第7章

UNCONQUERABLE

February25th，1796。

TheparishofficersofSaintOlaves，Southwark，desirousofcontributingtheiraidtowardslesseningtheconsumptionofwheat，resolvedonthefollowingsuccedaneumfortheircustomarysuetpuddings，whichtheygivetotheirPoorfordinneronedayintheweek；whichwasorderedasfollows：

L。s。d。

200lb。potatoesboiled，andskinnedandmashed……080

2gallonsofmilk……024

12lb。ofsuet，at41/2……046

1peckofflour……040

Baking……018——

Expense106——

Theirordinarysuetpuddinghadbeenmadethus：

2bushelsofflour……1120

12lb。suet……046

Baking……018——

Expense1182

Costoftheingredientsforthepotatoessuetpudding……106——

Difference0178——

Thiswasthedinnerprovidedfor200persons，whogaveadecidedperferencetothecheapestofthesepreparations，andwithittobecontinued。

Thefollowingbakedpotatoe-puddingswerepreparedinthehotelwhereIlodge，andweretastedbyanumberofpersons，whofoundthemingeneralverypalatable。

BakedPotatoe-puddings。

No。I。

12ouncesofpotatoes，boiled，skinned，andmashed；

1ounceofsuet；

1ounce(or1/16ofapint)ofmilk，and1ounceofGloucestercheese——

Total15ounces，——mixedwithasmuchboilingwateraswasnecessarytobringittoadueconsistence，andthenbakedinanearthenpan。

No。II。

12ouncesofmashedpotatoesasbefore；

1ouncesofmilk，and1ounceofsuet，withasufficientquantityofsalt——Mixedupwithboilingwater，andbakedinapan。

No。III。

12ouncesofmashedpotatoes；

1ounceofsuet；

1ounceofredherringspoundedfineinamortar——Mixed——baked，etc。asbefore。

No。IV。

12ouncesofmashedpotatoes；

1ounceofsuet，and1ounceofhungbeefgratedfinewithagrater——Mixedandbakedasbefore。

Thesepuddingswhenbakedweighedfrom11to12ounceseach——

Theywerealllikedbythosewhotastedthem，butNoIandNo3

seemedtomeetwiththemostgeneralapprobation。

ReceiptforaverycheapPotatoe-dumplin。

Takeanyquantityofpotatoes，halfboiled；——skinorparethem，andgratethemtoacoarsepowderwithagrater；——mixthemupwithaverysmallquantityofflour，1/16，forinstance，oftheweightofthepotatoes，orevenless；——addaseasoningofsalt，pepper，andsweetherbs；——mixupthewholewithboilingwatertoaproperconsistency，andformthemassintodumplinsofthesizeofalargeapple——Rollthedumplins，whenformed，inflour，topreventthewaterfrompenetratingthem，andputthemintoboilingwater，andboilthemtilltheyrisetothesurfaceofthewater，andswim，whentheywillbefoundtobesufficientlydone。

Thesedumplinsmaybemadeverysavourybymixingwiththemasmallquantityofgratedhungbeef，orofpoundedredherring。

Friedbreadmaylikewisebemixedwiththem，andthiswithoutanyotheraddition，exceptaseasoningofsalt，formsanexcellentdish。

Uponthesameprinciplesuponwhichthesedumplinsarepreparedlargeboiledbag-puddingsmaybemade；andforfeedingthePoorinapublicestablishment，wheregreatnumbersaretobefed，puddings，astheseislesstroubleinpreparingthem，arealwaystobepreferredtodumplins。

ItwouldswellthisEssay，(whichhasalreadyexceededthelimitsassignedtoit，)tothesizeofalargevolume，wereItogivereceiptsforallthegooddishesthatmaybepreparedwithpotatoes——ThereishoweveronemethodofpreparingpotatoesmuchinuseinmanypartsofGermany，whichappearstometodeservebeingparticularlymentionedandrecommended；——itisasfollows：

AReceiptforpreparingboiledPotatoeswithaSauce。

Thepotatoesbeingproperlyboiled，andskinned，arecutintoslices，andputintoadish，andasauce，similartothatcommonlyusedwithafricaseedchicken，ispouredoverthem。

Thismakesanexcellentandaverywholesomedish，butmorecalculated，itistrue，forthetablesoftheopulentthanforthePoor——Goodsaucesmighthoweverbecomposedforthisdishwhichwouldnotbeexpensive——Commonmilk-porridge，maderatherthickerthanusual，withwheatflour，andwellsalted，wouldnotbeabadsauceforit。

PotatoeSalad。

AdishinhighreputeinsomepartsofGermany，andwhichdeservestobeparticularlyrecommended，isasaladofpotatoes。

Thepotatoesbeingproperlyboiledandskinned，arecutintothinslices，andthesamesaucewhichiscommonlyusedforsaladsoflettuceispouredoverthem；somemixanchovieswiththissauce，whichgivesitaveryagreeablerelish，andwithpotatoesitisremarkablypalatable。

Boiledpotatoescutinslicesandfriedinbutter，orinlard，andseasonedwithsaltandpepper，islikewiseaverypalatableandwholesomedish。

OfBarley。

Ihavemorethanoncementionedtheextraordinarynutritivepowersofthisgrain，andtheuseofitinfeedingthePoorcannotbetoostronglyrecommended——Itisnowbeginningtobemuchusedinthiscountry，mixedwithwheatflour，formakingbread；butisnot，Iampersuaded，inbread，butinsoups，thatBarleycanbeemployedtothegreatestadvantage——ItisastonishinghowmuchwaterasmallquantityofBarley-mealwillthicken，andchangetotheconsistencyofajelly；and，ifmysuspicionswithregardtothepartwhichwateractsinnutritionarefounded，thiswillenableustoaccount，notonlyforthenutritivequalityofBarley，butalsoforthesamequalityinastillhigherdegreewhichsagoandsalopeareknowntopossess——

SagoandSalopethicken，andchangetotheconsistencyofajelly，(andasIsuppose，preparefordecomposition，)agreaterquantityofwaterthanBarley，andbothsagoandsalopeareknowntobenutritiousinaveryextraordinarydegree。

Barleywillthickenandchangetoajellymuchmorewaterthananyothergrainwithwhichweareacquainted，riceevennotexcepted；——andIhavefoundreasontoconcludefromtheresultofinnumerableexperiments，whichinthecourseofseveralyearshavebeenmadeundermydirectioninthepublickitchenoftheHouseofIndustryatMunich，thatformakingsoups，Barleyisbyfarthebestgrainthatcanbeemployed。

WereIcalledupontogiveanopinioninregardtothecomparativenutritiousnessofBarley-mealandwheatflour，WHENUSEDINSOUPSIshouldnothesitatetosaythatIthinktheformeratleastthreeorfourtimesasnutritiousasthelatter。

Scotchbrothisknowntobeoneofthemostnourishingdishesincommonuse；andthereisnodoubtbutitowesitsextraordinarynutritivequalitytotheScotch(orPearl)Barley，whichisalwaysusedinpreparingit——IftheBarleybeomitted，thebrothwillbefoundtobepoorandwashy，andwillaffordlittlenourishment；——butanyoftheotheringredientsmayberetrenched；——

eventhemeat；——withoutimpairingverysensiblythenutritivequalityoftheFood——Itsflavourandpalatablenessmaybeimpairedbysuchretrenchments；butifthewaterbewellthickenedwiththeBarley，theFoodwillstillbeverynourishing。

InpreparingthesoupusedinfeedingthePoorintheHouseofIndustryatMunich，PearlBarleyhashithertobeenused；butI

havefound，bysomeexperimentsIhavelatelymadeinLondon，thatPearlBarleyisbynomeansnecessary，ascommonBarley-mealwillanswer，toallintentsandpurposes，justaswell——Inonerespectitanswersbetter，foritdoesnotrequirehalfsomuchboiling。

IncomparingcheapsoupsforfeedingthePoor，thefollowingshortandplaindirectionswillbefoundtobeuseful：

GeneralDirectionsforpreparingcheapSoup。

First，EachportionofSoupshouldconsistofonepintandaquarter，which，iftheSoupberich，willaffordagoodmealtoagrownperson——Suchaportionwillingeneralweighaboutonepoundandaquarter，ortwentyouncesAvoirdupois。

Secondly，ThebasisofeachportionofSoupshouldconsistofoneounceandaquarterofBarley-meal，boiledwithONEPINTANDA

QUARTEROFWATERtillthewholebereducedtotheuniformconsistencyofathickjelly——AllotheradditionstotheSoupdolittleelsethantoservetomakeitmorepalatable；orbyrenderingalongmasticationnecessary，toincreaseandprolongthepleasureofeating；——boththeseobjectsarehoweverofverygreatimportance，andtoomuchattentioncannotbepaidtothem；

butbothofthemmay，withpropermanagement，beattainedwithoutmuchexpence。

WereIaskedtogiveaReceiptforthecheapestFoodwhich(inmyopinion)itwouldbepossibletoprovideinthiscountry，itwouldbethefollowing：

ReceiptforaverycheapSoup。

Takeofwatereightgallons，andmixingwithit5lb。ofBarley-meal，boilittotheconsistencyofathickjelly——Seasonitwithsalt，pepper，vinegar，sweetherbs，andfourredherrings，poundedinamortar——Insteadofbread，addtoit5lb。ofIndianCornmadeintoSamp，andstirringittogetherwithaladle，serveitupimmediatelyinportionsof20ounces。

Samp，whichishererecommended，isadishsaidtohavebeeninventedbythesavagesofNorthAmerica，whohavenoCorn-mills——

ItisIndianCorndeprivedofitsexternalcoatbysoakingittenortwelvehoursinalixiviumofwaterandwood-ashes——

Thiscoat，orhusk，beingseparatedfromthekernel，risestothesurfaceofthewater，whilethegrain，whichisspecificallyheavierthanwater，remainsatthebottomofthevessel；whichgrain，thusdeprivedofitshardcoatofarmour，isboiled，orrathersimmeredforagreatlengthoftime，twodaysforinstance，inakettleofwaterplacednearthefire——Whensufficientlycooked，thekernelswillbefoundtobeswelledtoagreatsizeandburstopen，andthisFood，whichisuncommonlysweetandnourishing，maybeusedinagreatvarietyofways；butthebestwayofusingitistomixitwithmilk，andwithsoups，andbroths，asasubstituteforbread。Itisevenbetterthanbreadforthesepurposes，forbesidesbeingquiteaspalatableastheverybestbread，asitislessliablethanbreadtogrowtoosoftwhenmixedwiththeseliquids，withoutbeingdisagreeablyhard，itrequiresmoremastication，andconsequentlytendsmoretoincreaseandprolongthepleasureofeating。

TheSoupwhichmaybepreparedwiththequantitiesofingredientsmentionedintheforegoingReceiptwillbesufficientfor64

portions，andthecostoftheseingredientswillbeasfollows：

Pence。

For5lb。ofBarley-meal，at11/2pence，the]

Barleybeingreckonedatthepresent]

veryhighpriceofitinthiscountry，viz]……71/2

5s。6d。perbushel]

5lb。ofIndianCorn，at11/4pencethepound……61/4

4redherrings……3

Vinegar……1

Salt……1

Pepperandsweetherbs……2——

Total203/4——

Thissum，(203/4pence，)dividedby64，thenumberofportionsofSoup，givessomethinglessthanONETHIRDOFAPENNYforthecostofeachportion——ButatthemediumpriceofBarleyinGreatBritain，andofIndianCornasitmaybeaffordedhere，IampersuadedthatthisSoupmaybeprovidedatonefarthingtheportionof20ounces。

ThereisanotherkindofSoupingreatreputeamongthepoorpeople，andindeedamongtheopulentfarmers，inGermany，whichwouldnotcomemuchhigher——ThisiswhatiscalledburntSoup，orasIshouldrathercallit，brownSoup，anditispreparedinthefollowingmanner：

ReceiptformakingBROWNSOUP。

Takeasmallpieceofbutterandputitoverthefireinacleanfrying-panmadeofiron(notcopper，forthatmetalusedforthispurposewouldbepoisonous)；——puttoitafewspoonfulsofwheatorryemeal；——stirthewholeaboutbrisklywithabroadwoodenspoon，orratherknife，withabroadandthinedge，tillthebutterhasdisappeared，andthemealisuniformlyofadeepbrowncolour；greatcarebeingtaken，bystirringitcontinually，topreventthemealfrombeingburnedtothepan。

Averysmallquantityofthisroastedmeal，(perhapshalfanounceinweightwouldbesufficient，)beingputintoasauce-panandboiledwithapintandaquarterofwater，formsaportionofSoup，which，whenseasonedwithsalt，pepper，andvinegar，andeatenwithbreadcutfine，andmixedwithitatthemomentwhenitisservedup，makesakindofFoodbynomeansunpalatable；

andwhichissaidtobeverywholesome。

AsthisSoupmaybepreparedinaveryshorttime，aninstantbeingsufficientforboilingit；andastheingredientsformakingitareverycheap，andmaybeeasilytransported，thisFoodismuchusedinBavariabyourwood-cutters，whogointothemountainsfarfromanyhabitationstofellwood——

Theirprovisionsforaweek，(thetimetheycommonlyremaininthemountains，)consistofalargeloafofryebread(which，asitdoesnotsosoongrowdryandstaleaswheatenbread，isalwayspreferredtoit)；alinenbagcontainingasmallquantityofroastedmeal；——anothersmallbagofsalt；——andasmallwoodenboxcontainingsomepoundedblackpepper；——withasmallfrying-panofhammerediron，abouttenoreleveninchesindiameter，whichservesthembothasanutensilforcooking，andasadishforcontainingthevictualswhencooked——Theysometimes，butnotoften，takewiththemasmallbottleofvinegar；——butblack-pepperisaningredientinbrownSoupwhichisneveromitted——Twotable-spoonfulsofroastedmealisquiteenoughtomakeagoodportionofSoupforoneperson；andthequantityofbutternecessarytobeusedinroastingthisquantityofmealisverysmall，andwillcostverylittle——Oneounceofbutterwouldbesufficientforroastingeightouncesofmeal；andifhalfanounceofroastedmealissufficientformakingoneportionofSoup，thebutterwillnotamounttomorethan1/10ofanounce；and，ateightpencethepound，willcostonly1/32ofapenny，or1/8ofafarthing——ThecostofthemealforaportionofthisSoupisnotmuchmoreconsiderable。Ifitberyemeal，(whichissaidtobequiteasgoodforroastingasthefinestwheatflour，)itwillnotcost，inthiscountry，evennowwhengrainissodear，morethan11/2d。perpound；——1/2anounce，therefore，thequantityrequiredforoneportionoftheSoup，wouldcostonly6/32ofafarthing；——andthemealandbuttertogethernomorethan(1/8+6/32)=10/32，orsomethinglessthan1/3ofafarthing——IftothissumweaddthecostoftheingredientsusedtoseasontheSoup，namely，forsalt，pepperandvinegar，allowingforthemasmuchastheamountofthecostofthebutterandthemeal，or1/3ofafarthing，thiswillgive2/3

ofafarthingforthecostoftheingredientsusedinpreparingoneportionofthisSoup；butasthebreadwhichiseatenwithitisanexpensivearticle，thisFoodwillnot，uponthewhole，becheaperthantheSoupjustmentioned；anditiscertainlyneithersonourishingnorsowholesome。

BrownSoupmight，however，oncertainoccasions，befoundtobeuseful。Asitissosooncooked，andastheingredientsformakingitaresoeasilyprepared，preserved，andtransportedfromplacetoplace；itmightbeusefultotravellers，andtosoldiersonamarch。Andthoughitcanhardlybesupposedtobeofitselfverynourishing，yetitispossibleitmayrenderthebreadeatenwithitnotonlymorenutritive，butalsomorewholesome；——anditcertainlyrendersitmoresavouryandpalatable——ItisthecommonbreakfastofthepeasantsinBavaria；anditisinfinitelypreferable，inallrespects，tothatmostperniciouswash，TEA，withwhichthelowerclassesoftheinhabitantsofthisislanddrenchtheirstomachs，andruintheirconstitutions。

Whenteaismixedwithasufficientquantityofsugarandgoodcream；——whenitistakenwithalargequantityofbreadandbutter，orwithtoastandboiledeggs；——andaboveall，——WHENIT

ISNOTDRANKTOOHOT，itiscertainlylessunwholesome；butasimpleinfusionofthisdrug，drankboilinghot，asthePoorusuallytakeit，iscertainlyapoisonwhich，thoughitissometimesslowinitsoperation，neverfailstoproduceveryfataleffects，eveninthestrongestconstitution，wherethefreeuseofitiscontinuedforaconsiderablelengthoftime。

OfRyeBreadTheprejudiceinthisislandagainstbreadmadeofRye，isthemoreextraordinary，asinmanypartsofthecountrynootherkindofbreadisused；andasthegeneraluseofitinmanypartsofEurope，forages，hasprovedittobeperfectlywholesome——

Inthosecountrieswhereitisincommonuse，manypersonspreferittobreadmadeofthebestwheatflour；andthoughwheatenbreadiscommonlypreferredtoit，yetIampersuadedthatthegeneraldislikeofit，whereitisnotmuchinuse，ismoreowingtoitsbeingBADLYPREPARED，ornotwellbaked，thantoanythingelse。

AsanaccountofsomeexperimentsuponbakingRyeBread，whichweremadeundermyimmediatecareandinspectioninthebake-houseoftheHouseofIndustryatMunich，mayperhapsbeofusetothosewhowishtoknownhowgoodRyeBreadmaybeprepared；

asalsotosuchasaredesirousofascertaining，bysimilarexperiments，what，inanygivencase，theprofitsofabakerreallyare；Ishallpublishanaccountindetailoftheseexperiments，intheAppendixtothisvolume。

IcannotconcludethisEssay，withoutoncemorerecommending，inthemostearnestmanner，totheattentionofthePublic，andmoreespeciallytotheattentionofallthosewhoareengagedinpublicaffairs，——thesubjectwhichhasherebeenattemptedtobeinvestigated。Itiscertainlyofverygreatimportance，inwhateverlightitisconsidered；anditisparticularlysoatthepresentmoment：forhoweverstatesmenmaydifferinopinionwithrespecttothedangerorexpediencyofmakinganyalterationsintheconstitution，orestablishedformsofgovernment，intimesofpopularcommotion，nodoubtscanbeentertainedwithrespecttothepolicyofdiminishing，asmuchaspossible，atalltimes，——andmoreespeciallyintimeslikethepresent，——themiseryofthelowerclassesofthepeople。

ENDOFTHETHIRDESSAY。

FootnotesforEssayIII。

[1]

November1795。

[2]

Thepreparationofwateris，inmanycases，anobjectofmoreimportancethanisgenerallyimagined；particularlywhenitismadeuseofasavehicleforconveyingagreeabletastes。

Inmakingpunch，forinstance，ifthewaterusedbepreviouslyboiledtwoorthreehourswithahandfulofrice，thepunchmadefromitwillbeincomparablybetter，thanistosay，morefullandlusciousuponthepalate，thanwhenthewaterisnotprepared。

[3]

Icannotdismissthissubject，thefeedingofcattle，withoutjustmentioninganotherpracticecommonamongourbestfarmersinBavaria，which，Ithink，deservestobeknown。Theychopthegreencloverwithwhichtheyfeedtheircattle，andmixwithitaconsiderablequantityofchoppedstraw。Theypretendthatthisrichsucculentgrassisofsoclammyanature，thatunlessitbemixedwithchoppedstraw，hay，orsomeotherdryfodder，cattlewhicharefedwithitdonotruminatesufficiently。Theusualproportionoftheclovertothestraw，isastwotoone。

[4]

Aviertlisthetwelfthpartofaschafl，andtheBavarianschaflisequalto631/300Winchesterbushels。

[5]

Thequantityoffuelherementioned，thoughitcertainlyisalmostincrediblysmall，wasneverthelessdeterminedfromtheresultsofactualexperiments。AparticularaccountoftheseexperimentswillbegiveninmyEssayontheManagementofHeatandtheEconomyofFuel。

[6]

OneBavarianschafl(equalto631/100Winchesterbushels)ofbarley，weighingatamedium250Bavarianpounds，uponbeingpearled，orrolled(asitiscalledinGermany)，isreducedtohalfaschafl，whichweighs171Bavarianpounds。The79lb。whichitlosesintheoperationistheperquisiteofthemiller，andisallhereceivesforhistrouble。

[7]

SincetheFirstEditionofthisEssaywaspublishedtheexperimentwithbarley-mealhasbeentried，andthemealhasbeenfoundtoanswerquiteaswellaspearlbarley，ifnotbetter，formakingthesesoups。Amongothers，ThomasBernard，Esq。TreasureroftheFoundingHospital，agentlemanofmostrespectablecharacter，andwellknownforhisphilanthropyandactivezealinrelievingthedistressesofthePoor，hasgivenitaverycompleteandfairtrial；andhefound，whatisveryremarkable，thoughnotdifficulttobeaccountedfor——thatthebarley-meal，WITHALLTHEBRANINIT，answeredbetter，thatistosay，madethesoupricher，andthicker，thanwhenthefineflourofbarley，withoutthebran，wasused。

[8]

Bysomeexperimentslatelymadeithasbeenfoundthatthesoupwillbemuchimprovedifasmallfireismadeundertheboiler，justsufficienttomakeitscontentsboiluponce，whenthebarleyandwaterareputintoit，andthenclosingupimmediatelytheash-holeregister，andthedamperinthechimney，andthrowingathickblanket，orawarmcoveringoverthecoveroftheboiler，thewholebekepthottillthenextmorning。

Thisheatsolongcontinued，actsverypowerfullyonthebarley，andcausesittothickenthewaterinaverysurprisingmanner。

Perhapstheoat-mealusedformakingwatergruelmightbeimprovedinitseffectsbythesamemeans。Theexperimentiscertainlyworthtrying。

[9]

Thisinventionofdoublebottomsmightbeusedwithgreatsuccessbydistillers，topreventtheirliquor，whenitisthick，fromburningtothebottomsoftheirstills。Butthereisanotherhint，whichIhavelongwishedtogivedistillers，fromwhich，Iampersuaded，theymightderiveveryessentialadvantages——Itistorecommendtothemtomakeupwarmclothingofthickblanketingforcoveringuptheirstill-heads，anddefendingthemfromthecoldairoftheatmosphere；andforcoveringinthesamemannerallthatpartofthecopperorboilerwhichrisesabovethebrick-workinwhichitisfixed。Thegreatquantityofheatisconstantlygivenofftothecoldairoftheatmosphereincontactwithitbythisnakedcopper，notonlyoccasionsaverygreatlossofheat，andoffuel，buttendslikewiseverymuchtoEMBARRASSandtoPROLONGtheprocessofdistillation；foralltheheatcommunicatedbythenakedstill-headtotheatmosphereistakenfromthespirituousvapourwhichrisesfromtheliquorinthestill；andasthisvapourcannotfailtobecondensedintospiritswheneverandWHEREVERitlosesANYPARTofitsheat，——

asthespiritsgeneratedinthestill-headinconsequenceofthiscommunicationofheattotheatmospheredonotfindtheirwayintotheworm，buttrickledownandmixagainwiththeliquorinthestill，——thebadeffectsofleavingthestill-headexposednakedtothecoldairisquiteevident。Theremedyforthisevilisascheapandaseffectual，asitissimpleandobvious。

[10]

TheBavarianpound(equalto1。238，ornearonepoundandaquarterAvoirdupois，)isdividedinto32loths。

[11]

Foreach100lb。Bavarianweight，(equalto123。84lb。

Avoirdupois，)ofrye-meal，whichthebakerreceivesfromthemagazine，heisobligedtodeliversixty-fourloavesofbread，eachloafweighing2lb。51/2loths；equalto2lb。10oz。

Avoirdupois；——andaseachloafisdividedintosixportions，thisgivessevenouncesAvoirdupoisforeachportion。Henceitappearsthat100lb。ofrye-mealgive149lb。ofbread；forsixty-fourloaves，at2lb。51/2lothseach，weigh149lb——

WhenthisbreadisreckonedattwocreutzersaBavarianpound，(whichisaboutwhatitcostsatamedium，)oneportioncostsjust10/16ofacreutzer，or120/528ofapennysterling，whichissomethinglessthanonefarthing。

[12]

Thisallowanceisevidentlymuchtoolarge；butIwaswillingtoshowwhattheexpenceoffeedthePoorwouldbeatTHEHIGHEST

CALCULATION。Ihaveestimatedthe7ouncesofrye-bread，mentionedabove，atwhatitoughttocostwhenryeis7s。6d。thebushel，itspresentpriceinLondon。

[13]

Fartherinquirieswhichhavesincebeenmade，haveprovedthatthesesuspicionswerenotwithoutfoundation。

[14]

Sincewritingtheabove，Ihavehadanopportunityofascertaining，inthemostdecisiveandsatisfactorymanner，thefactsrelativetotheweightofIndianCornofthegrowthofthenorthernstatesofAmerica。Afriendofmine，anAmericangentleman，residentinLondon，(GeorgeErving，Esq。ofGreatGeorgestreet，Hanover-square，)

who，incommonwiththerestofhiscountrymen，stillretainsalikingforIndianCorn，andimportsitregularlyeveryyearfromAmerica，hasjustreceivedafreshsupplyofit，byoneofthelastshipswhichhasarrivedfromBostoninNewEngland；andatmydesireheweighedabushelofit，andfoundittoweigh61lb。：

ItcosthimatBostonthreeshillingsandsixpencesterlingthebushel。

[15]

ThepriceofIndianmealasithereestimated，——(2d。apound，)——

isatleasttwiceasmuchasitwouldcostinGreatBritainincommonyears，ifcarewastakentoimportitatthecheapestrate。

[16]

Thosewhodisliketrouble，andfeelthemselvescalleduponbydutyandhonortotakeanactivepartinundertakingsforthepublicgood，areextremelyapttoendeavourtoexcuse，——tothemselvesaswellastotheworld，——theirinactivityandsupineness，byrepresentingtheundertakinginquestionasbeingsoverydifficultastomakeallhopeofsuccessquitechimericalandridiculous。

[17]

TheHousekeeperofmyfriendandcountryman，SirWilliamPepperel，Bart。ofUpperSeymourStreet，PortmanSquare。

[18]

MolassesimportedfromtheFrenchWestIndiaIslandsintotheAmericanStatesiscommonlysoldtherefrom12d。to14d。

thegallon。

[19]

Thisgentleman，whoisasremarkableforhisgoodfortuneatsea，asheisrespectableonaccountofhisprivatecharacterandprofessionalknowledge，hascrossedtheAtlanticOceanthealmostincrediblenumberofONEHUNDREDANDTENTIMES！andwithoutmeetingwiththesmallestaccident。HeisnowontheseasinhiswaytoNorthAmerica；andthisvoyage，whichishisHUNDREDAND

ELEVENTH，heintendsshouldbehislast。Mayhearrivesafe，——andmayhelongenjoyinpeaceandquitethewell-earnedfruitsofhislaboriouslife！Whocanreflectontheinnumerablestormshemusthaveexperienced，andperilshehasescaped，withoutfeelingmuchinterestedinhispreservationandhappiness？

[20]

ThismaccaroniwouldnotprobablyhavecostonequarterofthatsumatNaples——Commonmaccaroniisfrequentlysoldthereaslowasfourteengrains，equaltofivepencehalfpennysterlingtherottolo，weighingtwenty-eightouncesandthreequartersAvoirdupois，whichisthreepencesterlingthepoundAvoirdupois。

Aninferiourkindofmaccaroni，suchasiscommonlysoldatNaplestothePoor，costsnotmorethantwopencesterlingthepoundAvoirdupois。

[21]

IfmaccaronicouldbemadeinthiscountryascheapasitismadeinNaples，thatistosay，soastobeaffordedforthreepencesterlingthepoundAvoirdupois，forthebestsort，(andIdonotseewhyitshouldnot，)ashalfapoundofdrymaccaroniweighswhenboiledverynearlytwopounds，eachpoundofboiledmaccaroniwouldcostonlythreefarthings，andthecheesenecessaryforgivingitarelishonefarthingmore，makingtogetheronepenny；whichiscertainlyaverymoderatepriceforsuchgoodandwholesomeFood。

CONTENTSofESSAYIV。

ofCHIMNEYFIRE-PLACES，withPROPOSALSforimprovingthemtosaveFUEL；torenderdwelling-housesmoreCOMFORTABLEandSALUBRIOUS，andeffectuallytopreventCHIMNIESfromSMOKING。

ADVERTISEMENT

CHAPTER。I。

Fire-placesforburningcoals，orwood，inanopenchimney，arecapableofgreatimprovement。

Smokingchimniesmayinallcasesbecompletelycured。

Theimmoderatesizeofthethroatsofchimniestheprincipalcauseofalltheirimperfections。

Philosophicalinvestigationofthesubject。

Remediesproposedforallthedefectsthathavebeendiscoveredinchimniesandtheiropenfire-places。

Theseremediesapplicabletochimniesdestinedforburningwood，orturf，aswellasthoseconstructedforburningcoals。

CHAPTER。II。

Practicaldirectionsdesignedfortheuseofworkmen，showinghowtheyaretoproceedinmakingthealterationsnecessarytoimprovechimneyfire-places，andeffectuallytocuresmokingchimnies。

CHAPTER。III。

Ofthecauseoftheascentofsmoke。

Illustrationofthesubjectbyfamiliarcomparisonsandexperiments。

Ofchimnieswhichaffectandcauseeachothertosmoke。

Ofchimnieswhichsmokefromwantofair。

Oftheeddiesofwindwhichsometimesblowdownchimnies，andcausethemtosmoke。

Explanationofthefigures。

ESSAYIV。

ADVERTISEMENT

TheAuthorthinksithisdutytoexplainthereasonswhichhaveinducedhimtochangetheorderinwhichthepublicationofhisEssayshasbeenannouncedtothePublic——BeingsuddenlycalledupontosendtoEdinburghapersonacquaintedwiththemethodofalteringChimneyFire-places，whichhaslatelybeencarriedintoexecutioninanumberofhousesinLondon，inordertointroducetheseimprovementsinScotland，hedidnotthinkitprudenttosendanypersononsoimportantanerrandwithoutmoreampleinstructionthancouldwellbegivenverbally；andbeingobligedtowriteonthesubject，hethoughtitbesttoinvestigatethematterthoroughly，andtopublishsuchparticulardirectionsrespectingtheimprovementsinquestionasmaybesufficienttoenableallthose，whomaybedesirousofadoptingthem，tomake，ordirectthenecessaryalterationsintheirFire-placeswithoutanyfurtherassistance。

ThefollowingLetter，whichtheAuthorreceivedfromSirJohnSinclair，Baronet，MemberofParliament，andPresidentoftheBoardofAgriculture，willexplainthismattermorefully：

YouwillhearwithpleasurethatyourmodeofalteringChimnies，soastopreventtheirsmoking，tosavefuel，andtoaugmentheat，hasanswerednotonlywithme，butwithmanyofmyfriendswhohavetriedit；andthattheLordProvestandMagistratesofEdinburghhavevotedasumofmoneytodefraytheexpencesofabricklayer，whoistobesentthereforthepurposeofestablishingthesameplaninthatcity。IhopethatyouwillhavethegoodnesstoexpediteyourpaperuponthemanagementofHeat，thattheknowledgeofsousefulanartmaybeasrapidlyandasextensivelydiffusedaspossible——Withmybestwishesforyoursuccessinthevariousimportantpursuitsinwhichyouarenowengaged，believeme，withgreattruthandregard，YourfaithfulandobedientservantJohnSinclairWhitehall，London，9thFebruary1796。

CHAPTER。I。

Fire-placesforburningcoals，orwood，inanopenchimney，arecapableofgreatimprovement。

Smokingchimniesmayinallcasesbecompletelycured。

Theimmoderatesizeofthethroatsofchimniestheprincipalcauseofalltheirimperfections。

Philosophicalinvestigationofthesubject。

Remediesproposedforallthedefectsthathavebeendiscoveredinchimniesandtheiropenfire-places。

Theseremediesapplicabletochimniesdestinedforburningwood，orturf，aswellasthoseconstructedforburningcoals。

TheplagueofasmokingChimneyisproverbial；buttherearemanyotherverygreatdefectsinopenFire-places，astheyarenowcommonlyconstructedinthiscountry，andindeedthroughoutEurope，which，beinglessobvious，areseldomattendedto；

andtherearesomeofthemveryfatalintheirconsequencestohealth；and，Iampersuaded，costthelivesofthousandseveryyearinthisisland。

Thosecoldandchillingdraughtsofairononesideofthebody，whiletheothersideisscorchedbyaChimneyFire，whicheveryonewhoreadsthismustoftenhavefelt，cannotbutbehighlydetrimentaltohealth；andinweakanddelicateconstitutionsmustoftenproducethemostfataleffects——Ihavenotadoubtinmyownmindthatthousandsdieinthiscountryeveryyearofconsumptionsoccasionedsolelybythiscause——Byacausewhichmightbesoeasilyremoved！——byacausewhoseremovalwouldtendtopromotecomfortandconvenienceinsomanyways。

Stronglyimpressedasmymindiswiththeimportanceofthissubject，itisnotpossibleformetoremainsilent——Thesubjectistoonearlyconnectedwithmanyofthemostessentialenjoymentsoflifenottobehighlyinterestingtoallthosewhofeelpleasureinpromoting，orincontemplatingthecomfortandhappinessofmankind——Andwithoutsufferingmyselftobedeterred，eitherbythefearofbeingthoughttogivethesubjectadegreeofimportancetowhichitisnotentitled，orbytheapprehensionofbeingtiresometomyreadersbytheprolixityofmydescriptions，——Ishallproceedtoinvestigatethesubjectinallitspartsanddetailswiththeutmostcareandattention——

AndfirstwithregardtosmokingChimnies：

TherearevariouscausesbywhichChimniesmaybepreventedfromcarryingsmoke；buttherearenonethatmaynoteasilybediscoveredandcompletelyremoved——Thiswilldoubtlessbeconsideredasaboldassertion；butItrustIshallbeabletomakeitappearinamannerperfectlysatisfactorytomyreadersthatIhavenotventuredtogivethisopinionbutupongoodandsufficientgrounds。

Thosewhowilltakethetroubletoconsiderthenatureandpropertiesofelasticfluids，——ofair，——smoke，——andvapour，——

andtoexaminethelawsoftheirmotions，andthenecessaryconsequencesoftheirbeingrarifiedbyheat，willperceivethatitwouldbeasmuchamiracleifsmokeshouldnotriseinaChimney，(allhindrancestoitsascentbeingremoved，)asthatwatershouldrefusetoruninasyphon，ortodescendinariver。

Thewholemystery，therefore，ofcuringsmokingChimniesiscomprisedinthissimpledirection——FINDOUTANDREMOVETHOSE

LOCALHINDRANCESWHICHFORCIBLYPREVENTTHESMOKEFROMFOLLOWING

ITSNATURALTENDENCYTOGOUPTHECHIMNEY；orrather，tospeakmoreaccurately，whichpreventsitsbeingforceduptheChimneybythepressureoftheheavierairoftheroom。

Althoughthecauses，bywhichtheascentofsmokeinaChimneyMAYBEobstructed，arevarious，yetthatcausewhichwillmostcommonly，andImaysayalmostuniversallybefoundtooperate，isonewhichitisalwaysveryeasytodiscover，andaseasytoremove，——thebadconstructionoftheChimneyINTHENEIGHBOURHOOD

OFTHEFIRE-PLACE。

InthecourseallmyexperienceandpracticeincuringsmokingChimnies，——andIcertainlyhavenothadlessthanfivehundredundermyhands，andamongthemmanywhichwerethoughttobequiteincurable，——Ihaveneverbeenobliged，exceptinonesingleinstance，tohaverecoursetoanyothermethodofcurethanmerelyreducingtheFire-placeandthethroatoftheChimney，orthatpartofitwhichliesimmediatelyabovetheFire-place，toaproperform，andjustdimensions。

ThatmyprinciplesforconstructingFire-placesareequallyapplicabletothosewhicharedesignedforburningcoal，astothoseinwhichwoodisburnt，haslatelybeenabundantlyprovedbyexperimentsmadehereinLondon；forofaboveanhundredandfiftyFire-placeswhichhavebeenalteredinthiscity，undermydirection，withintheselasttwomonths，thereisnotonewhichhasnotansweredperfectlywell[1]——Andbyseveralexperimentswhichhavebeenmadewithgreatcare，andwiththeassistanceofthermometers，ithasbeendemonstrated，thatthesavingoffuel，arisingfromtheseimprovementsofFire-places，amountsinallcasestomorethanHALF，andinmanycasestomorethanTWOTHIRDS

ofthequantityformerlyconsumed——NowasthealterationsinFire-placeswhicharenecessarymaybemadeataverytriflingexpence，asanykindofgrateorstovemaybemadeuseof，andasnoironwork，butmerelyafewbricksandsomemortar，orafewsmallpiecesoffire-stone，arerequired；theimprovementinquestionisveryimportant，whenconsideredmerelywithaviewtoeconomy；butitshouldberemembered，thatnotonlyagreatsavingismadeoffuelbythealterationsproposed，butthatroomsaremademuchmorecomfortable，andmoresalubrious；——

thattheymaybemoreequallywarmed，andmoreeasilykeptatanyrequiredtemperature；——thatalldraughtsofcoldairfromthedoorsandwindowstowardstheFire-place，whicharesofataltodelicateconstitutions，willbecompletelyprevented；——thatinconsequenceoftheairbeingequallywarmallovertheroom，orinallpartsofit，itmaybeentirelychangedwiththegreatestfacility，andtheroomcompletelyventilated，whenthisairisbecomeunfitforrespiration，andthismerelybythrowingopenforamomentadooropeningintosomepassagefromwhencefreshairmaybehad，andtheupperpartofawindow；orbyopeningtheupperpartofonwindowandthelowerpartofanother，andastheoperationofventilatingtheroom，evenwhenitisdoneinthemostcompletemanner，willneverrequirethedoorandwindowtobeopenmorethanoneminute；inthisshorttimethewallsoftheroomwillnotbesensiblycooled，andthefreshairwhichcomesintotheroomwill，inaveryfewminutes，besocompletelywarmedbythesewallsthatthetemperatureoftheroom，thoughtheairinitbeperfectlychanged，willbebroughttobeverynearlythesameasitwasbeforetheventilation。

Thosewhoareacquaintedwiththeprinciplesofpneumatics，andknowwhythewarmairinaroomrushesoutatanopeningmadeforitatthetopofawindowwhencolderairfromwithoutispermittedtoenterbythedoor，orbyanyotheropeningsituatedlowerthanthefirst，willsee，thatitwouldbequiteimpossibletoventilatearoominthecompleteandexpeditiousmannerheredescribed，wheretheairinaroomispartiallywarmed，orhardlywarmedatall，andwherethewallsoftheroom，remotefromthefire，areconstantlycold；whichmustalwaysbethecasewhere，inconsequenceofastrongcurrentuptheChimney，streamsofcoldairarecontinuallycominginthroughallthecrevicesofthedoorsandwindows，andflowingintotheFire-place。

Butalthoughrooms，furnishedwithFire-placesconstructedupontheprincipleshererecommended，maybeeasilyandmosteffectuallyventilated，(andthisiscertainlyacircumstanceinfavouroftheproposedimprovements，)yetsuchtotalventilationswillveryseldom，ifever，benecessary——AslongasANYFIREiskeptupintheroom，thereissoconsiderableacurrentofairuptheChimney，notwithstandingallthereductionthatcanbemadeinthesizeofitsthroat，thatthecontinualchangeofairintheroomwhichthiscurrentoccasionswill，generally，befoundtobequitesufficientforkeepingtheairintheroomsweetandwholesome；andindeedinroomsinwhichthereisnoopenFire-place，andconsequentlynocurrentofairfromtheroomsettinguptheChimney，whichisthecaseinGermany，andallthenorthernpartsofEurope，whereroomsareheatedbystoves，whoseFire-placesopeningwithoutarenotsuppliedwiththeairnecessaryforthecombustionofthefuelfromtheroom；——andalthoughinmostoftheroomsabroad，whicharesoheated，thewindowsanddoorsaredouble，andbothareclosedinthemostexactmannerpossible，byslipsofpaperpastedoverthecrevices，orbyslipsoflistorfurr；yetwhentheseroomsaretolerablylarge，andwhentheyarenotverymuchcrowdedbycompany，norfilledwithagreatmanyburninglampsorcandles，theairinthemisseldomsomuchinjuredastobecomeoppressiveorunwholesome；andthosewhoinhabitthemshowbytheirruddycountenances，aswellasbyeveryothersignofperfecthealth，thattheysuffernoinconveniencewhateverfromtheircloseness——Thereisfrequently，itistrue，anoppressivenessintheairofaroomheatedbyaGermanstove，ofwhichthosewhoarenotmuchaccustomedtolivinginthoseroomsseldomfailtocomplain，andindeedwithmuchreason；butthisoppressivenessdoesnotarisefromtheairoftheroombeinginjuredbytherespirationandperspirationofthosewhoinhabitit；——itarisesfromaverydifferentcause；——

fromafaultintheconstructionofGermanstovesingeneral，butwhichmaybeeasilyandmostcompletelyremedied，asIshallshowmorefullyinanotherplace。Inthemeantime，Iwouldjustobserveherewithregardtothesestoves，thatastheyareoftenmadeofiron，andasthismetalisaverygoodconductorofheat，somepartofthestoveincontactwiththeairoftheroombecomessohotastocalcineorrathertoROASTthedustwhichlightsuponit；whichnevercanfailtoproduceaverydisagreeableeffectontheairoftheroom。Andevenwhenthestoveisconstructedofpantilesorpottery-ware，ifanypartofitincontactwiththeairoftheroomissufferedtobecomeveryhot，whichseldomfailstobethecaseinGermanstovesconstructedonthecommonprinciples，nearlythesameeffectswillbefoundtobeproducedontheairaswhenthestoveismadeofiron，asIhaveveryfrequentlyhadoccasiontoobserve。

Thougharoombeclosedinthemostperfectmannerpossible，yet，asthequantityofairinjuredandrenderedunfitforfurtherusebytherespirationoftwoorthreepersonsinafewhoursisverysmall，comparedtotheimmensevolumeofairwhicharoomofamoderatesizecontains；andasalargequantityoffreshairalwaysenterstheroom，andanequalquantityofthewarmairoftheroomisdrivenoutofiteverytimethedoorisopened，thereismuchlessdangeroftheairofaroombecomingunwholesomeforthewantofventilationthanhasbeengenerallyimagined；

particularlyincoldweather，whenallthedifferentcauseswhichconspiretochangetheairofwarmedroomsactwithincreasedpowerandeffect。

Thosewhohaveanydoubtsrespectingtheverygreatchangeofairorventilationwhichtakesplaceeachtimethedoorofawarmroomisopenedincoldweather，needonlysetthedoorofsucharoomwideopenforamoment，andholdtwolightedcandlesinthedoor-way，onenearthetopofthedoor，andtheothernearthebottomofit；theviolencewithwhichtheflameofthatabovewillbedrivenoutwards，andthatbelowinwards，bythetwostrongcurrentsofairwhich，passinginoppositedirections，rushinandoutoftheroomatthesametime，willbeconvincedthatthechangeofairwhichactuallytakesplacemustbeveryconsiderableindeed；andthesecurrentswillbestronger，andconsequentlythechangeofairgreater，inproportionasthedifferenceisgreaterbetweenthetemperatureoftheairwithintheroomandofthatwithout。Ihavebeenmoreparticularuponthissubject，——theventilationofwarmedroomswhichareconstantlyinhabited，——asIknowthatpeopleingeneralinthiscountryhavegreatapprehensionsofthebadconsequencestohealthoflivingroomsinwhichthereisnotacontinualinfluxofcoldairfromwithout。IamasmuchanadvocateforaFREE

CIRCULATIONofairasanybody，andalwayssleepinabedwithoutcurtainsonthataccount；butIammuchinclinedtothink，thatthecurrentsofcoldairwhichneverfailtobeproducedinroomsheatedbyFire-placesconstructeduponthecommonprinciple，——

thosepartialheatsononesideofthebody，andthecoldblastsontheother，sooftenfeltinhousesinthiscountry，areinfinitelymoredetrimentaltohealththanthesupposedclosenessoftheairinaroomwarmedmoreequally，andbyasmallerfire。

Alltheseadvantages，attendingtheintroductionoftheimprovementsinFire-placeshererecommended，arecertainlyimportant，andIdonotknowthattheyarecounterbalancedbyanyonedisadvantagewhatsoever。TheonlycomplaintsthatIhadeverheardmadeagainstthemwas，thattheymadetheroomsTOOwarm；

buttheremedytothisevilissoperfectlysimpleandobvious，thatIshouldbealmostafraidtomentionit，lessitmightbeconsideredasaninsulttotheunderstandingofthepersonstowhomsuchinformationshouldbegiven；fornothingsurelycanbeconceivedmoreperfectlyridiculousthantheembarrassmentofapersononaccountofthetoogreatheatofhisroom，whenitisinhispowertodiminishATPLEASUREthefirebywhichitiswarmed；andyet，strangeasitmayappear，thishassometimeshappened！

BeforeIproceedtogivedirectionsfortheconstructionofFire-places，itwillbepropertoexaminemorecarefullytheFire-placesnowincommonuse；——topointouttheirfaults；——

andtoestablishtheprinciplesuponwhichFire-placesoughttobeconstructed。

ThegreatfaultofalltheopenFire-places，orChimnies，forburningwoodorcoalsinanopenfire，nowincommonuse，is，thattheyaremuchtoolarge；orratheritisTHETHROATOFTHE

CHIMNEYorthelowerpartofitsopencanal，intheneighbourhoodofthemantle，andimmediatelyoverthefire，whichistoolarge。

Thisopeninghashithertobeenleftlargerthanotherwiseitprobablywouldhavebeenmade，inordertogiveapassagetotheChimney-sweeper；butIshallshowhereafterhowapassagefortheChimney-sweepermaybecontrivedwithoutleavingthethroatoftheChimneyofsuchenormousdimensionsastoswallowupanddevourallthewarmairoftheroom，insteadofmerelygivingapassagetothesmokeandheatedvapourwhichrisefromthefire，forwhichlastpurposealoneitoughttobedestined。

Wereitmyintentiontotreatmysubjectinaformalscientificmanner，itwouldbedoubtlessbeproper，andevennecessary，tobeginbyexplaininginthefullestmanner，andupontheprinciplesfoundedonthelawsofnature，relativetothemotionsofelasticfluids，asfarastheyhavebeendiscoveredanddemonstrated，thecausesoftheascentofsmoke，andalsotoexplainandillustrateuponthesameprinciples，andeventomeasure，orestimatebycalculations，thepreciseeffectsofallthosemechanicalaidswhichmaybeproposedforassistingitinitsascent，orratherforremovingthoseobstacleswhichhinderitsmotionupwards；——butasitismywishrathertowriteanusefulpracticaltreatise，thanalearneddissertation，beingmoredesiroustocontributeindiffusingusefulknowledge，bywhichthecomfortsandenjoymentsofmankindmaybeincreased，thantoacquirethereputationofaphilosopheramonglearnedmen，IshallendeavourtowriteinsuchamannerastobeeasilyunderstoodBYTHOSEWHOAREMOSTLIKELYTOPROFITBYTHE

INFORMATIONIHAVETOCOMMUNICATE，andconsequentlymostlikelytoassistinbringingintogeneralusetheimprovementsI

recommend。Thisbeingpremised，Ishallproceed，withoutanyfurtherprefaceorintroduction，totheinvestigationofthesubjectIhaveundertakentotreat。

AstheimmoderatesizeofthethroatsofChimniesisthegreatfaultoftheirconstruction，itisthisfaultwhichoughtalwaystobefirstattendedtoineveryattemptwhichismadetoimprovethem；forhoweverperfecttheconstructionofaFire-placemaybeinotherrespects，iftheopeningleftforthepassageofthesmokeislargerthanisnecessaryforthatpurpose，nothingcanpreventthewarmairoftheroomfromescapingthroughit；andwheneverthishappens，thereisnotonlyanunnecessarylossofheat，butthewarmairwhichleavestheroomtogouptheChimneybeingreplacedbycoldairfromwithout，thedraughtsofcoldair，sooftenmentioned，cannotfailtobeproducedintheroom，tothegreatannoyanceofthosewhoinhabitit。ButalthoughboththeseevilsmaybeeffectuallyremediedbyreducingthethroatoftheChimneytoapropersize，yetindoingthisseveralprecautionswillbenecessary。Andfirstofall，thethroatoftheChimneyshouldbeinitsproperplace；thatistosay，inthatplaceinwhichitoughttobe，inorderthattheascentofthesmokemaybemostfacilitated；foreverymeanswhichcanbeemployedforfacilitatingtheascentofthesmokeintheChimneymustnaturallytendtopreventtheChimneyfromsmoking：nowasthesmokeandhotvapourwhichrisefromafirenaturallytendUPWARDS，theproperplaceforthethroatoftheChimneyisevidentlyperpendicularlyOVERTHEFIRE。

ButthereisanothercircumstancetobeattendedtoindeterminingtheproperplaceforthethroatofaChimney，andthatis，toascertainitsdistancefromthefire，orHOWFAR

abovetheburningfuelitoughttobeplaced。Indeterminingthispoint，therearemanythingstobeconsidered，andseveraladvantagesanddisadvantagestobeweighedandbalanced。

Asthesmokeandvapourwhichascendfromburningfuelriseinconsequenceoftheirbeingrarefiedbyheat，andmadelighterthantheairofthesurroundingatmosphere；andasthedegreeoftheirrarefaction，andconsequentlytheirtendencytorise，isinproportiontotheintensityoftheirheat；andfurther，astheyarehotternearthefirethanatagreaterdistancefromit，itisclearthatthenearerthethroatofaChimneyistothefire，thestrongerwillbe，whatiscommonlycalled，itsDRAUGHT，andthelessdangertherewillbeofitssmoking。Butontheotherhand，whenthedraughtofaChimneyisverystrong，andparticularlywhenthisstrongdraughtisoccasionedbythethroatoftheChimneybeingverynearthefire，itmaysohappenthatthedraughtofairintothefiremaybecomesostrong，astocausethefueltobeconsumedtoorapidly。TherearelikewiseseveralotherinconvenienceswhichwouldattendtheplacingofthethroatofaChimneyVERYNEARtheburningfuel。

Inintroducingtheimprovementsproposed，inChimniesalreadybuilt，therecanbenoquestioninregardtotheheightofthethroatoftheChimney，foritsplacewillbedeterminedbytheheightofthemantle。Itcanhardlybemadelowerthanthemantle；anditoughtalwaystobebroughtdownasnearlyuponthelevelwiththebottomofitaspossible。IftheChimneyisapttosmoke，itwillsometimesbenecessaryeithertolowerthemantleortodiminishtheheightoftheopeningoftheFire-place，bythrowingoveraflatarch，orputtinginastraightpieceofstonefromonesideofittotheother，or，whichwillbestillmoresimpleandeasyinpractice，buildingawallofbricks，supportedbyaflatbarofiron，immediatelyunderthemantle。

NothingissoeffectualtopreventChimniesfromsmokingasdiminishingtheopeningoftheFire-placeinthemannerheredescribed，andloweringanddiminishingthethroatoftheChimney；

andIhavealwaysfound，exceptinthesingleinstancealreadymentioned，thataperfectcuremaybeeffectedbyTHESEMEANS

ALONE，eveninthemostdesperatecases。Itistrue，thatwhentheconstructionoftheChimneyisverybadindeed，oritssituationveryunfavourabletotheascentofthesmoke，andespeciallywhenboththesedisadvantagesexistatthesametime，itmaysometimesbenecessarytodiminishtheopeningoftheFire-place，andparticularlytolowerit，andalsotolowerthethroatoftheChimney，morethanmightbewished：butstillI

thinkthiscanproducenoinconveniencestobecomparedwiththatgreatestofallplagues，asmokingChimney。

ThepositionofthethroatofaChimneybeingdetermined，thenextpointstobeascertainedareitssizeandform，andthemannerinwhichitoughttobeconnectedwiththeFire-placebelow，andwiththeopencanaloftheChimneyabove。

ButastheseinvestigationsareintimatelyconnectedwiththosewhichrelatetotheformpropertobegiventotheFire-placeitself，wemustconsiderthemalltogether。

Thattheseinquiriesmaybepursuedwithduemethod，andthattheconclusionsdrawnfromthemmaybeclearandsatisfactory，itwillbenecessarytoconsider，first，whattheobjectsarewhichoughtprincipallytobehadinviewintheconstructionofaFire-place；andsecondly，toseehowtheseobjectscanbestbeattained。

NowthedesignofaChimneyFirebeingsimplytowarmaroom，itisnecessary，firstofall，tocontrivematterssothattheroomshallbeactuallywarmed；secondly，thatitbewarmedwiththesmallestexpenceoffuelpossible；and，thirdly，thatinwarmingit，theairoftheroombepreservedperfectlypure，andfitforrespiration，andfreefromsmokeandalldisagreeablesmells。

InordertotakemeasureswithcertaintyforwarmingaroombymeansofanopenChimneyFire，itwillbenecessarytoconsiderHOW，orinWHATMANNER，suchaFirecommunicatesheattoaroom。

Thisquestionmayperhaps，atthefirstviewofit，appeartobesuperfluousandtrifling，butamorecarefulexaminationofthematterwillshowittobehighlydeservingofthemostattentiveinvestigation。

TodetermineinwhatmanneraroomisheatedbyanopenChimneyFire，itwillbenecessaryfirstofalltofindout，UNDERWHAT

FORMtheheatgeneratedinthecombustionofthefuelexists，andthentoseehowitiscommunicatedtothosebodieswhichareheatedbyit。

Inregardtothefirstofthesesubjectsofinquiry，itisquitecertainthattheheatwhichisgeneratedinthecombustionofthefuelexistsunderTWOperfectlydistinctandverydifferentforms。

OnepartofitisCOMBINEDwiththesmoke，vapour，andheatedairwhichrisefromtheburningfuel，andgoesoffwiththemintotheupperregionsoftheatmosphere；whiletheotherpart，whichappearstobeUNCOMBINED，or，assomeingeniousphilosophershavesupposed，combinedonlywithlight，issentofffromthefireinraysinallpossibledirections。

Withrespecttothesecondsubjectofinquiry；namely，howthisheat，existingunderthesetwodifferentforms，iscommunicatedtootherbodies；itishighlyprobablethatthecombinedheatcanonlybecommunicatedtootherbodiesbyACTUALCONTACTwiththebodywithwhichitiscombined；andwithregardtotherayswhicharesentoffbyburningfuel，itiscertainthatTHEYcommunicateorgenerateheatonlyWHENandWHEREtheyarestoppedorabsorbed。Inpassingthroughair，whichistransparent，theycertainlydonotcommunicateanyheattoit；anditseemshighlyprobablethattheydonotcommunicateheattosolidbodiesbywhichtheyarereflected。

Intheserespectstheyseemtobearagreatresemblancetothesolarrays。Butinordernottodistracttheattentionofmyreader，orcarryhimtoofarawayfromthesubjectmoreimmediatelyunderconsideration，ImustnotentertoodeeplyintotheseinquiriesrespectingthenatureandpropertiesofwhathasbeencalledRADIANTHEAT。Itiscertainlyamostcurioussubjectofphilosophicalinvestigation，butmoretimewouldberequiredtodoitjusticethanwenowhavetospare。Wemustthereforecontentourselveswithsuchapartialexaminationofitaswillbesufficientforourpresentpurpose。

Aquestionwhichnaturallypresentsitselfhereis。

Whatproportiondoestheradiantheatbeartothecombinedheat？——Thoughthatpointhasnotyetbeendeterminedwithanyconsiderabledegreeofprecision，itis，however，quitecertain，thatthequantityofheatwhichgoesoffcombinedwiththesmoke，vapour，andheatedairismuchmoreconsiderable，perhapsthreeoffourtimesgreateratleast，thanthatwhichissentofffromthefireinrays——Andyet，smallasthequantityisofthisradiantheat，itistheonlypartoftheheatgeneratedinthecombustionoffuelburntinanopenFire-placewhichiseveremployed，orwhichcaneverbeemployed，inheatingaroom。

ThewholeofthecombinedheatescapesbytheChimney，andistotallylost；and，indeed，nopartofitcouldeverbebroughtintoaroomfromanopenFire-place，withoutbringingalongwithitthesmokewithwhichitiscombined；which，ofcourse，wouldrenderitimpossiblefortheroomtobeinhabited。Thereis，however，onemethodbywhichcombiningheat，andeventhatwhicharisesfromanopenFire-place，maybemadetoassistinwarmingaroom；andthatisbymakingitpassthroughsomethinganalogoustoaGermanstove，placedintheChimneyabovethefire——ButofthiscontrivanceIshalltakeoccasiontotreatmorefullyhereafter；inthemeantimeIshallcontinuetoinvestigatethepropertiesofopenChimneyFire-places，constructeduponthemostsimpleprinciples，suchasarenowincommonuse；andshallendeavourtopointoutandexplainallthoseimprovementsofwhichTHEYappeartometobecapable。WhenfuelisburntinFire-placesuponthissimpleconstruction，wherethesmokeescapesimmediatelybytheopencanaloftheChimney，itisquiteevidentthatallthecombinedheatmustofnecessitybelost；andasitistheradiantheatalonewhichcanbeemployedinheatingaroom，itbecomesanobjectofmuchimportancetodeterminehowthegreatestquantityofitmaybegeneratedinthecombustionofthefuel，andhowthegreatestproportionpossibleofthatgeneratedmaybebroughtintotheroom。

Nowthequantityofradiantheatgeneratedinthecombustionofagivenquantityofanykindoffueldependsverymuchuponthemanagementofthefire，oruponthemannerinwhichthefuelisconsumed。Whenthefireburnsbright，muchradiantheatwillbesentofffromit；butwhenitisSMOTHEREDUP，verylittlewillbegenerated；andindeedverylittlecombinedheat，thatcanbeemployedtoanyusefulpurpose：mostoftheheatproducedwillbeimmediatelyEXPENDEDingivingelasticitytoathickdensevapourorsmokewhichwillbeseenrisingfromthefire；——andthecombustionbeingveryincomplete，agreatpartoftheinflammablematterofthefuelbeingmerelyrarefiedanddrivenuptheChimneywithoutbeinginflamed，thefuelwillbewastedtolittlepurpose。Andhenceitappearsofhowmuchimportanceitis，whetheritbeconsideredwithaviewtoeconomy，ortocleanliness，comfort，andelegance，topaydueattentiontothemanagementofaChimneyFire。

Nothingcanbemoreperfectlyvoidofcommonsense，andwastefulandslovenlyatthesametime，thanthemannerinwhichChimneyFires，andparticularlywherecoalsareburned，arecommonlymanagedbyservants。Theythrowonaloadofcoalsatonce，throughwhichtheflameishoursinmakingitsway；andfrequentlyitisnotwithoutmuchtroublethatthefireispreventedfromgoingquiteout。Duringthistimenoheatiscommunicatedtotheroom；andwhatisstillworse，thethroatoftheChimneybeingoccupiedmerelybyaheavydensevapour，notpossessedofanyconsiderabledegreeofheat，andconsequentlynothavingmuchelasticity，thewarmairoftheroomfindslessdifficultyinforcingitswayuptheChimneyandescaping，thanwhenthefireburnsbright；——andithappensnotunfrequently，especiallyinChimneysandFire-placesillconstructed，thatthiscurrentofwarmairfromtheroomwhichpressesintotheChimney，crossinguponthecurrentofheavysmokewhichrisesslowlyfromthefire，obstructsitinitsascent，andbeatsitbackintotheroom；henceitisthatChimniessooftensmokewhentoolargeaquantityoffreshcoalsisputuponthefire。Somanycoalsshouldneverbeputonthefireatonceastopreventthefreepassageoftheflamebetweenthem。Inshort，afireshouldneverbesmothered；andwhenproperattentionispaidtothequantityofcoalsputon，therewillbeverylittleuseforthepoker；

andthiscircumstancewillcontributeverymuchtocleanliness，andtothepreservationoffurniture。

Thosewhohavefeelingenoughtobemademiserablebyanythingcareless，slovenly，andwastefulwhichhappensundertheireyes，——whoknowwhatcomfortis，andconsequenceareworthyoftheenjoymentsofaCLEANHEARTHandaCHEERFULFIRE，shouldreallyeithertakethetroublethemselvestomanagetheirfires，(which，indeed，wouldratherbeanamusementtothemthanatrouble，)ortheyshouldinstructtheirservantstomanagethembetter。

Buttoreturntothesubjectmoreimmediatelyunderconsideration。

Aswehaveseenwhatisnecessarytotheproductionorgenerationofradiantheat，itremainstodeterminehowthegreatestproportionofthatgeneratedandsentofffromthefireinalldirectionsmaybemadetoentertheroom，andassistinwarmingit。Howastherayswhicharethrownofffromburningfuelhavethispropertyincommonwithlight，thattheygenerateheatonlyWHENandWHEREtheyarestoppedorabsorbed，andalsoinbeingcapableofbeingreflectedWITHOUTGENERATINGatthesurfacesofvariousbodies，theknowledgeofthesepropertieswillenableustotakemeasures，withtheutmostcertainty，forproducingtheeffectrequired，——thatistosay，forbringingasmuchradiantheataspossibleintotheroom。

Thismustbedone，first，bycausingasmanyaspossibleoftherays，astheyaresentofffromthefireinstraightlines，tocomeDIRECTLYintotheroom；whichcanonlybeeffectedbybringingthefireasfarforwardaspossible，andleavingtheopeningoftheFire-placeaswideandashighascanbedonewithoutinconveniences；andsecondly，bymakingthesidesandbackoftheFire-placeofsuchform，andconstructingthemofsuchmaterials，astocausethedirectraysfromthefire，whichstrikeagainstthem，tobesentintotheroomBYREFLECTION

inthegreatestabundance。

Nowitwillbefound，uponexamination，thatthebestformfortheverticalsidesofaFire-place，ortheCOVINGS，(astheyarecalled，)isthatofanuprightplane，makingananglewiththeplaneofthebackoftheFire-place，ofabout135degrees——

AccordingtothepresentconstructionofChimniesthisangleis90degrees，orformsarightangle；butasinthiscasethetwosidesorcovingsoftheFire-place(AC，BD，Fig。1。)areparalleltoeachother，itisevidentthattheyareveryillcontrivedforthrowingintotheroombyreflectiontheraysfromthefirewhichfallonthem。

TohaveaclearandperfectideaofthealterationsIproposeintheformsofFire-places，thereaderneedonlyobserve，that，whereasthebacksofFire-places，astheyarenowcommonlyconstructed，areaswideastheopeningoftheFire-placeinfront，andthesidesofitareofcourseperpendiculartoit，andparalleltoeachother，——intheFire-placesIrecommend，theback(ik，Fig。3)isonlyaboutone-thirdofthewidthoftheopeningoftheFire-placeinfront(a，b)，andconsequentlythatthetwosidesofcovingsoftheFire-place(aiandbk)，insteadofbeingperpendiculartotheback，areinclinedtoitatanangleofabout135degrees；andinconsequenceofthisposition，insteadofbeingparalleltoeachother，eachofthempresentsanobliquefronttowardstheopeningoftheChimney，bymeansofwhichtherayswhichtheyreflectarethrownintotheroom。

Abareinspectionoftheannexeddrawings(Fig。1。andFig。3。)

willrenderthismatterperfectlyclearandintelligible。

InregardtothematerialswhichitwillbemostadvantageoustoemployintheconstructionofFire-places，somuchlighthas，Iflattermyself，alreadybeenthrownonthesubjectweareinvestigating，andtheprinciplesadoptedhavebeenestablishedonsuchclearandobviousfacts，thatnogreatdifficultywillattendthedeterminationofthatpoint——Astheobjectinviewistobringradiantheatintotheroom，itisclearthatthatmaterialisbestfortheconstructionofaFire-placewhichreflectsthemost，orwhichABSORBSTHELEASTofit；forthatheatwhichisABSORBEDcannotbeREFLECTED——Nowasbodieswhichabsorbradiantheatarenecessarilyheatedinconsequenceofthatabsorption，todiscoverwhichofthevariousmaterialsthatcanbeemployedforconstructingFire-placesarebestadaptedforthatpurpose，wehaveonlytofindoutbyanexperiment，veryeasytobemade，whatbodiesacquireLEASTHEATwhenexposedtothedirectraysofaclearfire；——forthosewhichareleastheated，evidentlyabsorbtheleast，andconsequentlyreflectthemostradiantheat。Andhenceitappearsthatiron，and，ingeneral，metalsofallkinds，whicharewellknowntoGROWVERY

HOTwhenexposedtotheraysprojectedbyburningfuel，aretobereckonedamongtheVERYWORSTmaterialsthatitispossibletoemployintheconstructionofFire-places。

ThebestmaterialsIhavehithertobeenabletodiscoverarefire-stone，andcommonbricksandmortar。Boththesematerialsare，fortunately，verycheap；andastotheircomparativemerits，Ihardlyknowtowhichofthemthepreferenceoughttobegiven。

Whenbricksareusedtheyshouldbecoveredwithathincoatingofplaster，which，whenitisbecomeperfectlydry，shouldbewhite-washed。Thefire-stoneshouldlikewisebewhitewashed，whenthatisused；andeverypartoftheFire-place，whichisnotexposedtobeingsoiledandmadeblackbythesmoke，shouldbekeptaswhiteandcleanaspossible。AsWHITEreflectsmoreheat，aswellasmorelightthananyothercolour，itoughtalwaystobepreferredfortheinsideofaChimneyFire-place，andBLACK，whichreflectsneitherlightnorheatshouldbemostavoided。

IamwellawarehowmuchtheopinionIhavehaveventuredtogive，respectingtheunfitnessofironandothermetalstobeemployedintheconstructionofopenFire-places，differsfromtheopiniongenerallyreceiveduponthatsubject；——andIevenknowthattheveryreasonwhich，accordingtomyideasofthematter，rendersthemtotallyunfitforthepurpose，iscommonlyassignedformakinguseofthem，namely，thattheysoongrowveryhot。ButIwouldbegleavetoaskwhatadvantageisderivedfromheatingthem？

Ihaveshownthedisadvantageofit，namely，thatthequantityofradiantheatthrownintotheroomisdiminished；——anditiseasytoshowthatalmostthewholeofthatabsorbedbythemetalisultimatelycarrieduptheChimneybytheair，which，comingintocontactwiththishotmetal，isheatedandrarefiedbyit，andforcingitswayupwards，goesoffwiththesmoke；andasnocurrentofaireversetsfromanypartoftheopeningofaFire-placeintotheroom，itisimpossibletoconceivehowtheheatexistinginthemetalcomposinganypartoftheapparatusoftheFire-place，andsituatedwithinitscavity，cancome，orbebroughtintotheroom。

Thisdifficultymaybeinpartremoved，bysupposing，whatindeedseemstobetrueinacertaindegree，thattheheatedmetalsendsoffrays，theheatitacquiresfromthefire，evenwhenitisnotheatedredhot；butstill，asitnevercanbeadmittedthattheheat，absorbedbythemetalandafterwardsthrownoffbyitinrays，isINCREASEDbythisoperation，nothingcanbegainedbyit；andasmuchmustnecessarybelostinconsequenceofthegreatquantityofheatcommunicatedbythehotmetaltotheairincontactwithit，which，ashasalreadybeenshown，alwaysmakesitswayuptheChimney，andfliesoffintotheatmosphere，thelossofheatattendingtheuseofitistooevidenttorequirebeingfartherinsistedon。

Thereis，however，inChimneyFire-placesdestinedforburningcoals，oneessentialpart，thegrate，whichcannotwellbemadeofanythingelsebutiron；butthereisnonecessitywhateverforthatimmensequantityofironwhichsurroundsgratesastheyarenowcommonlyconstructedandfittedup，andwhichnotonlyrendersthemveryexpensive，butinjuresveryessentiallytheFire-place。IfitshouldbenecessarytodiminishtheopeningofalargeChimneyinordertopreventitssmoking，itismuchmoresimple，economical，andbetterinallrespects，todothiswithmarble，fire-stone，orevenwithbricksandmortar，thantomakeuseofiron，which，ashasalreadybeenshown，istheveryworstmaterialthatcanpossiblybeemployedforthatpurpose；andastoregisters，theynotonlyarequiteunnecessary，wherethethroatofaChimneyisproperlyconstructed，andofproperdimensions，butinthatcasewoulddomuchharm。Iftheyactatall，itmustbebyopposingtheirflatsurfacestothecurrentofrisingsmokeinamannerwhichcannotfailtoembarrassandimpedeitsmotion。ButwehaveshownthatthepassageofthesmokethroughthethroatofaChimneyoughttobefacilitatedasmuchaspossible，inorderthatitmaybeenabledtopassbyasmallaperture。

Register-stoveshaveoftenbeenfoundtobeofuse，butitisbecausethegreatfaultofallFire-placesconstructeduponthecommonprinciplesbeingtheenormousdimensionsofthethroatoftheChimney，thisfaulthasbeeninsomemeasurecorrectedbythem；butIwillventuretoaffirm，thatthereneverwasaFire-placesocorrectedthatwouldnothavebeenmuchmoreimproved，andwithinfinitelylessexpence，bythealterationshererecommended，andwhichwillbemoreparticularlyexplainedinthenextChapter。

CHAPTER。II。

Practicaldirectionsdesignedfortheuseofworkmen，showinghowtheyaretoproceedinmakingthealterationsnecessarytoimprovechimneyfire-places，andeffectuallytocuresmokingchimnies。

AllChimneyFire-places，withoutexception，whethertheyaredesignedforburningwoodorcoals，andeventhosewhichdonotsmoke，aswellasthosewhichdo，maybegreatlyimprovedbymakingthealterationsinthemhererecommended；foritisbynomeansMERELYtopreventChimniesfromsmokingthattheseimprovementsarerecommended，butitisalsotomakethembetterinallotherrespectsasFire-places；andwhenthealterationsproposedareproperlyexecuted，whichmaybeveryeasilybedonewiththeassistanceofthefollowingplainandsimpledirections，theChimnieswillneverfailtoanswer，Iwillventuretosay，evenbeyondexpectation。TheroomwillbeheatedmuchmoreequallyandmorepleasantlywithLESSTHANHALFTHE

FUELusedbefore，thefirewillbemorecheerfulandmoreagreeable；andthegeneralappearanceoftheFire-placemoreneatandelegant，andtheChimneyWILLNEVERSMOKE。

Theadvantageswhicharederivedfrommechanicalinventionsandcontrivancesare，Iknow，frequentlyaccompaniedbydisadvantageswhichitisnotalwayspossibletoavoid；butinthecaseinquestion，Icansaywithtruth，thatIknowofnodisadvantagewhateverthatattendstheFire-placesconstructedupontheprincipleshererecommended——ButtoproceedingivingdirectionsfortheconstructionoftheseFire-places。

ThatwhatIhavetoofferonthissubjectmaybethemoreeasilyunderstood，itwillbepropertobeginbyexplainingtheprecisemeaningofallthosetechnicalwordsandexpressionswhichImayfinditnecessaryorconvenienttouse。

BytheTHROATofaChimney，Imeanthelowerextremityofitscanal，whereituniteswiththeupperpartofitsopenFire-place——

Thisthroatiscommonlyfoundaboutafootabovethelevelofthelowerpartofthemantle，anditissometimescontractedtoasmallersizethantherestofthecanaloftheChimney，andsometimesnot。

Fig。5。showsthesectionofaChimneyonthecommonconstruction，inwhichdeisthethroat。

Fig。6。showsthesectionofthesameChimneyalteredandimproved，inwhichdiisthereducedthroat。

TheBREASTofaChimney，isthatpartofitwhichisimmediatelybehindthemantle——ItisthewallwhichformstheentrancefrombelowintothethroatoftheChimneyinfront，ortowardstheroom——ItisoppositetotheupperextremityofthebackoftheopenFire-place，andparalleltoit；inshortitmaysaidtobethebackpartofthemantleitself——Inthefigures5and6，itismarkedbytheletterd。TheWIDTHofthethroatofChimney(defig。5，anddifig。6，)istakenfromthebreastoftheChimneytotheback，anditsLENGTHistakenatrightanglestoitswidth，orinalineparalleltothemantle(afig。5。and6。)。

BeforeIproceedtogiveparticulardirectionsrespectingtheexactformsanddimensionsofthedifferentpartsofaFire-place，itmaybeusefultomakesuchgeneralanpracticalobservationsuponthesubjectascanbeclearlyunderstoodwithouttheassistanceofdrawings；forthemorecompletetheknowledgeofanysubjectiswhichcanbeacquiredwithoutdrawings，themoreeasywillitbetounderstandthedrawingswhenitbecomesnecessarytohaverecoursetothem。

ThebringingforwardoftheFireintotheroom，orratherbringingitnearertothefrontoftheopeningoftheFire-place；——andthediminishingofthethroatoftheChimney，beingtwoobjectsprincipallyhadinviewinthealterationsinFire-placeshererecommended，itisevidentthatboththesemaybeattainedmerelybybringingforwardthebackoftheChimney。