsolute。ThePresident，ifherefuseshissanctiontoabillsentuptohimfromCongress，returnsittothatHouseinwhichitoriginated，withhisobjectionsinwriting。If，afterthat，suchbillshallagainpassthroughboththeSenateandtheHouseofRepresentatives，receivingineachHousetheapprovalsoftwo-thirdsofthosepresent，thensuchbillbecomeslawwithoutthePresident\'ssanction。Unlessthisbedone，thePresident\'svetostopsthebill。Thisvetohasbeenfrequentlyused，butnobillhasyetbeenpassedinoppositiontoit。

ThethirdarticleoftheConstitutiontreatsofthejudiciaryoftheUnitedStates；butasIpurposetowriteachapterdevotedtothelawcourtsandlawyersoftheStates，IneednotheredescribeatlengththeenactmentsoftheConstitutiononthishead。Itisordainedthatallcriminaltrials，exceptincasesofimpeachment，shallbebyjury。

Thereareafterthiscertainmiscellaneousarticles，someofwhichbelongtotheConstitutionasitstoodatfirst，andothersofwhichhavebeensinceaddedasamendments。AcitizenofoneStateistobeacitizenofeveryState。CriminalsfromoneStateshallnotbefreefrompursuitinotherStates。Thencomesaverymaterialenactment:“NopersonheldtoserviceorlaborinoneState，underthelawsthereof，escapingintoanother，shall，inconsequenceofanylaworregulationtherein，bedischargedfromsuchserviceorlabor；butshallbedelivereduponclaimofthepartytowhomsuchserviceorlabormaybedue。“InspeakingofapersonheldtolabortheConstitutionintendstospeakofaslave，andthearticleamountstoafugitiveslavelaw。IfaslaverunawayoutofSouthCarolinaandfindhiswayintoMassachusetts，MassachusettsshalldeliverhimupwhencalledupontodosobySouthCarolina。Thewordscertainlyareclearenough。ButMassachusettsstronglyobjectstothedeliveryofsuchmenwhensodesired。Suchmenshehasdeliveredup，withmanygroaningsandmuchinwardperturbationofspirit。Butitisunderstood，notinMassachusettsonly，butinthefree-soilStatesgenerally，thatfugitiveslavesshallnotbedeliveredupbytheordinaryactionofthelaws。ThereisafeelingstrongasthatwhichweentertainwithreferencetotherenditionofslavesfromCanada。WithsuchaclauseintheConstitutionasthat，itishardlytoomuchtosaythatnofree-soilSlatewillconsenttoconstitutionalaction。WereitexpungedfromtheConstitution，noslaveStatewouldconsenttoliveunderit。Itisapointastowhichtheadvocatesofslaveryandtheenemiesofslaverycannotbebroughttoactinunion。ButonthisheadIhavealreadysaidwhatlittleIhavetosay。

NewStatesmaybeadmittedbyCongress，buttheboundsofnooldStateshallbealteredwithouttheconsentofsuchState。CongressshallhavepowertoruleanddisposeoftheTerritoriesandpropertyoftheUnitedStates。TheUnitedStatesguaranteeeveryStatearepublicanformofgovernment；buttheConstitutiondoesnotdefinethatformofgovernment。AnordinarycitizenoftheUnitedStates，ifasked，wouldprobablysaythatitincludedthatdescriptionoffranchisewhichIhavecalleduniversalsuffrage。Such，however，wasnotthemeaningofthosewhoframedtheConstitution。Theordinarycitizenwouldprobablyalsosaythatitexcludedtheuseofaking，thoughhewould，Iimagine，beabletogivenogoodreasonforsayingso。Itakearepublicangovernmenttobethatinwhichthecareofthepeopleisinthehandsofthepeople。Theymayuseanelectedpresident，ahereditaryking，orachiefmagistratecalledbyanyothername。Butthemagistrate，whateverbehisname，mustbetheservantofthepeopleandnottheirlord。Hemustactforthemandattheirbidding——nottheyathis。Ifhedoso，heisthechiefofficerofarepublic——asisourQueenwithus。

TheUnitedStatesConstitutionalsoguaranteestoeachStateprotectionagainstinvasion，and，ifnecessary，againstdomesticviolence——meaning，Ipresume，internalviolence。Thewordsdomesticviolencemightseemtorefersolelytoslaveinsurrections；butsuchisnotthemeaningofthewords。ThefreeStateofNewYorkwouldbeentitledtotheassistanceoftheFederalgovernmentinputtingdowninternalviolence，ifunabletoquellsuchviolencebyherownpower。

ThisConstitution，andthelawsoftheUnitedStatesmadeinpursuanceofit，aretobeheldasthesupremelawoftheland。ThejudgesofeveryStatearetobeboundthereby，letthelawsorseparateconstitutionofsuchStatesaywhattheywilltothecontrary。SenatorsandothersaretobeboundbyoathtosupporttheConstitution；butnoreligioustestshallberequiredasaqualificationtoanyoffice。

IntheamendmentstotheConstitution，itisenactedthatCongressshallmakenolawastotheestablishmentofanyreligion，orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof；andalsothatitshallnotabridgethefreedomofspeech，orofthepress，orofpetition。Thegovernment，however，asiswellknown，hastakenuponitselftoabridgethefreedomofthepress。Therightofthepeopletobeararmsshallnotbeinfringed。Thenfollowvariousclausesintendedforthesecurityofthepeopleinreferencetotheadministrationofthelaws。Theyshallnotbetroubledbyunreasonablesearches。

Theyshallnotbemadetoanswerforgreatoffensesexceptbyindictmentofagrandjury。Theyshallnotbeputtwiceinjeopardyforthesameoffense。Theyshallnotbecompelledtogiveevidenceagainstthemselves。Privatepropertyshallnotbetakenforpublicusewithoutcompensation。Accusedpersonsincriminalproceedingsshallbeentitledtospeedyandpublictrial。Theyshallbeconfrontedwiththewitnessesagainstthem，andshallhaveassistanceofcounsel。Suitsinwhichthevaluecontrovertedisabovetwentydollars(4l。)shallbetriedbeforejuries。Excessivebailshallnotberequired，norcruelandunusualpunishmentsinflicted。Inallwhichenactmentswesee，Ithink，acloseresemblancetothosewhichhavebeentimehonoredamongourselves。

TheremainingamendmentsapplytothemodeinwhichthePresidentandVice-Presidentshallbeelected，andofthemIhavealreadyspoken。

TheConstitutionissignedbyWashingtonasPresident——asPresidentandDeputyfromVirginia。ItissignedbydeputiesfromalltheotherStates，exceptRhodeIsland。AmongthesignaturesisthatofAlexanderHamilton，fromNewYork；ofFranklin，headingacrowdinPennsylvania，inthecapitalofwhichStatetheconventionwasheld；

andthatofJamesMadison，thefuturePresident，fromVirginia。

InthebeginningofthischapterIhavespokenofthesplendidresultsattainedbythosewhodrewuptheConstitution；andthen，asthoughinoppositiontothepraisethusgiventotheirwork，IhaveinsistedthroughoutthechapterbothontheinsufficiencyoftheConstitutionandonthebreachestowhichithasbeensubjected。I

havedeclaredmyopinionthatitisinefficientforsomeofitsrequiredpurposes，andhavesaidthat，whetherinefficientorefficient，ithasbeenbrokenandinsomedegreeabandoned。I

maintain，however，thatinthisIhavenotcontradictedmyself。A

boy，whodeclareshispurposeoflearningtheAEneidbyheart，willbeheldasbeingsuccessfulifattheendofthegivenperiodhecanrepeatelevenbooksoutofthetwelve。Neverthelessthereporter，insumminguptheachievement，isboundtodeclarethatthatotherbookhasnotbeenlearned。UnderthisConstitutionofwhichIhavebeenspeaking，theAmericanpeoplehaveachievedmuchmaterialsuccessandgreatpoliticalpower。Asapeopletheyhavebeenhappyandprosperous。Theirfreedomhasbeensecuredtothem，andforaperiodofseventy-fiveyearstheyhavelivedandprosperedwithoutsubjectiontoanyformoftyranny。Thisinitselfismuch，andshould，Ithink，beheldasapreparationforgreaterthingstofollow。Such，Ithink，shouldbeouropinion，althoughthenationisatthepresentburdenedbysoheavyaloadoftroubles。Thatanywrittenconstitutionshouldserveitspurposesandmaintainitsauthorityinanationforadozenyearsisinitselfmuchforitsframers。WherearenowtheconstitutionswhichwerewrittenforFrance？ButthisConstitutionhassowounditselfintotheaffectionsofthepeople，hasbecomeamarkforsuchreverenceandlove，has，afteratrialofthree-quartersofacentury，sorecommendeditselftothejudgmentofmen，thatthedifficultyconsistsintouchingit，notinkeepingit。Eighteenortwentymillionsofpeoplewhohavelivedunderit，——inwhatwaydotheyregardit？Isnotthatthebestevidencethatcanbehadrespectingit？Isittothemanoldwoman\'sstory，auselessparchment，athingofoldwordsatwhichallmustnowsmile？Heavenmendthem，iftheyreverenceitmore，asIfeartheydo，thantheyreverencetheirBible。Forthem，afterseventy-fiveyearsoftrial，ithasalmosttheweightofinspiration。Inthisrespect，withreferencetothisworshipoftheworkoftheirforefathers，theymaybeinerror。Butthatveryerrorgoesfartoprovetheexcellenceofthecode。Whenamanhaswalkedforsixmonthsoverstonywaysinthesameboots，hewillbebelievedwhenhesaysthathisbootsaregoodboots。Noassertiontothecontraryfromanyby-standerwillreceivecredence，eventhoughitbeshownthatastitchortwohascomeundone，andthatsomerequiredpurposehasnoteffectuallybeencarriedout。Thebootshavecarriedthemanoverhisstonyroadsforsixmonths，andtheymustbegoodboots。AndsoIsaythattheConstitutionmustbeagoodconstitution。

AstothatpositivebreachoftheConstitutionwhichhas，asI

maintain，beencommittedbythepresentgovernment，althoughIhavebeenatsometroubletoproveit，ImustownthatIdonotthinkverymuchofit。Itistobelamented；buttheeviladmits，I

think，ofeasyrepair。Ithashappenedataperiodofunwonteddifficulty，whenthemindsofmenwereintentratheronthesupportofthatnationalitywhichguaranteestheirliberties，thanontheenjoymentofthoselibertiesthemselves，andthefaultmaybepardonedifitbeacknowledged。Butitisessentialthatitshouldbeacknowledged。Insuchamatterasthatthereshouldatanyratebenodoubt。Now，inthisveryyearoftherebellion，itmaybewellthatnoclamoragainstgovernmentshouldarisefromthepeople，andthusaddtothedifficultiesofthenation。Butitwillbebad，indeed，forthenationifsuchafaultshallhavebeencommittedbythisgovernmentandshallbeallowedtopassunacknowledged，unrebuked——asthoughitwereavirtueandnofault。IcannotbutthinkthatthetimewillsooncomeinwhichMr。Seward\'sreadingoftheConstitutionandMr。Lincoln\'sassumptionofillegalpowerunderthatreadingwillreceiveadifferentconstructionintheStatesthanthatputuponitbyMr。Binney。

ButIhaveadmittedthattheConstitutionitselfisnotperfect。Itseemstomethatitrequirestobeamendedontwoseparatepoints——

especiallyontwo；andIcannotbutacknowledgethattherewouldbegreatdifficultyinmakingsuchamendments。Thatmatterofdirecttaxationisthefirst。AstothatIshallspeakagaininreferringtothefinancialpositionofthecountry。Ithink，however，thatitmustbeadmitted，inanydiscussionheldontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，thatthetheoryoftaxationastherelaiddownwillnotsufficeforthewantsofagreatnation。IftheStatesaretomaintaintheirgroundasagreatnationalpower，theymustagreeamongthemselvestobearthecostofsuchgreatness。WhileacustomdutywassufficientforthepublicwantsoftheUnitedStates，thisfaultintheConstitutionwasnotfelt。Butnowthatstandingarmieshavebeeninaugurated，thatiron-cladshipsareheldasdesirable，thatagreatnationaldebthasbeenfounded，customdutieswillsufficenolonger，norwillexcisedutiessuffice。

Directtaxationmustbelevied，andsuchtaxationcannotbefairlyleviedwithoutachangeintheConstitution。ButsuchachangemaybemadeindirectaccordancewiththespiritoftheConstitution，andthenecessityforsuchanalterationcannotbeheldasprovinganyinefficiencyintheoriginaldocumentforthepurposesoriginallyrequired。

Asregardstheotherpointwhichseemstometorequireamendment，I

mustacknowledgethatIamabouttoexpresssimplymyownopinion。

ShouldAmericansreadwhatIwrite，theymayprobablysaythatIamrecommendingthemtoadopttheblundersmadebytheEnglishintheirpracticeofgovernment。Englishmen，ontheotherhand，maynotimprobablyconceivethatasystemwhichworkswellhereunderamonarchy，wouldabsolutelyfailunderapresidencyoffouryears\'

duration。NeverthelessIwillventuretosuggestthatthegovernmentoftheUnitedStateswouldbeimprovedinallrespectsifthegentlemenformingthePresident\'scabinetwereadmittedtoseatsinCongress。Atpresenttheyarevirtuallyirresponsible。Theyareconstitutionallylittlemorethanheadclerks。ThiswasallverywellwhilethegovernmentoftheUnitedStateswasasyetasmallthing；butnowitisnolongerasmallthing。ThePresidenthimselfcannotdoall，norcanhebeintruthresponsibleforall。A

cabinet，suchasisourcabinet，isnecessarytohim。Suchacabinetdoesexist，andthemembersofittakeuponthemselvesthehonorswhicharegiventoourcabinetministers。Buttheyareexemptedfromallthatparliamentarycontactwhich，infact，givestoourcabinetministerstheiradroitness，theirresponsibility，andtheirpositioninthecountry。OnthissubjectalsoImustsayanotherwordortwofartheron。

ButhowamItoexcusetheConstitutiononthosepointsastowhichithas，asIhavesaid，fallenthrough，inrespecttowhichithasshownitselftobeinefficientbytheweaknessofitsownwords？

SeeingthatalltheexecutivepowerisintrustedtothePresident，itisespeciallynecessarythatthechoiceofthePresidentshouldbeguardedbyconstitutionalenactments；thatthePresidentshouldbechoseninsuchamannerasmayseembesttotheconcentratedwisdomofthecountry。ThePresidentisplacedinhisseatforfouryears。Forthattermheisirremovable。Heactswithoutanymajorityineitherofthelegislativehouses。Hemuststatereasonsforhisconduct，butheisnotresponsibleforthosereasons。Hisownjudgmentishissoleguide。Nodesireofthepeoplecanturnhimout；norneedhefearanyclamorfromthepress。Ifanofficersohighinpowerbeneeded，atanyratethechoiceofsuchanofficershouldbemadewiththegreatestcare。TheConstitutionhasdecreedhowsuchcareshouldbeexercised，buttheConstitutionhasnotbeenabletomaintainitsowndecree。TheconstitutedelectorsofthePresidenthavebecomeamerename；andthatofficerischosenbypopularelection，inoppositiontotheintentionofthosewhoframedtheConstitution。Theeffectofthismaybeseeninthecharactersofthemensochosen。Washington，Jefferson，Madison，thetwoAdamses，andJacksonweretheownersofnamesthathavebecomeknowninhistory。Theyweremenwhohavelefttheirmarksbehindthem。ThoseinEuropewhohavereadofanything，havereadofthem。Americans，whetherasRepublicanstheyadmireWashingtonandtheAdamses，orasDemocratsholdbyJefferson，Madison，andJackson，donotatanyrateblushfortheiroldPresidents。ButwhohasheardofPolk，ofPierce，ofBuchanan？WhatAmericanisproudofthem？IntheolddaysthenameofafuturePresidentmightbesurmised。Hewouldprobablybeamanhonoredinthenation；butwhonowcanmakeaguessastothenextPresident？Inonerespectaguessmaybemadewithsomesafety。ThenextPresidentwillbeamanwhosenamehasasyetoffendednoonebyitsprominence。ButonerequisiteisessentialforaPresident；hemustbeamanwhomnoneasyethavedelightedtohonor。

Thishascomeofuniversalsuffrage；andseeingthatithascomeinspiteoftheConstitution，andnotbytheConstitution，itisverybad。NorinsayingthisamIspeakingmyownconvictionsomuchasthatofalleducatedAmericanswithwhomIhavediscussedthesubject。Atthepresentmomentuniversalsuffrageisnotpopular。

Thosewhoarethehighestamongthepeoplecertainlydonotloveit。

Idoubtwhetherthemassesofthepeoplehaveevercravedit。Ithasbeenintroducedintothepresidentialelectionsbymencalledpoliticians；bymenwhohavemadeitamatteroftradetodabbleinStateaffairs，andwhohavegraduallylearnedtoseehowtheconstitutionallaw，withreferencetothepresidentialelectors，couldbesetasidewithoutanypositivebreachoftheConstitution。*

*Onthismatteroneofthebest，andbest-informedAmericansthatI

haveknown，toldmethathedifferedfromme。“Itintroduceditself，“saidhe。“Itwastheresultofsocialandpoliticalforces。ElectionofthePresidentbypopularchoicebecameanecessity。“Themeaningofthisis，thatinregardtotheirpresidentialelectionstheUnitedStatesdriftedintouniversalsuffrage。Idonotknowthathistheoryisonemorecomfortableforhiscountrythanmyown。

Whetherornoanybackwardstepcannowbetaken——whethertheseelectionscanagainbeputintothehandsofmenfittoexerciseachoiceinsuchamatter——maywellbedoubted。FacilisdescensusAverni。Buttherecoveryofthedownwardstepsisverydifficult。

Onthatsubject，however，Ihardlyventureheretogiveanopinion。

Ionlydeclarewhathasbeendone，andexpressmybeliefthatithasnotbeendoneinconformitywiththewishesofthepeople，asitcertainlyhasnotbeendoneinconformitywiththeintentionoftheConstitution。

InanothermatteradeparturehasbeenmadefromtheconservativespiritoftheConstitution。Thisdepartureisequallygravewiththeother，butitisonewhichcertainlydoesadmitofcorrection。

IalludetothepresentpositionassumedbymanyoftheSenators，andtotheinstructionsgiventothembytheStatelegislaturesastothevoteswhichtheyshallgiveintheSenate。Anobedienceontheirparttosuchinstructionsisequalinitseffectstotheintroductionofuniversalsuffrageintotheelections。Itmakesthemhanguponthepeople，diveststhemoftheirpersonalresponsibility，takesawayallthoseadvantagesgiventothembyasixyears\'certaintenureofoffice，andannulsthesafetysecuredbyaconservativemethodofelection。HereagainImustdeclaremyopinionthatthisdemocraticpracticehascreptintotheSenatewithoutanyexpressedwishofthepeople。Inallsuchmattersthepeopleofthenationhasbeenstrangelyundemonstrative。Ithasbeendoneaspartofasystemwhichhasbeenusedfortransferringthepoliticalpowerofthenationtoabodyoftradingpoliticianswhohavebecomeknownandfeltasamass，andnotknownandfeltasindividuals。IfinditdifficulttodescribethepresentpoliticalpositionoftheStatesinthisrespect。ThemillionsofthepeopleareeagerfortheConstitution，areproudoftheirpowerasanation，andareambitiousofnationalgreatness。Buttheyarenot，asIthink，especiallydesirousofretainingpoliticalinfluencesintheirownhands。Atmanyoftheelectionsitisdifficulttoinducethemtovote。Theyhaveamongthemahalf-knowledgethatpoliticsisatradeinthehandsofthelawyers，andthattheyarethecapitalbywhichthosepoliticaltradesmencarryontheirbusiness。

Thesepoliticiansarealllawyers。Politicsandlawgotogetherasnaturallyasthepossessionoflandandtheexerciseofmagisterialpowersdowithus。Itmaybewellthatitshouldbeso，asthelawyersarethebest-educatedmenofthecountry，andneednotnecessarilybethemostdishonest。Politicalpowerhascomeintotheirhands，anditisfortheirpurposesandbytheirinfluencesthatthespreadofdemocracyhasbeenencouraged。

AsregardstheSenate，therecoveryofitsolddignityandformerpositioniswithinitsownpower。NoamendmentoftheConstitutionisneededhere，norhastheweaknesscomefromanyinsufficiencyoftheConstitution。TheSenatecanassumetoitselfto-morrowitsownglories，andcan，bydoingso，becomethesaviourofthehonorandgloryofthenation。ItistotheSenatethatwemustlookforthatconservativeelementwhichmayprotecttheUnitedStatesfromtheviolenceofdemagoguesononeside，andfromthedespotismofmilitarypowerontheother。TheSenate，andtheSenateonly，cankeepthePresidentincheck。TheSenatealsohasapowerovertheLowerHousewithreferencetothedisposalofmoney，whichdeprivestheHouseofRepresentativesofthatexclusiveauthoritywhichbelongstoourHouseofCommons。ItisnotsimplythattheHouseofRepresentativescannotdowhatisdonebytheHouseofCommons。

Thereismorethanthis。TotheSenate，inthemindsofallAmericans，belongsthatsuperiorprestige，thatacknowledgedpossessionofthegreaterpowerandfullerscopeforaction，whichiswithusasclearlythepossessionoftheHouseofCommons。TheUnitedStatesSenatecanbeconservative，andcanbesobyvirtueoftheConstitution。TheloveoftheConstitutionintheheartsofallAmericansissostrongthattheexerciseofsuchpowerbytheSenatewouldstrengthenratherthanendangeritsposition。IcouldwishthattheSenatorswouldabandontheirmoneypayments，butIdonotimaginethatthatwillbedoneexactlyinthesedays。

IhavenowendeavoredtodescribethestrengthoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，andtoexplainitsweakness。Thegreatquestionisatthismomentbeingsolved，whetherornothatConstitutionwillstillbefoundequaltoitsrequirements。Ithashithertobeenthemain-springinthegovernmentofthepeople。Theyhavetrustedwithalmostchildlikeconfidencetothewisdomoftheirfounders，andhavesaidtotheirrulers——“There！inthosewordsyoumustfindtheextentandthelimitofyourpowers。Itiswrittendownforyou，sothathewhorunsmayread。“Thatwritingdown，asitwere，atasinglesitting，ofasufficientcodeofinstructionsforthegovernorsofagreatnation，hadnothithertointheworld\'shistorybeenfoundtoanswer。Inthisinstanceithas，atanyrate，answeredbetterthaninanyother，probablybecausethewordssowrittencontainedinthemlesspretenseoffinalityinpoliticalwisdomthanotherwrittenconstitutionshaveassumed。Ayoungtreemustbend，orthewindswillcertainlybreakit。FormyselfIcanhonestlyexpressmyhopethatnostormmaydestroythistree。

CHAPTERX。

THEGOVERNMENT。

InspeakingoftheAmericanConstitutionIhavesaidsomuchoftheAmericanformofgovernmentthatbutlittlemoreislefttometosayunderthatheading。Nevertheless，IshouldhardlygothroughtheworkwhichIhavelaidoutformyselfifIdidnotendeavortoexplainmorecontinuously，andperhapsmoregraphically，thanI

foundmyselfabletodointhelastchapter，thesystemonwhichpublicaffairsaremanagedintheUnitedStates。

AndhereImustbegmyreadersagaintobearinmindhowmoderateistheamountofgoverningwhichhasfallentothelotofthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates；howmoderate，ascomparedwiththeamountwhichhastobedonebytheQueen\'sofficersofstateforGreatBritain，orbytheEmperor，withsuchassistanceashemaypleasetoacceptfromhisofficersofstate，forFrance。Thatthisissomustbeattributedtomorethanonecause；butthechiefcauseisundoubtedlytobefoundintheverynatureofafederalgovernment。TheStatesareindividuallysovereign，andgovernthemselvesastoallinternalmatters。AllthejudgesinEnglandareappointedbytheCrown；butintheUnitedStatesonlyasmallproportionofthejudgesarenominatedbythePresident。ThegreaternumberareservantsofthedifferentStates。TheexecutionoftheordinarylawsfortheprotectionofmenandpropertydoesnotfallonthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，butontheexecutivesoftheindividualStates——unlessinsomespecialmatters，whichwillbedefinedinthenextchapter。Trade，education，roads，religion，thepassingofnewmeasuresfortheinternalordomesticcomfortofthepeople，——allthesethingsaremoreorlessmattersofcaretoourgovernment。IntheStatestheyaremattersofcaretothegovernmentsofeachindividualState，butarenotsotothecentralgovernmentatWashington。

Butthereareothercauseswhichoperateinthesamedirection，andwhichhavehithertoenabledthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates，withtheirministers，tomaintaintheirpositionswithoutmuchknowledgeofstatecraft，orthenecessityforthateducationinstatematterswhichissoessentialtoourpublicmen。Inthefirstplace，theUnitedStateshavehithertokepttheirhandsoutofforeignpolitics。Iftheyhavenotdonesoaltogether，theyhavesogreatlyabstainedfrommeddlinginthemthatnoneofthatthoroughknowledgeoftheaffairsofothernationshasbeennecessarytothemwhichissoessentialwithus，andwhichseemstoberegardedastheonethingneededinthecabinetsofotherEuropeannations。ThishasbeenagreatblessingtotheUnitedStates，butithasnotbeenanunmixedblessing。Ithasbeenablessingbecausetheabsenceofsuchcarehassavedthecountryfromtroubleandfromexpense。Butsuchastateofthingswastoogoodtolast；andtheblessinghasnotbeenunmixed，seeingthatnow，whenthatabsenceofconcerninforeignmattershasbeennolongerpossible，theknowledgenecessaryfortakingadignifiedpartinforeigndiscussionshasbeenfoundwanting。Mr。SewardisnowtheMinisterforForeignAffairsintheStates，anditishardlytoomuchtosaythathehasmadehimselfalaughing-stockamongthediplomatistsofEurope，bythemixtureofhisignoranceandhisarrogance。Hisreportstohisownministersduringthesingleyearofhisoffice，aspublishedbyhimselfapparentlywithgreatsatisfaction，areamonumentnotsomuchofhisincapacityasofhiswantoftrainingforsuchwork。Weallknowhislongstate-papersonthe“Trent“affair。Whatarewetothinkofastatesmanwhoacknowledgestheactionofhiscountry\'sservanttohavebeenwrong，andinthesamebreathdeclaresthathewouldhaveheldbythatwrong，hadthematerialwelfareofhiscountrybeentherebyimproved？TheUnitedStateshavenowcreatedagreatarmyandagreatdebt。Theywillsoonalsohavecreatedagreatnavy。Affairsofothernationswillpressuponthem，andtheywillpressagainsttheaffairsofothernations。Inthiswaystatecraftwillbecomenecessarytothem；andbydegreestheirministerswillbecomehabile，graceful，adroit，andperhapscrafty，asaretheministersofothernations。

And，moreover，theUnitedStateshavehadnooutlyingcoloniesordependencies，suchasanIndiaandCanadaaretous，asCubaisandMexicowastoSpain，andasweretheprovincesoftheRomanempire。

Territoriesshehashad，butbythepeculiarbeneficenceofherpoliticalarrangements，theseTerritorieshaveassumedtheguiseofsovereignStates，andbeenadmittedintofederalpartnershiponequalterms，witharapiditywhichhashardlylefttothecentralgovernmenttherealityofanydominionofitsown。WeareinclinedtosupposethatthesenewStateshavebeenallowedtoassumetheirequalprivilegesandStaterightsbecausetheyhavebeencontiguoustotheoldStates，asthoughitweremerelyanextensionoffrontier。Butthishasnotbeenso。CaliforniaandOregonhavebeenverymuchfartherfromWashingtonthantheCanadasarefromLondon。Indeedtheyarestillfarther，andIhardlyknowwhethertheycanbebroughtmuchnearerthanCanadaistous，evenwiththeassistanceofrailways。ButneverthelessCaliforniaandOregonwereadmittedasStates，theformerasquicklyandthelattermuchmorequicklythanitspopulationwouldseemtojustifyCongressindoing，accordingtothereceivedratioofpopulation。ApreferenceinthiswayhasbeenalwaysgivenbytheUnitedStatestoayoungpopulationoveronethatwasolder。Oregonwithits60，000inhabitantshasoneRepresentative。NewYorkwith4，000，000inhabitantshasthirty-

three。ButinordertobeequalwithOregon，NewYorkshouldhavesixty-six。Inthiswaytheoutlyingpopulationshavebeenencouragedtotakeuponthemselvestheirowngovernance，andthegoverningpowerofthePresidentandhiscabinethasbeenkeptwithinmoderatelimits。

ButnotthelessisthepositionofthePresidentverydominantintheeyesofusEnglishmenbyreasonoftheauthoritywithwhichheisendowed。Itisnotthatthescopeofhispowerisgreat，butthatheissonearlyirresponsibleintheexerciseofthatpower。

WeknowthathecanbeimpeachedbytheRepresentativesandexpelledfromhisofficebytheverdictoftheSenate；butthisinfactdoesnotamounttomuch。Responsibilityofthisnatureisdoubtlessverynecessary，andpreventsebullitionsoftyrannysuchasthoseinwhichasultanoranemperormayindulge；butitisnotthatresponsibilitywhichespeciallyrecommendsitselftothemindsoffreemen。Somuchofresponsibilitytheytakeasamatterofcourse，astheydotheairwhichtheybreathe。ItwouldbenothingtoustoknowthatLordPalmerstoncouldbeimpeachedforrobbingthetreasury，orLordRussellpunishedforsellingustoAustria。

Itiswellthatsuchlawsshouldexist，butwedonotintheleastsuspectthosenoblelordsofsuchtreachery。Weareanxioustoknow，notinwhatwaytheymaybeimpeachedandbeheadedforgreatcrimes，butbywhatmethodtheymaybekeptconstantlystraightinsmallmatters。Thattheyaretrueandhonestisamatterofcourse。

Buttheymustbeobedientalso，discreet，capable，and，aboveallthings，ofonemindwiththepublic。Letthembethat；orifnotthey，thenwithaslittledelayasmaybe，someothersintheirplace。Thatwithusisthemeaningofministerialresponsibility。

Tothatresponsibilityallthecabinetissubject。ButinthegovernmentoftheUnitedStatesthereisnosuchresponsibility。

ThePresidentisplacedattheheadoftheexecutiveforfouryears，andwhilehethereremainsnomancanquestionhim。Itisnotthatthescopeofhispowerisgreat。OurownPrimeMinisterisdoubtlessmorepowerful——hasawiderauthority。ButitisthatwithinthescopeofhispowerthePresidentisfreefromallcheck。

Therearenoreins，constitutionalorunconstitutional，bywhichhecanberestrained。HecanabsolutelyrepudiateamajorityofbothHouses，andrefusethepassageofanyactofCongresseventhoughsupportedbythosemajorities。Hecanretaintheservicesofministersdistastefultothewholecountry。Hecanplacehisownmyrmidonsattheheadofthearmyandnavy，orcanhimselftakethecommandimmediatelyonhisownshoulders。Allthishecando，andthereisnoonethatcanquestionhim。

ItishardlynecessarythatIshouldpointoutthefundamentaldifferencebetweenourkingorqueen，andthePresidentoftheUnitedStates。Oursovereign，weallknow，isnotresponsible。

Suchisthenatureofourconstitution。ButthereisnotonthataccountanyanalogybetweentheirresponsibilityoftheQueenandthatofthePresident。TheQueencandonowrong；buttherefore，inallmattersofpolicyandgovernance，shemustberuledbyadvice。

Forthatadviceherministersareresponsible；andnoactofpolicyorgovernancecanbedoneinEnglandastowhichresponsibilitydoesnotimmediatelysettleontheshouldersappointedtobearit。ButthisisnotsointheStates。ThePresidentisnominallyresponsible。Butfromthatevery-dayworkingresponsibility，whichistoussoinvaluable，thePresidentisinfactfree。

Iwillgiveaninstanceofthis。Now，atthisverymomentofmywriting，newshasreachedusthatPresidentLincolnhasrelievedGeneralMcClellanfromthecommandofthewholearmy，thathehasgivenseparatecommandstotwoothergenerals——toGeneralHalleck，namely，and，alas！toGeneralFremont，andthathehasaltogetheralteredthewholeorganizationofthemilitarycommandasitpreviouslyexisted。Thishedidnotonlyduringwar，butwithreferencetoaspecialbattle，forthespecialfightingofwhichhe，asex-officiocommander-in-chiefoftheforces，hadgivenorders。I

donotherebyintendtocriticisethisactofthePresident\'s，ortopointoutthatthathasbeendonewhichhadbetterhavebeenleftundone。ThePresident，inastrategeticalpointofview，mayhavebeen，veryprobablyhasbeen，quiteright。I，atanyrate，cannotsaythathehasbeenwrong。Butthenneithercananybodyelsesaysowithanypowerofmakinghimselfheard。OfthisactionofthePresident\'s，soterriblygreatinitsimportancetothenation，noonehasthepowerofexpressinganyopiniontowhichthePresidentisboundtolisten。Forfouryearshehasthissway，andattheendoffouryearshebecomessopowerlessthatitisnotthenworththewhileofanydemagogueinafourth-ratetowntooccupyhisvoicewiththatPresident\'sname。TheangerofthecountryastothethingsdonebothbyPierceandBuchananisverybitter。Butwhowastesathoughtuponeitherofthesemen？ApastPresidentintheUnitedStatesisoflessconsiderationthanapastmayorinanEnglishborough。Whateverevilhemayhavedoneduringhisoffice，whenoutofofficeheisnotworththepowderwhichwouldbeexpendedinanattack。

ButthePresidenthashisministersasourQueenhashers。Inonesensehehassuchministers。HehashighStateservantswhounderhimtakethecontrolofthevariousdepartments，andexerciseamongthemacertaindegreeofpatronageandexecutivepower。ButtheyarethePresident\'sministers，andnottheministersofthepeople。

Tilllatelytherehasbeennochiefministeramongthem，noramI

preparedtosaythatthereisanysuchchiefatpresent。AccordingtotheexistingtheoryofthegovernmentthesegentlemenhavesimplybeentheconfidentialservantsofthecommonwealthunderthePresident，andhavebeenattachedeachtohisowndepartmentwithoutconcertedpoliticalallianceamongthemselves，withoutanyacknowledgedchiefbelowthePresident，andwithoutanycombinedresponsibilityeventothePresident。Ifoneministerwasinfault——

letussaythePostmaster-General——healonewasinfault，anditdidnotfalltothelotofanyotherministereithertodefendhim，ortodeclarethathisconductwasindefensible。EachowedhisdutyandhisdefensetothePresidentaloneandeachmightberemovedalone，withoutexplanationgivenbythePresidenttotheothers。I

imaginethatthelatepracticeofthePresident\'scabinethasinsomedegreedepartedfromthistheory；butifso，thedeparturehassprungfromindividualambitionratherthanfromanypre-concertedplan。Someoneplaceinthecabinethasseemedtogivetosomeonemananopportunityofmakinghimselfpre-eminent，andofthisopportunityadvantagehasbeentaken。Iamnotnowintendingtoalludetoanyindividual，butamendeavoringtoindicatethewayinwhichaministerialcabinet，afterthefashionofourBritishcabinet，isstrugglingtogetitselfrighted。NodoubtthepositionofForeignSecretaryhasforsometimepastbeenconsideredasthemostinfluentialunderthePresident。ThishasbeensomuchthecasethatmanyhavenothesitatedtocalltheSecretaryofStatethechiefminister。Atthepresentmoment，May，l862，thegentlemanwhoisattheheadoftheWarDepartmenthas，Ithink，inhisownhandsgreaterpowerthananyofhiscolleagues。

Itwillprobablycometopassbeforelongthatonespecialministerwillbetheavowedleaderofthecabinet，andthathewillberecognizedasthechiefservantoftheStatesunderthePresident。

Ourowncabinet，whichnow-a-daysseemswithustobeaninstitutionasfixedasParliamentandasnecessaryasthethrone，hasgrownbydegreesintoitspresentshape，andisnotintruthnearlysooldasmanyofussupposeittobe。Itshapeditself，Iimagine，intoitspresentform，andevenintoitspresentjointresponsibility，duringthereignofGeorgeIII。ItmustberememberedthatevenwithusthereisnosuchthingasaconstitutionalPrimeMinister，andthatourPrimeMinisterisnotplacedabovetheotherministersinanymannerthatispalpabletothesenses。Heispaidnomorethantheothers；hehasnosuperiortitle；hedoesnottakethehighestrankamongthem；henevertalksofhissubordinates，butalwaysofhiscolleagues；hehasatitleofhisown，thatofFirstLordoftheTreasury，butitimpliesnoheadshipinthecabinet。Thatheistheheadofallpoliticalpowerinthenation，theAtlaswhohastobeartheglobe，thegodinwhosehandsrestthethunderboltsandtheshowers，allmendoknow。Noman\'spositionismoreassuredtohim。

Buttheboundsofthatpositionarewritteninnobook，aredefinedbynolaw，havesettledthemselvesnotinaccordancewiththerecordedwisdomofanygreatmen，butasexpediencyandthefitnessofpoliticalthingsinGreatBritainhaveseemedfromtimetotimetorequire。ThisdriftingofgreatmattersintotheirproperplacesisnotascloselyinaccordancewiththeidiosyncrasiesoftheAmericanpeopleasitiswithourown。Theywouldprefertodefinebywords，astheFrenchdo，whatshallbetheexactpositionofeverypublicservantconnectedwiththeirgovernment；orratherofeverypublicservantwithwhomthepeopleshallbeheldashavinganyconcern。Butnevertheless，IthinkitwillcometopassthatacabinetwillgraduallyformitselfatWashingtonasithasdoneatLondon，andthatofthatcabinettherewillbesomerecognizedandostensiblechief。

ButaPrimeMinisterintheUnitedStatescannevertaketheplacetherewhichistakenherebyourPremier。OverourPremierthereisnoonepoliticallysuperior。Thehighestpoliticalresponsibilityofthenationrestsonhim。IntheStatesthismustalwaysrestonthePresident，andanyminister，whatevermaybehisnameorassumedposition，canonlyberesponsiblethroughthePresident。AnditishereespeciallythattheworkingoftheUnitedStatessystemofgovernmentseemstomedeficient——appearsasthoughitwantedsomethingtomakeitperfectandroundatallpoints。OurministersretirefromtheirofficesasdothePresidents；andindeedtheministerialtermofofficewithus，thoughofcoursenotfixed，isintruthmuchshorterthanthepresidentialtermoffouryears。Butourministersdonotinfactevergoout。Atonetimetheytakeoneposition，withpay，patronage，andpower；andatanothertimeanotherposition，withoutthesegoodthings；butineitherpositiontheyareactingaspublicmen，andareintruthresponsibleforwhattheysayanddo。ButthePresident，onwhomitispresumedthatthewholeoftheresponsibilityoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentrests，goesoutatacertainday，andofhimnomoreisheard。Thereisnofuturebeforehimtourgehimontoconstancy；nohopeofotherthingsbeyond，ofgreaterhonorsandawiderfame，tokeephimwakefulinhiscountry\'scause。Hehasalreadyenrolledhisnameonthelistofhiscountry\'srulers，andreceivedwhatrewardhiscountrycangivehim。Conscience，duty，patriotismmaymakehimtruetohisplace。Truetohisplace，inacertaindegree，theywillmakehim。Butambitionandhopeofthingsstilltocomearethemovingmotivesofthemindsofmostmen。Fewmencanallowtheirenergiestoexpandtotheirfullestextentinthecoldatmosphereofdutyalone。ThePresidentoftheStatesmustfeelthathehasreachedthetopoftheladder，andthathesoonwillhavedonewithlife。Ashegoesoutheisadeadman。Andwhatcanbeexpectedfromonewhoiscountingthelastlingeringhoursofhisexistence？“Itwillnotbeinmytime，“Mr。Buchananisreportedtohavesaid，whenafriendspoketohimwithwarningvoiceofthecomingrebellion。“Itwillnotbeinmytime。“Intheolddays，beforedemocracyhadprevailedinupsettingthatsystemofpresidentialelectionwhichtheConstitutionhadintendedtofixaspermanent，thePresidentsweregenerallyre-electedforasecondterm。OfthefirstsevenPresidentsfiveweresentbacktotheWhiteHouseforasecondperiodoffouryears。ButthishasneverbeendonesincethedaysofGeneralJackson；norwillitbedone，unlessastrongerconservativereactiontakesplacethanthecountryevenasyetseemstopromise。Asthingshavelatelyorderedthemselves，itmayalmostbesaidthatnomanintheUnionwouldbesoimprobableacandidateforthePresidencyastheoutgoingPresident。Andithasbeenonlynaturalthatitshouldbeso。

Lookingatthementhemselveswhohavelatelybeenchosen，thefaulthasnotconsistedintheirnon-re-election，butintheiroriginalselection。Therehasbeennodesireforgreatmen；nosearchafteramanofsuchanaturethat，whentried，thepeopleshouldbeanxioustokeephim。“Itwillnotbeinmytime，“saystheexpiringPresident。Andso，withoutdismay，heseestheempireofhiscountryslideawayfromhim。

APresident，withthepossibilityofre-electionbeforehim，wouldbeasaministerwhogoesoutknowingthathemaypossiblycomeinagainbeforethesessionisover，and，perhaps，believingthatthechancesofhisdoingsoareinhisfavor。UndertheexistingpoliticalphaseofthingsintheUnitedStates，noPresidenthasanysuchprospect；buttheministersofthePresidenthavethatchance。

ItisnouncommonthingatpresentforaministerunderonePresidenttoreappearasaministerunderanother；butastatesmanhasnoassurancethathewilldosobecausehehasshownministerialcapacity。Weknowintimatelythenamesofallourpossibleministers——toointimatelyassomeofusthink——andwouldbetakenmuchbysurpriseifagentlemanwithoutanofficialreputationwereplacedattheheadofahighoffice。IfsomethingofthisfeelingprevailedastothePresident\'scabinet，ifthereweresomeassurancethatcompetentstatesmenwouldbeappointedasSecretariesofState，acertainamountofnationalresponsibilitywouldbydegreesattachitselftothem，andthePresident\'sshoulderswould，tothatamount，belightened。Asitis，thePresidentpretendstobearaburdenwhich，ifreallyborne，wouldindicatethepossessionofHerculeanshoulders。But，infact，theburdenatpresentisbornebynoone。ThegovernmentoftheUnitedStatesisnotintruthresponsibleeithertothepeopleortoCongress。

Buttheseministers，ifitbedesiredthattheyshallhaveweightinthecountry，shouldsitinCongresseitherasSenatorsorasRepresentatives。ThattheycannotsositwithoutanamendmentoftheConstitution，Ihaveexplainedinthepreviouschapter；andanysuchamendmentcannotbeveryreadilymade。WithoutsuchseatstheycannotreallysharetheresponsibilityofthePresident，orbeinanydegreeamenabletopublicopinionfortheadvicewhichtheygiveintheirpublicfunctions。ItwillbesaidthattheConstitutionhasexpresslyintendedthattheyshouldnotberesponsible，andsuch，nodoubt，hasbeenthecase。ButtheConstitution，goodasitis，cannotbetakenasperfect。Thegovernmenthasbecomegreaterthanseemstohavebeencontemplatedwhenthatcodewasdrawnup。

Ithasspreaditselfasitwereoverawidersurface，andhasextendedtomatterswhichitwasnotnecessarythentotouch。Thattheoryofgoverningbythemeansoflittlemenwasverywellwhilethegovernmentitselfwassmall。APresidentandhisclerksmayhavesufficedwhentherewerefromthirteentoeighteenStates；

whiletherewerenoTerritories，ornoneatleastthatrequiredgovernment；whilethepopulationwasstillbelowfivemillions；

whileastandingarmywasanevilnotknownandnotfeared；whileforeignpoliticswasatroublesomeembroglioinwhichitwasquiteunnecessarythattheUnitedStatesshouldtakeapart。Nowtherearethirty-fourStates。TheterritoriespopulatedbyAmericancitizensstretchfromtheStatesontheAtlantictothoseonthePacific。Thereisapopulationofthirtymillionsouls。AtthepresentmomenttheUnitedStatesareemployingmoresoldiersthananyothernation，andhaveacknowledgedthenecessityofmaintainingalargearmyevenwhenthepresenttroublesshallbeover。InadditiontothistheUnitedStateshaveoccasionfortheuseofstatecraftwithallthegreatkingdomsofEurope。Thattheoryofrulingbylittlemenwillnotdomuchlonger。Itwillbewellthattheyshouldbringforththeirbigmenandputthemintheplaceofrulers。

ThePresidenthasatpresentsevenministers。TheyaretheSecretaryofState，whoissupposedtohavethedirectionofforeignaffairs；theSecretaryoftheTreasury，whoanswerstoourChancelloroftheExchequer；theSecretariesoftheArmyandoftheNavy；theMinisteroftheInterior；theAttorney-General；andthePostmaster-General。IftheseofficerswereallowedtoholdseatsinoneHouseortheother——orratherifthePresidentwereenjoinedtoplaceintheseofficesmenwhowereknownasmembersofCongress，notonlywouldthepositionofthePresident\'sministersbeenhancedandtheirweightincreased，butthepositionalsoofCongresswouldbeenhancedandtheweightofCongresswouldbeincreased。Imay，perhaps，bestexemplifythisbysuggestingwhatwouldbetheeffectonourParliamentbywithdrawingfromitthemenwhoatthepresentmoment——oratanymoment——formtheQueen\'scabinet。IwillnotsaythatbyaddingtoCongressthemenwhousuallyformthePresident\'scabinet，aweightwouldbegivenequaltothatwhichthewithdrawaloftheBritishcabinetwouldtakefromtheBritishParliament。I

cannotpaythatcomplimenttothePresident\'schoiceofservants。