第8章

Theclassofsubstancestowhichparchmentandvellumbelonghasalreadyreceivedsomeconsiderationbutisasubjectwellworthsomefurtherdiscussion。

Allusionsarefoundinsomeoftheclassicalwriterstoinscriptionswrittenontheskinsofgoatsandsheep；ithas，indeed，beenassertedbysomescholarsthattheBooksofMoseswerewrittenonsuchskins。

Dr。Buchananmanyyearsagodiscovered，intherecordchestofsomeHebrewsatMalabar，amanuscriptcopyofthegreaterpartofthePentateuch，writteninHebrewongoat’sskins。Thegoatskinswerethirty-seveninnumber，dyedred，andweresewntogether，soastoformarollforty-eightfeetinlengthbytwenty-twoinchesinwidth。Atwhatdatethiswaswrittencannotbenowdetermined，butitissupposedtobeextremelyancient。

TheHebrewsbegan，earlyaftertheinventionofparchment，towritetheirscripturesonthismaterial，ofwhichtherollsofthelawusedintheirsynagoguesarestillcomposed。

Scriptural，likemanyotherclassesofMSS。originatingprevioustotheeighthcenturyandinkwritteneitheronparchmentorvellum，orboth，areincapitalletterswithoutspacesbetweenwordsandexceedinglyrare。ThemoreimportantandvaluableofthemwhichapplytotheNewTestamentarerespectivelyknownastheSinaitic，theVaticanandtheAlexandrian，manyofwhosevarioustranslationsandreadingsareincorporatedbyTischendorfinhisLeipzigeditionoftheEnglishNewTestament。Thestoriesrelatingtothediscoveryandobtainingoftheserelicsofthefirstcenturiesofoureraarestartlingones。Thereputationandstanding，however，ofthediscoverers，andtheinvestigationssubsequentlymadebyknownscholarsoftheirtime，servestoinvestthemwithacertaindegreeoftruthfulness。

ThemostinterestingisthestoryabouttheSinaiticcodex，theoldestofanyextantandwhichisbesttoldbyMadan：

“ThestoryofthediscoveryofthisfamousmanuscriptoftheBibleinGreek，theoldestexistingofalltheNewTestamentcodexes，andinseveralpointsthemostinteresting，readslikearomance。ConstantineTischendorf，thewell-

knowneditoroftheGreekTestament，startedonhisfirstmissionlitteraireinApril，1844，andinthenextmonthfoundhimselfattheConventofSt。Catherine，atthefootofMountSinai。There，inthemiddleofthehall，ashecrossedit，hesawabasketfullofoldparchmentleavesontheirwaytotheburning，andwastoldthattwobasketshadalreadygone！Lookingattheleavesmoreclosely，heperceivedthattheywerepartsoftheOldTestamentinGreek，writteninanextremelyoldhandwriting。

Hewasallowedtotakeawayforty-threeleaves；buttheinterestofthemonkswasaroused，andtheybothstoppedtheburning，andalsorefusedtopartwithanymoreofthepreciousfragments。

Tischendorfdeparted，depositedtheforty-

threeleavesintheLeipsigLibrary，andeditedthemunderthetitleoftheCodexFriderico-Au-

gustanus，incomplimenttotheKingofSaxony，in1846。Buthewiselykeptthesecretoftheirprovenance，andnoonefollowedinhistrackuntilhehimselfwentonasecondquesttothemonasteryin1853。InthatyearhecouldfindnotraceswhateveroftheremainsoftheMSS。exceptafewfragmentsofGenesis，andreturnedunsuccessfulanddisheartened。

Atlast，heoncemoretookajourneytothemonastery，underthepatronageoftheRussianEmperor，whowaspopularthroughouttheEastastheprotectoroftheOrientalChurches。

Nothingcouldhefind，however；andhehadorderedhisBedouinstogetreadyfordeparture，when，happeningtohavetakenawalkwiththestewardofthehouse，andtobeinvitedintohisroom，inthecourseofconversationthestewardsaid：’I，too，havereadaSeptuagint，’andproducedoutofawrapperofredcloth，’abulkykindofvolume，’whichturnedouttobethewholeoftheNewTestament，withtheGreektextoftheEpistleofBarnabas，muchofwhichwashithertounknown，andthegreaterpartoftheOldTestament，allpartsoftheveryMSS。whichhadsolongbeensought！InacarelesstoneTischendorfaskedifhemighthaveitinhisroomforfurtherinspection，andthatnight(February4-5，1859)

it’seemedimpietytosleep。’BythenextmorningtheEpistleofBarnabaswascopiedout，andacourseofactionwassettled。MighthecarrythevolumetoCairototranscribe？Yes，ifthePrior’sleavewasobtained；but，unluckilythePriorhadalreadystartedtoCairoonhiswaytoConstantinople。

BytheactivityofTischendorfhewascaughtupatCairo，gavetherequisitepermission，andaBedoninwassenttotheconvent，andreturnedwiththebookinninedays。Onthe24thofFebruary，Tischendorfbegantotranscribeit；

andwhenitwasdone，conceivedthehappyideaofaskingforthevolumeasagifttotheEmperorofRussia。Probablythiswastheonlypossiblepleawhichwouldhavegainedthemainobjectinview，andevenasitwastherewasgreatdelay；butatlast，onthe28thofSeptember，thegiftwasformallymade，andtheMSS。soonafterdepositedinSt。Petersburg，whereitnowlies。ThedateofthisMSS。issupposedtobenotlaterthanA。D。

400，andhasbeenthesubjectofminuteinquiryinconsequenceofthecuriousstatementofSimonidesin1862，thathehadhimselfwrittenitonMountAthosin1839-40。”

ConstantineSimonideswasaGreekwhowasbornin1824andisbelievedtohavebeenthemostversatileforgerofthenineteenthcentury。From1843

until1856hewasinevidencealloverEuropeofferingforsalefraudulentMSS。purportingtobeofancientorigin。

In1861Madansays：

“HeboldlyassertedthathehimselfhadwrittenthewholeoftheCodexSinaiticuswhichTischendorfhadboughtin1856fromthemonasteryofSt。

CatherineonMountSinai。Thestatementwas，ofcourse，receivedwiththeutmostincredulity；butSimionidesasserted，notonlythathehadwrittenit，butthat，inviewoftheprobableskepticismofthescholars，hehadplacedcertainprivatesignsonparticularleavesofthecodex。Whenpressedtospecifythesemarkshegavealistoftheleavesonwhichweretobefoundhisinitialsorothermonogram。

Thetestwasafairone，andtheMSS。，whichwasatSt。Petersburg，wascarefullyinspected。

EveryleafdesignatedbySimonideswasfoundtobeimperfectatthepartwherethemarkwastohavebeenfound。Deliberatemutilationbyanenemy，saidhisfriends。ButmanythoughtthatthewilyGreekhadacquiredthroughprivatefriendsanoteofsomeimperfectleavesintheMSS。，andhadmadeunscrupuloususeoftheinformation。”

Acuriouskindofdocument，whichlinkstheclassicaltimeswiththemiddleages，inrespecttotheweofparchment，isaffordedbythe“palimpsests。”ormanuscriptsfromwhicholdwritinghadbeenerasedinordertomakewayfornew。Awell-preparedleafofparchmentwassocostlyanarticleinthemiddleages，thatthetranscriberswhowereemployedbythemonasticestablishmentsinwritingoftenavailedthemselvesofsomeoldmanuscript，fromwhichtheyscrapedoffthewriting；suchadoubly-usedpieceofparchmentwascalleda“palimpsest。”Thispracticeseemstohavebeenfollowedlongbefore，butnottosogreatanextentasaboutthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies，atwhichtimetherewerepersonsregularlyemployedas“parchment-restorers。”Thetranscribershadaregularkindofknife，withwhichtheyscratchedouttheoldwriting，andtheyrubbedthesurfacewithpowderedpumicestone，toprepareitforreceivingthenewink。SocommonwasthispracticethatwhenoneoftheemperorsofGermanyestablishedtheofficeofimperialnotary，itwasoneofthearticlesorconditionsattachedtotheholdingoftheofficethatthenotaryshouldnotuse“scrapedvellum“indrawingdeeds。Sometimestheoriginalwriting，byacarefultreatmentoftheparchment，hasbeensofarrestoredastobevisible，anditisfoundtobeparallel，diagonal，andsometimesatrightanglestothewritingafterwardsintroduced。Inmanycasestheancientwritingrestoredbeneathisfoundtobeinfinitelymorevaluablethanthemonkishlegendswrittenafterwards。

Cicero’sDeRepublicawasdiscoveredbyAngeloMaiintheVaticanlibrarywrittenunderacommentaryofSt。AugustineonthePsalms；andtheInstitutionsofGains，inthelibraryofthechapterofVerona，weredecipheredinlikemannerundertheworksofSt。Jerome。

Papyrus，parchment，andvellumweresometimesusedtogetherintheMSS。books。Thompson，authorof“GreekandLatinPalaeography。”observes：

“Examples，madeupinbookform，sometimeswithafewvellumleavesincorporatedtogivestability，arefoundindifferentlibrariesofEurope。

Theyare：TheHomiliesofSt。Avitus，ofthe6thcentury，atParis；SermonsandEpistlesofSt。Augustine，ofthe6thor7thcentury，atParisandGenoa；worksofHilary，ofthe6thcentury，atVienna；fragmentsoftheDigests，ofthe6thcentury，atPommersfeld；theAntiquitiesofJosephus，ofthe7thcentury，atMilan；anIsidore，ofthe7thcentury，atSt。Gall。AtMunich，also，istheregisteroftheChurchofRavenna，writtenonthismaterialinthe10thcentury。”

TherollsandrecordsconnectedwiththeearlyparliamentaryandlegalproceedingsinEnglandfurnishinterestingexamplesoftheuseofparchmentinwriting。

The“Records。”sooftenalludedtoinsuchmatters，arestatementsordetails，writtenuponrollsofparchment，oftheproceedingsinthosehighercourtsoflawwhicharedistinguishedas“CourtsofRecord。”Ithasbeenstatedthat“ourstoresofpublicrecordsarejustlyreckonedtoexcelinage，beauty，correctness，andauthoritywhateverthechoicestarchivesabroadcanboastofthelikesort。”

Therecordsaregenerallymadeofseveralskinsorsheetsofparchmentorvellum，eachsheetbeingaboutthreefeetlongandoftenninetofourteeninchesinwidth。Theyareeitherallfastenedtogetheratoneend，soastoformakindofbook，orarestitchedendtoend，soastoconstituteanextendedroll。Thesetwomethodsappeareachtohavehaditsparticularadvantages，accordingtothewayinwhich，andthetimeatwhich，themanuscriptwasfilledup。Someoftherecordsoftheformerofthesetwokindscontainsomanyskinsofparchmentthattheyformahugerollequalinsizetoalargebassdrum，andrequiringthestrengthoftwomentoliftthem。Someoftheseonthecontinuousplanarealsosaidtobeofimmensesize；one，ofmoderndate，isninehundredfeetinlengthandemploysamanthreehourstounrollit。Theinvaluableoldrecord，knownbythenameof“DoomsdayBook。”isshapedlikeabook，andismuchmoreconvenienttoopenthanmostoftheothers。Variousotherlegaldocuments，toanimmenseamount，are“filed。”orfastenedtogetherbyastringpassingthroughthem。

Itseemsaverystrangecontradiction，butitispositivelyassertedasafact，thattheparchmentemployedfortheserecordswasofveryfinequalitydowntothetimeofElizabeth，butthatitgraduallydeterioratedafterwards，insomuchthatthelatestaretheworst。

SomeoftheserecordsandrollsarewritteninLatin，someinNormanFrench，andsomeinEnglish。

Themodesofdepositingandcarryingtheancientrecordswerecurious，andthereseemstohavebeennoverydefinitearrangementinthisrespect。Greatnumberswerekeptinpouchesorbagsmadeofleather，canvas，cordovan，orbuckram；theyweretiedlikemodernreticules。Whensuchpoucheshaveescapeddamptheyhavepreservedtheparchmentrecordsforcenturiesperfectlycleananduninjured。Anotherkindofreceptacleforrecordswasasmallturnedbox，calleda“skippet。”andanotherwasthe“hanaper。”orhamper，abasketmadeoftwigsorwicker-work。Chests，coffers，andcasesofvariousshapesandsizesformedotherreceptaclesfortherecords。Themodeoffindingtheparticulardocumentrequiredwasnotbyasystemofpagingandanindex，asinamodernbook，becausethearrangementofthewrittensheetsdidnotadmitofthis，buttherewereletters，signs，andinscriptions，orlabelsforthispurpose；theyconstituteanoddassemblage，comprisingships，scales，balances，castles，plants，animals，etc。；inmostinstancesthesignsorsymbolsbearsomeanalogy，orsupposedanalogy，withthesubjectoftherecord，suchasanoakonarecordrelatingtotheforestlaws，aheadinacowlononerelatingtoamonastery，scalesononerelatingtocoining，etc。

Atatimewhenbookswerepreparedbyhandinsteadofbyprinting，andwheneachcopybecameveryvaluable，booksweretreatedwithadegreeofrespectwhichcanbehardlyunderstoodatthepresentday。Theclergyandthemonkswerealmostexclusivelythereadersofthosedays，andtheyheldtheotherclassesofsocietyinsuchcontempt，inallthatregardedliteratureandlearning，thatBishopdeBurg，whowroteaboutfivecenturiesago，expressesanopinionthat“Laymen，towhomitmattersnotwhethertheylookatabookturnedwrongsideupwardsorspreadbeforetheminnaturalorder，arealtogetherunworthyofanycommunionwithbooks。”

ItisstatedbyMr。Knight，inhis“LifeofCaxton：“

“Wehaveabundantevidence，whateverbethescarcityofbooksascomparedwiththegrowthofscholarship，thattheecclesiasticslabouredmostdiligentlytomultiplybooksfortheirownestablishments。

IneverygreatabbeytherewasaroomcalledtheScriptorium，whereboysandnoviceswereconstantlyemployedinmultiplyingtheservice-

booksofthechoir，andthelessvaluablebooksforthelibrary；whilstthemonksthemselveslabouredintheircellsuponbiblesandmissals。Equalpainsweretakeninprovidingbooksforthosewhoreceivedaliberaleducationincollegiateestablishments。”

Wartonsays：

“AtthefoundationofWinchesterCollege，oneormoretranscriberswerehiredandemployedbythefoundertomakebooksforthelibrary。Theytranscribedandtooktheirfoodwithinthecollege，asappearsbycomputationofexpensesontheiraccountnowremaining。Buttherearemanyindicationsthatevenkingsandnobleshadnottheadvantageofscholarsbyprofession，and，possessingfewbooksoftheirown，hadsometimestoborrowoftheirmorefavouredsubjects。”

Welearnfromanothersourcethatthegreatnotonlyprocuredbooksbypurchase，butemployedtranscriberstomakethemfortheirlibraries。ThemanuscriptexpenseaccountofSirJohnHoward，afterwardsDukeofNorfolk，showsin1467，ThomasLympnor，thatisThomastheLimnerofBury，waspaidthesumoffiftyshillingsandtwopenceforabookwhichhehadtranscribedandornamented，includingthevellumandbinding。Thelimner’sbillismadeupofanumberofitems，“forwholevignettes，andhalf-vignettes，andcapitalletters，andflourishingandplainwriting。”

Thesetranscribersandlimnersworkedprincipallyuponparchmentandvellum，fortheuseofpaperwasbynomeansextensiveuntiltheinventionoftheartofprinting。Someoftheoldmanuscriptscontaindrawingsrepresentingacopierortranscriberatwork，wherethemonkisrepresentedasprovidedwithasingularandtolerablycompletesetofapparatustoaidhiminhiswork。Thedeskforcontainingthesheetorskinonwhichheiswriting，theclasptokeepthissheetflat，theinkstand，thepen，andtheknife，themanuscriptfromwhichthecopyisbeingmade，thedeskforcontainingthatmanuscript，andtheweightforkeepingitinitsplace，——allareshown，withaclearnesswhich，despiteofbadperspective，rendersthemquiteintelligible。

Ofthetwosubstances，parchmentandvellum，beforetheinventionofpaper，anotherwordortwomaybesaid。Parchmentismadefromtheskinofsheeporlambs；vellum，fromthatofveryyoungcalves(sometimesunbornones)，buttheprocessofpreparingisprettymuchthesameinbothcases。Whenthehairorwoolhasbeenremoved，theskinissteepedinlimewater，andthenstretchedonasquareframeinalightmanner。Whilesostretched，itisscrapedonthefleshsidewithabluntiron，wettedwithamoistrag，coveredwithpoundedchalk，andrubbedwellwithpumicestone。Afteratime，theseoperationsarerepeated，butwithouttheuseofchalk；theskinisthenturned，andscrapedonthehairsideonceonly；

thefleshsideisthenscrapedoncemore，andagainrubbedoverwithchalk，whichisbrushedoffwithapieceoflambskinretainingthewool。Allthisisdonebytheskinner，whoallowstheskintodryonaframe，andthencutsitoutandsendsittotheparchmentmaker，whorepeatstheoperationwithasharpertool，usingasackstuffedwithflocks(woolorhair)tolaytheskinupon，insteadofstretchingitonaframe。

Respectingthequality，value，andpreparationofparchmentinpastages，itisstatedinthe“PennyCyclopaedia“thatparchmentfromtheseventhtothetenthcenturywas“whiteandgood，andattheearliestoftheseperiodsitappearstohavenearlysupersededpapyrus，whichwasbrittleandmoreperishable。Averyfewbooksoftheseventhcenturyhaveleavesofparchmentandpapyrusmixed，thattheformercostlymaterialmightstrengthenandsupportthefriablepaper。Abouttheeleventhcenturyitgrewworse，andadirtycoloredparchmentisevidenceofawantofantiquity。Thismaypossiblyarisefromthecircumstancesthatwritersofthistimepreparedtheirownparchment，andtheywereprobablynotsoskilledasmanufacturers。AcuriouspassagefromasermonofHildebert，ArchbishopofTours，whowasbornin1054，isavoucherforthisfact。Thesermonisonthe“BookofLife。”whichherecommendshishearerstoobtain：

’Doyouknowwhatawriterdoes？Hefirstcleanseshisparchmentfromthegrease，andtakesofftheprincipalpartofthedirt；thenheentirelyrubsoffthehairandfibreswithpumicestone；ifhedidnotdoso，theletterswrittenuponitwouldnotbegood，norwouldtheylastlong。Hethenruleslinesthatthewritingmaybestraight。Allthesethingsyououghttodo，ifyouwishtopossessthebookwhichIhavebeendisplayingtoyou。’

Atthistimeparchmentwasaverycostlymaterial。

WefinditmentionedthatGui，CountofNevers，havingsentavaluablepresentofplatetotheChartreuxofParis，theunostentatiousmonksreturneditwitharequestthathewouldsendthemparchmentinstead。”

CHAPTERXXX。

MODERNINKBACKGROUNDS(TRUEPAPER)。

WHENITWASTHATTRUEPAPERWASINVENTED——CITATIONS

FROMMUNSELLABOUTCHINESEANDOTHER

ANCIENTPAPER——ASHORTCHRONOLOGYFROMTHE

SAMEAUTHOR——LINENPAPERINUSEINTHETWELFTH

CENTURY——BOMBYCINEPAPER——DEVELOPMENTSOF

THEMICROSCOPE——METHODSEMPLOYEDINASCERTAINING

ORIGINOFLINENPAPERBYMEERMAN——SOME

OBSERVATIONSRELATIVETOTHEEVOLUTIONOFPAPER——

RAPIDIMPROVEMENTINQUALITYAFTERINVENTION

OFPRINTING——CURIOUSCUSTOMSINTHEUSEOFTHE

WATERMARK——NODISTINCTIONSINQUALITYOFPAPER

USEDFORMSS。OROTHERBOOKS——ANECDOTESAND

OBSERVATIONSABOUTTHEWATERMARK——ITSVALUE

INDETECTINGFRAUDS——INTERESTINGANECDOTEOF

ITSUSEINFABRICATINGAFRAUD——FULLER’SCHARACTERIZATION

OFTHEPAPERSOFDIFFERENTCOUNTRIES——WHEN

THEFIRSTPAPERMILLWASESTABLISHED

INEUROPEFORTHEMANUFACTUREOFLINEN

PAPER——DATEOFTHEESTABLISHMENTOFTHEFIRST

PAPERMILLINAMERICA——WHOFIRSTSUGGESTED

WOODASAMATERIALFORMAKINGPAPER——SOME

NAMESOFAUTHORSONTHESUBJECTOFPAPER——STORY

OFRAGPAPERINSTRUCTIVEASWELLASINTERESTING。

WHENitwasthatthegreatchangeoccurredandtruepapermadeoffibrousmatterorragsreducedtoapulpinwaterwasinventedhasbeenasubjectofconsiderablethoughtandinvestigation。Munsell，inhis“ChronologyofPaperandPaper-Making。”creditsittotheChinese，andestimatesitsdatetobeincludedinthefirstcenturyoftheChristianera。Heobserves：

“TheChinesepaperiscommonlysupposedtobemadeofsilk；butthisisamistake。Silkbyitselfcannotbereducedtoapulpsuitableformakingpaper。Refusesilkissaidtobeoccasionallyusedwithotheringredients，butthegreaterpartoftheChinesepaperismadefromtheinnerbarkofthebambooandmulberrytree，calledbythemthepapertree，hempenrags，etc。Thelatterarepreparedforpaperbybeingcutandwellwashedintanks。Theyarethenbleachedanddried；intwelvedaystheyareconvertedintoapulp，whichisthenmadeintoballsofaboutfourpoundsweight。Theseareafterwardssaturatedwithwater，andmadeintopaperonaframeoffinereeds；andaredriedbybeingpressedunderlargestones。Aseconddryingoperationisperformedbyplasteringthesheetsonthewallsofaroom。

Thesheetsarethencoatedwithgumsize，andpolishedwithstones。Theyalsomakepaperfromcottonandlinenrags，andacoarseyellowsortfromricestraw，whichisusedforwrapping。Theyareenabledtomakesheetsofalargesize，themouldonwhichthepulpismadeintopaperbeingsometimestenortwelvefeetlongandverywide，andmanagedbymeansofPulleys。

“TheJapanesepreparepaperfromthemulberryasfollows：inthemonthofDecemberthetwigsarecutintolengthsnotexceedingthirtyinchesandputtogetherinbundles。Thesefagotsarethenplaceduprightinalargevesselcontainingalkalineley，andboiledtillthebarkshrinkssoastoallowaboutahalfaninchofthewoodtoappearfreeatthetop。Aftertheyarethusboiledtheyareexposedtoacoolatmosphere，andlaidawayforfutureuse。Whenasufficientquantityhasbeenthuscollected，itissoakedinwaterthreeorfourdays，whenablackishskinwhichcovereditisscrapedoff。Atthesametimealsothestrongerbarkwhichisofafullyear’sgrowthisseparatedfromthethinner，whichcoveredtheyoungerbranches，andwhichyieldsthebestandwhitestpaper。Afterithasbeensufficientlycleansedoutandseparated，itmustbeboiledinclearley，andifstirredfrequentlyitsoonbecomesofasuitablenature。

“Itisthenwashed，aprocessrequiringmuchattentionandgreatskillandjudgment；forifitbenotwashedlongenough，althoughstrongandofgoodbody，willbecoarseandoflittlevalue；ifwashedtoolongitwillaffordawhitepaper，butwillbespongyandunfitforwritingupon。Havingbeenwasheduntilitbecomesasoftandwoollypulp，itisspreaduponatableandbeatfinewithamallet。Itisthenputintoatubwithaninfusionofriceandbreniroot，whenthewholeisstirreduntiltheingredientsarethoroughlymixedinamassofproperconsistence。Themouldsonwhichsheetsareformedaremadeofreedscutintonarrowstripsinsteadofwire，andtheprocessofdippingislikethatofothercountries。Afterbeingallowedtoremainashorttimeinheapsunderaslightpressure，thesheetsareexposedtothesun，bywhichtheyareproperlydried。

“TheArabiansintheseventhcenturyappeartohaveeitherdiscoveredortohavelearnedfromtheChineseorHindoos，quitelikelyfromthelatter，theartofmakingpaperfromcotton；foritisknownthatamanufactoryofsuchpaperwasestablishedatSamarcandabouttheyear706A。D，TheArabiansseemtohavecarriedthearttoSpain，andtohavetheremadepaperfromlinenandhempaswellasfromcotton。

“TheartofmanufacturingpaperfromcottonissupposedtohavefounditswayintoEuropeintheeleventhcentury。Thefirstpaperofthatkindwasmadeofrawcotton；butitsmanufacturewasbytheArabiansextendedtooldworn-outcotton，andeventothesmallestpiecesitissaid。Butastherearecottonplantsofvariouskinds，itwasnaturalthattheyshouldproducepapersofdifferentqualities；anditwasimpossibletounitetheirwoollyparticlessofirmlyastoformastrongsubstantialpaper，forwantofsufficientskillandpropermachinery，usingastheydidmortarsandrudehorse-mills。TheGreeks，itissaid，madeuseofcottonpaperbeforetheLatins。ItcameintoGermanythroughVeniceandwascalledGreekparchment。

“TheMoors，whowerethepaper-makersofSpain，havingbeenexpelledbytheSpaniards，thelatter，acquaintedwithwatermills，improvedthemanufacturesoastoproduceapaperfromcottonnearlyequaltothatmadeoflinenrags。”

AchronologyofpaperrelatingtotheearliestspecimensofthemcanalsobefoundinMunsell’sworkonthatsubject；severalareherecited：

“A。D。704。TheArabiansaresupposedtohaveacquiredtheknowledgeofmakingpaperofcotton，bytheirconquestsinTartary。

“A。D。706。Casiri，aSpanishauthor，attributestheinventionofcottonpapertoJosephAmru，inthisyear，atMecca；butitiswellknownthattheChineseandPersianswereacquaintedwithitsmanufacturebeforethisperiod。

“A。D。900。Thebullsofthepopesintheeighthandninthcenturieswerewrittenuponcottonpaper。

“A。D。900。Montfaucon，whoonaccountofhisdiligenceandtheextentofhisresearchesisgreatauthority，wroteadissertationtoprovethatchartabombycine，cottonpaper，wasdiscoveredintheempireoftheeasttowardtheendoftheninthorbeginningofthetenthcentury。

“A。D。1007。Theplenarium，orinventory，ofthetreasureofthechurchofSandersheim，iswrittenuponpaperofcotton，bearingthisdate。

“A。D。1049。TheoldestmanuscriptinEnglandwrittenuponcottonpaper，isintheBodleiancollectionoftheBritishMuseum，havingthisdate。

“A。D。1050。Themostancientmanuscriptoncottonpaper，thathasbeendiscoveredintheRoyalLibraryatParishavingadate，bearsrecordofthisyear。

“A。D。1085。TheChristiansuccessorsofMoorishpaper-makersatToledoinSpain，workedthepaper-millstobetteradvantagethantheirpredecessors。

Insteadofmanufacturingpaperofrawcotton，whichiseasilyrecognizedbyitsyellownessandbrittleness，theymadeitofrags，inmouldsthroughwhichthewaterranoff；forthisreasonitwascalledparchmentcloth。

“A。D。1100。TheAphorismsofHippocrates，inArabia，themanuscriptofwhichbearsthisdate，hasbeenpronouncedtheoldestspecimenoflinenpaperthathascometolight。

“A。D。1100。Arabicmanuscriptswereatthistimewrittenonsatinpaper，andembellishedwithaquantityofornamentalwork，paintedinsuchgayandresplendentcolorsthatthereadermightbeholdhisfacereflectedasiffromamirror。

“A。D。1100。TherewasadiplomaofRoger，kingofSicily，dated1145，inwhichbesaysthathehadrenewedonparchmentacharterthathadbeenwrittenoncottonpaperin1100。

“A。D。1102。ThekingofSicilyappearstohaveaccordedadiplomatoanancientfamilyofpaper-makerswhohadestablishedamanufactoryinthatisland，wherecottonwasindigenous，andthishasbeenthoughttopointtotheoriginofcottonpaper，quiteerroneously。

“A。D。1120。PetertheVenerable，abbotofClum，whoflourishedaboutthistime，declaredthatpaperfromlinenragswasinuseinhisday。

“A。D。1150。Edrisi，whowroteatthistime，tellsusthatthepapermadeatXativa，anancientcityofValencia，wasexcellent，andwasexportedtocountrieseastandwest。

“A。D。1151。AnArabianauthorcertifiesthatveryfinewhitecottonpaperwasmanufacturedinSpain，andCacimabenHegiassuresusthatthebestwasmadeatXativa。TheSpaniardsbeingacquaintedwithwater-mills，improvedupontheMoorishmethodofgrindingtherawcottonandrags；andbystampingthelatterinthemill，theyproducedabetterpulpthanfromrawcotton，bywhichvarioussortsofpaperweremanufactured，nearlyequaltothosemadefromlinenrags。

“A。D。1153。PetrusMauritius(theAbbideCluni)，whodiedinthisyear，hasthefollowingpassageonpaperinhisTreatiseagainsttheJews；

’Thebookswereadeverydayaremadeofsheep，goat，orcalfskin；orofrags(exrasaurisveterumpannorum)，’supposedtoalludetomodernpaper。

“A。D。1178。AtreatyofpeacebetweenthekingsofAragonandCastileistheoldestspecimenoflinenpaperusedinSpainwithadate。ItissupposedthattheMoors，ontheirsettlementinSpain，wherecottonwasscarce，madepaperofhempandflax。Theinventoroflinen-ragpaper，whoeverhewas，isentitledtothegratitudeofposterity。

“A。D。1200。CasiripositivelyaffirmsthattherearemanuscriptsintheEscurialpalacenearMadrid，uponbothcottonandhemppaper，writtenpriortothistime。”

Abdollatiph，anArabianphysician，whovisitedEgyptin1200，saysthatthelinenmummy-clothswerehabituallyusedtomakewrappingpaperfortheshopkeepers。

AdocumentwiththesealspreserveddatedA。D。

1239andsignedbyAdolphus，countofSchaumburgiswrittenonlinenpaper。ItispreservedintheuniversityofRinteln，Germany，andestablishesthefactthatlinenpaperwasalreadyinuseinGermany。

Specimensofflaxpaperandstillextantarequitenumerous，averyfewofthemhavingdatesincludedintheeighthandninthcenturies。

ThechartaDamascena，so-calledfromthefactofitsmanufactureinthecityofDamascus，wasinuseintheeighthcentury。ManyArabianMSS。onsuchapaperexistdatingfromtheninthcentury。

Thechartabombycina(bombyx，asilkandcottonpaper)wasmuchemployedduringmediaevalperiods。

Themicroscope，however，hasdemonstratedconclusivelymanythingsformerlyindoubtandrelatingparticularlytothematterofthecharacteroffibreusedinpaper-making。Oneofthemostimportantisthenowestablishedfactthatthereisnodifferencebetweenthefibresoftheoldcottonandlinenpapers，asmadefromragssonamed。

ToascertainthepreciseperiodandtheparticularnationofEurope，whenandamongwhomtheuseofourcommonpaperfabricatedfromlinenragsfirstoriginated，wasaveryearnestobjectofresearchwiththelearnedMeerman，authorofanowexceedinglyrareworkonthissubjectandpublishedin1767。

Hismodeofinquirywasunique。Heproposedarewardoftwenty-fivegoldenducats，towhoevershoulddiscoverwhatondueexaminationshouldappeartobethemostancientmanuscriptorpublicdocumentinscribedonpapermanufacturedfromlinenrags。ThisproposalwasdistributedthroughallpartsofEurope。HislittlevolumecontainsthereplieswhichMeermanreceived。Thescholarswhoremittedtheresultoftheirinvestigationswereunabletodistinguishbetweenwhattheyestimatedascottonorlinenrags。Theydid，however，establishthefactthatpapermadeoflinenragsexistedbefore1308，andsomeofthemevensoughttogivethehonoroftheinventiontoGermany。TheyalsoassertedthatthemostancientEnglishspecimenofsuchapaperbelongedtotheyear1342。

Thetransformationofpapermadefromeveryconceivablefibrousmaterialintowhatiscommonlyknownas“linen“ortruepaperwasofslowgrowthuntilaftertheinventionofprinting。Followingthatgreateventitissurprising，how，insoshortaperiod，themanufacturersofpaperimproveditsqualityandthedegreeofexcellencewhichitlaterattained。

Theyimitatedtheoldvellumsocloselythatitwasevencalledvellumandissoknowntothisday。

Thisclassofpaperwasemployedbothforwritingandprintingpurposesandhasneverbeenexcelled，surpassinganylikeproductionsofmoderntimes。

Acuriouscustomcameintovogueduringtheearlyinfancyofthe“linen“paperindustry，whichisofsomuchinterestandpossessessocuriousahistoryastobewellworthmentioning。Itisthewatermarkasitiscommonlybuterroneouslytermedinconnectionwithpapermanufacture。

Itsorigindatesbacktothethirteenthcentury，thoughthemonumentsindicatingitsusebeforethetimeofprintingarebutfewinnumber。

Therealemploymentofthewatermarkmaybesaidtohavecommencedatthetimewhenitwasacustomofthefirstprinterstoomittheirnamesfromtheirworks。Also，itistobeconsideredthatatthisperiodcomparativelyfewpeoplecouldeitherreadorwriteandthereforepictures，designsorothermarkswereemployedtoenablethemtodistinguishthepaperofonemanufacturerfromanother。Thesemarksastheybecamecommonnaturallygavetheirnamestothedifferentsortsofpaper。

Theearliestknownwatermarkonlinenpaperrepresentedapictureofatowerandwasofthedateof1293。Thenextknownwatermarkwhichcanbedesignatedisaram’sheadandisfoundinabookofaccountsbelongingtoanofficialofBordeauxwhichwasthensubjecttoEngland。Itisdated1330。

Inthefifteenthcenturytherewerenodistinctionsinthequalityofpaperusedformanuscriptsorforbooks。IntheMentzBibleof1462aretobefoundnolessthanthreesortsofpaper。OfthisBible，thewatermarkinsomesheetsisabull’sheadsimply，andinothersabull’sheadfromwhoseforeheadrisesalongline，attheendofwhichisacross。Inothersheetsthewatermarkisabunchofgrapes。

In1498thewatermarkofpaperconsistedofaneightpointedstarwithinadoublecircle。Thedesignofanopenhandwithastaratthetopwhichwasinuseasearlyas1530，probablygavethenametowhatisstillcalledhandpaper。

ItappearsthatevensohighapersonageasHenryVIIIofEnglandin1540utilizedthewatermarkinordertoshowhiscontemptforandanimositytoPopePaulIII，withwhomhehadthenquarreled，gaveordersforthepreparationofpaper，thewatermarkofwhichwasahogwithamiter：thisheusedforhisprivatecorrespondence。

Alittlelater，aboutthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury，thefavoritepapermarkwasthejugorpot，fromwhichwouldappeartohaveoriginatedthetermpotpaper。Stillanotherbelongingtothisperiodwasthedeviceofaglove。

Atthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury，thedevicewasafool’scapandwhichhascontinuedbynameastheparticularsizewhichwenowdesignatefool’scap。

Thewatermarkhascontinuedtoincreaseinpopularityandto-daymaybefoundinalmostanykindofpaper，eitherintheshapeofdesigns，figures，numbersornames。

Thecircumstanceofthewatermarkhasatvarioustimesbeenthemeansofdetectingfrauds，forgeriesandimpositionsinourcourtsoflawandelsewhere。

Thefollowingisintroducedasawhimsicalexampleofsuchdetectionsandissaidtohaveoccurredinthefifteenthcentury，andisrelatedbyBeloe，London，1807：

“ThemonksofacertainmonasteryatMessinaexhibitedtoavisitorwithgreattriumph，aletterwhichtheyclaimedhadbeenwrittenininkbytheVirginMarywithherownhand，notontheancientpapyrus，butonpapermadeofrags。Thevisitortowhomitwasshownobservedwithaffectedsolemnity，thattheletterinvolvedalsoamiraclebecausethepaperonwhichitwaswrittencouldnothavebeeninexistenceuntiloverathousandyearsafterherdeath。”

Aninterestingexampleoftheuseofwatermarksonpaperforfraudulentpurposesistobefoundinapamphletentitled“Ireland’sConfessions。”Thisperson，asonofSamuelIreland，whowasadistinguisheddraughtsmanandengraver，abouttheendoftheeighteenthcenturyfabricatedapretendedShakespeareMSS。，whichasaliteraryforgerywasthemostremarkableofitstime。PrevioustohisconfessionsithadbeenacceptedbytheShakespeareanscholarsasunquestionablytheworkoftheimmortalbard。ThefollowingisacitationfromhisConfessions：

“Beingthusurgedforwardtotheproductionofmoremanuscripts，itbecamenecessarythatI

shouldposses；asufficientquantityofoldpapertoenablemetoproceed；inconsequenceofwhichI

appliedtoabook-sellernamedVerey，inGreatMay’sbuildings，St。Martin’sLane，who，forthesumoffiveshillings，sufferedmetotakefromallthefolioandquartovolumesinhisshoptheflyleaveswhichtheycontained。BythismeansIwasamplystoredwiththatcommodity——nordidIfearanymentionofthecircumstancebyMr。Verey，whosequiet，unsuspectingdisposition，Iwaswellconvinced，wouldneverleadhimtomakethetransactionpublic；inadditiontowhich，hewasnotlikelyeventoknowanythingconcerningthesupposedShakespeareandiscoverybymyself，andevenifhehad，Idonotimaginethatmypurchaseoftheoldpaperinquestionwouldhaveexcitedinhimthesmallestdegreeofsuspicion。AsIwasfullyaware，fromthevarietyofwater-marks，whichareinexistenceatthepresentday，thattheymusthaveconstantlybeenalteredsincetheperiodofElizabethandbeingforsometimewhollyunacquaintedwiththewater-marksofthatage，Iverycarefullyproducedmyfirstspecimensofthewritingonsuchsheetsofoldpaperashadnomarkswhatever。Havinghearditfrequentlystatedthattheappearanceofsuchmarksonthepaperswouldhavegreatlytendedtoestablishtheirvalidity，Ilistenedattentivelytoeveryremarkwhichwasmadeuponthesubject，andfromthenceIatlengthgleanedtheintelligencethatajugwastheprevalentwater-markofthereignofElizabeth；inconsequenceofwhichIinspectedallthesheetsofoldpapertheninmypossession，andhavingselectedsuchashadthejuguponthem，Iproducedthesucceedingmanuscriptsuponthese，beingcareful，however，tominglewiththemacertainnumberofblankleaves，thattheproductiononasuddenofsomanywater-marksmightnotexcitesuspicioninthebreastsofthosepersonswhoweremostconversantwiththemanuscripts。”

Fuller，writingin1662，characterizesthepaperofhisday：

“Paperparticipatesinsomesortofthecharacterofthecountrywhichmakesit；theVenetianbeingneat，subtle，andcourt-like；theFrenchlight，slight，andslender；andtheDutchthick，corpulent，andgross，stickinguptheinkwiththesponginessthereof。Andhecomplainsofthe’vastsumsofmoneyexpendedinourlandforpaperoutofItaly，France，andGermany，whichmightbelessenedwereitmadeinournation。’“

UlmanStrotherin1390startedhispapermillatNuremberginBavariawhichwasthefirstpapermillknowntohavebeenestablishedinGermany，andissaidtohavebeentheonlyoneinEuropethenmanufacturingpaperfromlinenrags。

AmongtheprivyexpensesofHenryVIIoftheyear1498appearsthefollowingentry：“Arewardgiventothepapermill，16s。8d。”ThisisprobablythepapermillmentionedbyWynkindeWorde，thefatherofEnglishtypography。ItwaslocatedatHertford，andthewatermarkheemployedwasastarwithinadoublecircle。

ThemanufactureofpaperinEnglandprevioustotherevolutionof1688wasanindustryofverysmallproportions，mostofthepaperbeingimportedfromHolland。

ThefirstpapermillestablishedinAmericawasbyWilliamRittenhousewhoemigratedfromHollandandsettledinGermantown，Pa。，in1690。AtRoxborough，nearPhiladelphia，onastreamafterwardscalledPaperMillrun，whichemptiesintotheWissahickenriver，waslocatedthesitewhichincompanywithWilliamBradford，aprinter，hechoseforhismill。Thepaperwasmadefromlinenrags，mostlytheproductofflaxraisedinthevicinityandmadefirstintowearingapparel。

ItwasReaumer，whoin1719firstsuggestedthepossibilityofpaperbeingmadefromwood。Heobtainedhisinformationonthissubjectfromexaminationofwasps’nests。

MatthiasKoopsin1800publishedaworkon“Paper“madefromstraw，woodandothersubstances。

Hissecondeditionappearedin1801andwascomposedofoldpaperre-madeintonew。Anotherworkonthesubjectof“PaperfromStraw，&c……”

byPiette，appearedin1835，whichsaidworkcontainsmorethanahundredpages，eachoneofwhichwasmadefromadifferentkindofmaterial。

Manyothervaluableworksareobtainablewhichtreatofragpapermanufactureandthestoriestheytellareinstructiveaswellasinteresting。

CHAPTERXXXI。

MODERNINKBACKGROUNDS(WOODPAPERAND“SAFETY“

PAPER)。

SOMEGENERALOBSERVATIONSABOUTPAPER-MAKING

MATERIALS——PROBABILITIESASTOTHEFUTUREOF

THEPUBLICRECORDS——ESTIMATIONOFSUCHMATTERS

BYTHELATEPOPE——INVENTIONOFWOOD-PULPPAPER——

ITSLASTINGQUALITIES——THETHREEKINDSOFSUCH

PAPERDEFINED——DISCUSSIONOFTHESUBJECTOF

FUNGIINPAPERBYGLYDE——SOMETESTSTOASCERTAIN

THEMATERIALOFWHICHPAPERISCOMPOSED——

TESTSASTOSIZINGANDTHEDETERMINATIONOFTHE

DIRECTIONOFTHEGRAIN——ABSORBINGPOWERSOF

BLOTTINGPAPER——TESTSFORGROUNDWOOD——NEW

MODEOFANALYSTS——WHENTHEFIRST“SAFETY“

PAPERWASINVENTED——THEMANYKINDSOF“SAFETY“

PAPERANDPROCESSESINTHEIRMANUFACTURE——

CHRONOLOGICALREVIEWCOVERINGTHISSUBJECT——

SURVEYOFTHEVARIOUSPROCESSESINTHETREATMENT

ANDUSEOF“SAFETY“PAPER——ONLYTHREE

CHEMICAL“SAFETY“PAPERSNOWONTHEMARKET——

WHYITISPOSSIBLETORAISESOMEMONETARY

INSTRUMENTS。

PAPERmanufacturershavetriedallthepulp-makingsubstances。Thisstatementtotheunlearnedmustseemcurious，becauseintheveryearlytimestheywerecontentwithasinglematerialandthatdidnotevenrequiretobefirstmadeintotheformofpulp。

Whenthesupplyofpapyrusfailed，itwasragswhichtheysubstituted。Bythesimplestprocessestheyproducedapaperwithwhichourbestcannotcompare。

Insomecountriesgreatcareisexercisedinselectingthequalityofpaperforofficialuse，inothersnoneatall。

Whatwillbethestateofourarchivesafewhundredyearshence，iftheybenotcontinuallyrecopied？

Someoftheprintedpaperrotsevenmorequicklythanwritten。

ThelatePopeatonetimeinvitedmanyofthesavants，chemistsandlibrariansofEurope，tomeetatEinsiedlenAbbeyinSwitzerland。Herequestedthatthesubjectoftheirdiscussionsshouldbebothinkandpaper。Hevolunteeredtheinformation，alreadyknowntotheinitiated，thattherecordsofthisgenerationinhiscustodyandunderhiscontrolwerefastdisappearingandunlessthewritingmaterialsweremuchimprovedheestimatedthattheywouldentirelydisappear。ItisstatedthatatthismeetingthePope’srepresentativesubmittedanumberofdocumentsfromtheVaticanarchiveswhicharescarcelydecipherablethoughdatedinthenineteenthcentury。Inafewofthoseofdateslaterthan1873thepaperwassotenderthatunlesshandledwithexceptionalcare，itwouldbreakinpieceslikescorchedpaper。

Theseconditionsareinlinewithmanyofthosewhichprevailwithfewexceptionsineverycountry，townorhamlet。

Acontributorycauseasweknowisaclassofpoorandcheapinksnowinalmostuniversaluse。Theotheristheso-called“modern“orwood-pulppaperingeneralvogue。

Reaumur，asalreadystated，backin1719suggestedfrominformationgatheredinexaminationsofwasps’

nests，thatapapermightbemanufacturedfromwood。Thisideadoesnotappeartohavebeenacteduponuntilmanyyearslater，althoughintheinteriminventorswereexhaustingtheiringenuityintheselectionoffibrousmaterialsfromwhichpapermightbemanufactured。

Thesuccessfulintroductionofwoodasasubstitutefororwithragsinpapermanufactureuntilabout1870wasofslowgrowth；sincewhichtimevastquantitieshavebeenemployed。Inthiscountryalonemillionsoftonsofrawmaterialarebeingimportedtosaynothingofhomeproducts。

Itsvalueinthecauseofprogressofsomeartswhichcontributegreatlytoourcomfortandcivilizationcannotbeoverestimated，butneverthelessthewoodpaperisboundtodisintegrateanddecay，andthetimenotveryfardistanteither。Hence，itsuseforrecordsofanykindisalwaystobecondemned。

Therearethreeclassesofwoodpulp；mechanicalwood，sodaprocess，andthesulphite。ThefirstormechanicalwoodisaGermaninventionof1844，wherethelogsafterbeingcutupintoproperblocks，werethengroundagainstamovingmillstoneagainstwhichtheywerepressedandwiththeaidofflowingwaterreducedtoapulpyform。Thispulpwastransportedintosuitabletanksandthenpumpedtothe“beaters。”

Thesodaprocesswoodandsulphitewoodpulparebothmadebychemicalprocesses。ThefirstwasinventedbyMelinerin1865。Thepreparationofpulpbythisprocessconsistsbrieflyinfirstcuttingupthelogsintosuitablesectionsandthrowingthemintoachippingmachine。Thechipsarethenintroducedintotankscontainingastrongsolutionofcausticsodaandboiledunderpressure。

Thesulphiteprocessissubstantiallythesameexceptthatthechipsarethrownintowhatarecalleddigestersandfedwiththechemicalswhichformanacidsulphite。Therealinventorofthislatterprocessisnotknown。

Thechemicalsemployedinbothoftheseprocessescompelaseparationoftheresinousmattersfromthecelltissuesorcellulose。Theseproductsarethentreatedinthemanufacturingofpaperwithfewvariations，thesameastheordinaryragpulp。

Thesenowperfectedprocessesaretheresultsoflongandcontinuingexperimentationsmadebymanyinventors。

ThefollowingpaperwasreadbeforetheLondonSocietyofArtsbyMr。AlfredGlyde，inMay，1850，andisequallyapplicabletosomeofthewoodpaperofthepresentday：

“Owingtotheimperfectionsformerlyexistinginthemicroscope，littlewasknownoftherealnatureoftheplantscalledfungiuntilwithinthelastfewyears，butsincetheimprovementsinthatinstrumentthesubjectofthedevelopment，growth，andofficesofthefungihasreceivedmuchattention。

Theycompose，withthealgaeandlichens，theclassofthallogens(Lindley)，thealgaeexistinginwater，theothertwoinaironly。Afungusisacellularflowerlessplant，fructifyingsolelybyspores，bywhichitispropagated，andthemethodsofattachmentofwhicharesingularlyvariousandbeautiful。Thefungidiffersfromthelichensandalgaeinderivingtheirnourishmentfromthesubstancesonwhichtheygrow，insteadoffromthemediainwhichtheylive。Theycontainalargerquantityofnitrogenintheirconstitutionthanvegetablesgenerallydo，andthesubstancecalled’fungine’

hasanearresemblancetoanimalmatter。

Theirsporesareinconceivablynumerousandminute，andarediffusedverywidely，developingthemselveswherevertheyfindorganicmatterinafitstate。Theprincipalconditionsrequiredfortheirgrowtharemoisture，heat，andthepresenceofoxygenandelectricity。Nodecompositionordevelopmentoffungitakesplaceindryorganicmatter，afactillustratedbythehighstateofpreservationinwhichtimberhasbeenfoundafterthelapseofcenturies，aswellasbytheconditionofmummy-cases，bandages，etc。，keptdryinthehotclimateofEgypt。Decaywillnottakeplaceinatemperaturebelowthatofthefreezingpointofwater，norwithoutoxygen，byexcludingwhich，iscontainedintheair，meatandvegetablesmaybekeptfreshandsweetformanyyears。

“Theactionwhichtakesplacewhenmoistvegetablesubstancesareexposedtooxygenisthatofslowcombustion(’eremacausis’)，theoxygenunitingwiththewoodandliberatingavolumeofcarbonicacidequaltoitself，andanotherportioncombiningwiththehydrogenofthewoodtoformwater。Decompositiontakesplaceoncontactwithabodyalreadyundergoingthesamechange，inthesamemannerthatyeastcausesfermentation。Animalmatterentersintocombinationwithoxygeninpreciselythesamewayasvegetablematter，butas，inadditiontocarbonandhydrogen，itcontainsnitrogen，theproductsoftheeremacausisaremorenumerous，beingcarbonandnitrateofammonia，carburettedandsulphurettedhydrogen，andwater，andtheseammoniacalsaltsgreatlyfavorthegrowthoffungi。Nowpaperconsistsessentiallyofwoodyfibre，havinganimalmatterassizeonitssurface。

Thefirstmicroscopicsymptomofdecayinpaperisirregularityofsurface，withaslightchangeofcolor，indicatingthecommencementoftheprocessjustnoticed，duringwhich，inadditiontocarbonicacid，certainorganicacidsareformed，ascrenicandulmicacids，which，ifthepaperhasbeenstainedbyacoloringmatter，willformspotsofredonthesurface。Thesameprocessofdecaygoesoninparchmentasinpaper，onlywithmorerapidity，fromthepresenceofnitrogeninitscomposition。

Whenthisdecayhasbeguntotakeplace，fungiareproduced，themostcommonspeciesbeingPeniciliumglaucum。Theyinsinuatethemselvesbetweenthefibre，causingafreeradmissionofair，andconsequentlyhastenthedecay。Thesubstancesmostsuccessfullyusedaspreventivesofdecayarethesaltsofmercury，copper，andzinc。Bichlorideofmercury(corrosivesublimate)isthematerialemployedinthekyanizationoftimber，theprobablemodeofactionbeingitscombinationwiththealbumenofthewood，toformaninsolublecompoundnotsusceptibleofspontaneousdecomposition，andthereforeincapableofexcitingfermentation。Theantisepticpowerofcorrosivesublimatemaybeeasilytestedbymixingalittleofitwithflourpaste，thedecayofwhich，andtheappearanceoffungi，arequitepreventedbyit。Nexttocorrosivesublimateinantisepticvaluestandthesaltsofcopperandzinc。Foruseinthepreservationofpaperthesulphateofzincisbetterthanthechloride，whichistoacertainextentdelinquescent。”

Therearenumerouspapertestswhichincludethematterofsizing，directionofthegrain，absorbingpowers，characterofingredients，etc。Afewofthemarecited。

SIZING——Theeverydaytestsastohardnessofsizinganswereveryordinarypurpose：Moistenwiththetongue，andifthepaperisslack-sizedyoucandetectitoftenbytheinstantdrawingorabsorptionofthemoisture。Watchthespotmoistened，andthelongeritremainswetthebetterthepaperissized。

Lookthroughthespotdampened——thepoorerthesizingthemoretransparentisthepaperwhereitiswet。Ifthoroughlysizednodifferencewillbeapparentbetweenthespotdampenedandthebalanceofthesheet。Whenthereisaquestionastowhetherapaperistuborenginesized，itcanbeusuallydecidedbywettingtheforefingerandthumbandpressingthesheetbetweenthem。Iftub-sized，thegluewhichisappliedtothesurfacewillperceptiblyclingtothefingers。

TOTESTTHEINKRESISTINGQUALITYOFPAPER——

Drawaheavyinklineacrossthesheet。Ifthepaperispoorlysized，afeatheryedgewillappear，causedbyspreadingoftheink。Slack-sizedpaperwillbepenetratedbytheink，whichwillplainlyappearonthereversesideofthesheet。

TODETERMINETHEDIRECTIONOFTHEGRAIN——

Aneasybutsuretesttodeterminethedirectionofthegraininasheetofpaper，whichwillbefoundusefulandworthremembering，isasfollows：

Forinstance，thesizeofsheetis17x22inches。

Cutoutacircularpieceasnearlyroundastheeyecanjudge；beforeentirelydetachingfromthesheet，markonthecirclethe17-inchwayandthe22-inchway；thenfloatthecutoutpieceonwaterforafewseconds；thenplaceonthepalmofthehand，takingcarenottolettheedgessticktothehand，andthepaperwillcurluntilitformsacone；thegrainofthepaperrunstheoppositewayfromwhichthepapercurls。

ABSORBINGPOWERSOFBLOTTINGPAPER——Comparativetestsastoabsorbingpowersofblottingcanbemadebetweensheetsofsameweightperreambyallowingthepointedcornerofasheettotouchthesurfaceofadropofink。Repeatwitheachsheettobetested，andcomparetheheightineachtowhichtheinkhasbeenabsorbed。Awell-madeblottingpapershouldhavelittleornofreefibredusttofillwithinkandsmearthepaper。

TESTFORGROUNDWOOD——Makeastreakacrossthepaperwithasolutionofanilinesulphateorwithconcentratednitricacid；thefirstwillturngroundwoodyellow，thesecondwillturnitbrown。Igiveanilinesulphatethepreference，asnitricacidactsuponunbleachedsulphite，ifpresentinthepaper，thesameasitactsupongroundwood，viz。，turningitbrown。

Phloroglucingivesarose-redstainonpapercontaining(sulphite)woodpulp，afterthespecimenhasbeenpreviouslytreatedwithaweaksolutionofhydrochloricacid。

Abouttheendoftheeighteenthcenturyitbecamenecessarytomakespecialpapersdenominated“safetypaper。”Theirmanufacturehascontinueduntilthepresentdayalthoughmuchlimited，largelybecauseoftheemploymentofmechanicaldeviceswhichseektosafetymonetaryinstruments。Suchsafetypapersareofseveralkinds。

1。Papermadewithdistinguishingmarkstoindicateproprietorship，aswiththeBankofEnglandwatermark，toimitatewhichisafelony。OrthepaperoftheUnitedStatescurrency，whichhassilkfibersunitedwiththepulp，theimitationofwhichisafelony。

2。Papermadewithlayersormaterialswhicharedisturbedbyerasureorchemicaldischargeofwrittenorprintedcontents，soastopreventfraudulenttampering。

3。Papermadeofpeculiarmaterialsorcolor，topreventcopyingbyphotographicmeans。

Anumberofprocessesmaybecited：

Onekindismadeofapulptingedwithastaineasilyaffectedbychlorine，acids，oralkalis，andismadeintosheetsasusual。

Watermarksmadebywirestwinedamongthemeshesofthewireclothonwhichthepaperismade。

Threadsembodiedinthewebofthepaper。

ColoredthreadssystematicallyarrangedwereformerlyusedinEnglandforpost-officeenvelopesandexchequerbills。

Silkenfibersmixedwiththepulpordusteduponitinprocessofformation，asusedintheUnitedStatescurrency。

Tigere，1817，treatedthepulpofthepaper，previoustosizing，withasolutionofprussiateofpotash。

SirWin。Congreve，1819，preparedacoloredlayerofpulpincombinationwithwhitelayers，alsobyprintingupononesheetandcoveringitwithanouterlayer，eitherplainorwater-marked。

GlynnandAppel，1821，mixedacoppersaltinthepulpandafterwardaddedanalkalioralkalinesalttoproduceacopiousprecipitate。Thepulpwasthenwashedandmadeintopaperandthereafterdippedinasaponaceouscompound。

Stevenson，1837，incorporatedintopaperametallicbasesuchasmanganese，andaneutralcompoundlikeprussiateofpotash，toprotectwritingfrombeingtamperedwith。

Varnham，1845，inventedapaperconsistingofawhitesheetorsurfaceononeorbothsidesofacoloredsheet。

Stones，1851。Aniodideorbromideinconnectionwithferrocyanideofpotassiumandstarchcombinedwiththepulp。

Johnson，1853，employedtheroughandirregularsurfaceproducedbythefractureofcastironorotherbrittlemetaltoformawatermarkforpaperbytakinganimpressiontherefromonsoftmetal，gutta-

percha，etc。，andafterwardtransferringittothewireclothonwhichthepaperismade。

Scoutteten，1853，treatedpaperwithcaoutchouedissolvedinbisulphideofcarbon，inordertorenderitimpermeableandtopreventerasuresorchemicalaction。

Ross，1854，inventedwater-liningorprintingthedenominationofthenoteincolorswhilethepulpwasyetsoft。

Evans，1854，commingledalaceoropen-workfabricinthepulp。

Courboulay，1856，mixedthepulpandappliedtothepapersaltsofiodineorbromine。

Loubatieres，1857，manufacturedpaperinlayers，anyorallofwhichmightbecolored，orhaveimpressionsorconspicuousmarksforpreventingforgery。

Herapath，1858，saturatedpaperduringorafteritsmanufacturewithasolutionofaferrocyanide，aferriccyanide，orsulphocyanideofpotassium，sodium，orammonium。

SeysandBrewer，1858，appliedaqueoussolutionsofferrocyanideofpotassiumorothersalts，whichformedanindeliblecompoundwiththeferruginousbaseofwritingink。

Sparre，1859，utilizedopaquematter，suchasprussianblue，whiteorredlead，insolubleinwaterandstenciledononelayerofthepaperweb，formingaregularpattern；thiswasthencoveredbyasecondlayerofpaper。

Moss，1859，inventedacoloringmatterpreparedfromburnedchinaorotherclay，oxideofchromiumorsulphur，andcombineditwiththepulp。

Barclay，1859，incorporatedwiththepaper：

1。Solubleferrocyanides，ferricyanides，andsulphocyanidesofvariousmetals，byformingdibasicsaltswithpotassium，sodium，orammonium，inconjunctionwithvegetable，animal，ormetalliccoloringmatters。

2。Saltsofmanganese，lead，ornickelnotcontainingferrocyanogen。

3。Ferrocyanides，etc。，ofpotassium，sodium，andammonium，inconjunctionwithinsolublesaltsofmanganese，lead，ornickel。

Hooper，1860。Employedoxidesofiron，eitheraloneordissolvedinanacid，andmixedwiththepulp。

Nissen，1860。Treatedpaperwithapreparationofiron，togetherwithammonia，prussiateofpotashandchlorine，whileinthepulporbeingsized。

Middleton，1860。Joinedtogetheroneportionofabanknoteprintedupononesheetofthinpaperandtheotherpartonanother；thetwowerethencementedtogetherbyindia-rubber，gutta-percha，orothercompound。

Theinteriorprintingcouldbeseenthroughitscoveringsheet，sothatthewholedeviceonthenoteappearedonitsface。

Olier，1861。Employedseverallayersofpaperofvariousmaterialsandcolors；themiddleonewascoloredwithadelebledye，whosecolorwaschangedbytheapplicationofchemicalstotheouterlayer。

Olier，1863。Preparedapaperofthreelayersofdifferentthicknesses，thecentralonehavinganeasilyremovablecolor，andtheexternallayerswerechargedwithsilicateofmagnesiaorothersalt。

ForsterandDraper，1864。TreatingpaperduringoraftermanufacturewithartificialultramarineandPrussianblueorothermetalliccompound。

Hayward，1864。Incorporatedthreadsoffibrousmaterialsofdifferentcolorsorcharactersintoandamongthepulp。

Loewenberg，1866。Introducedprussiateofpotashandoxalicacidorsuchotheralkalinesaltsoracidsintothepulp，inordertoindicatefraudintheremovalofcancellationstampsorwrittenmarks。

Casilear，1868。Printednumbersonafugitiveground，tintorcolorinordertopreventalterationoffiguresornumbers。

Jameson，1870。Printedonpaper，designswithferrocyanideofpotassiumandthensoakedthepaperwhendryinasolutionofoxalicacidinalcohol。

Duthie，1872。Madeagroundworkofwritinginkofdifferentcolorsbyanyknownmeansofpenruling。

Syms，1876。Producedgraduatedcoloredstains，whichweremadetopartiallypenetrateandspreadinthepulpweb。

VanNuys，1878。ColoredthePaperwithapigmentandthenprinteddesignswithasolublesulphide。

Casilear，1878。Unitedtwodistinctivecoloredpapers，oneafugitiveandtheotherapermanentcolor。

Hendrichs，1879。Dippedordinarypaperinanaqueoussolutionofsulphateofcopperandcarbonateofammoniaandthenaddedalkalinesolutionsofcochinealorequivalentcoloringmatter。

Nowlan，1884。Backedtheordinarychemicalpaperwithathinsheetofwaterproofpaper。

Menzies，1884。Introducediodideandiodateofpotassiumortheirequivalentsintopaper。

Clapp，1884。Saturatedpaperwithgallo-tanicacid，buttheinkusedonthispapercontainedferri-sesquichlorideorothersimilarpreparationofiron。

Hill，1885。Introducedintopaper，ferrocyanideofmanganeseandhydratedperoxideofiron。

Schreiber，1885。Coloredpapermaterialwithindigoandwithasubsequenttreatmentofchromatessolubleonlyinalcohol。

Schreiber，1885。Treatedfinishedpaperwithferric-

oxidesaltsandwithferrocyanidesinsolubleinwaterbutsolubleinacids。

Schlumberger，1890。Impregnatedwhitepaperwitharesinatedferroussalt，aresincompoundofplumbicferrocyanide，andaresincompoundofferrocyanideofmanganeseincombinationwithasaltofmolybdenumandaresincompoundofzincsulphide。

Schlumberger，1893。Dyedfirstthesplashfibersandmixedthemwiththepaperpulp。Second。Healsotreatedportionsofthesurfacewithanalkali，soastoformlinesorcharactersthereon，thenimmersedthesameinaweakacid，inordertoproducewater-marklines。

Carvalho，1894。1。Chargedthepaperwithbismuthiodideandsodiumiodide。2。Chargedthepaperwithabismuthsaltandiodideofsodaincombinationwithprimulin，congoredorotherpigment。3。Chargedthepaperwithabenzidinedyeandanalkalineiodide。

1895。Appliedacompound，sensitivetoinkerasingchemicals，AFTERthewritinghasbeenplacedonthepaper。

HoskinsandWeis，1895，asafetypaperhavingaddedtheretoasolubleferrocyanideandaper-saltofironinsolubleinwaterbutdecomposablebyaweakacidinthepresenceofasolubleferrocyanide，asandforthepurposedescribed。(2)Asafetypaperhavingaddedtheretoaferrocyanidesolubleinwater，aper-saltofironinsolubleinwaterbuteasilydecomposedbyweakacidsinthepresenceofaferrocyanidesolubleinwater，andasaltofmanganeseeasilydecomposedbyalkalisorbleachingagents，substantiallyasdescribed。

Areviewofthevariousprocessesfortreatmentofpaperinpulporwhenfinished，demonstratesthattime，moneyandstudyhasbeendevotedtotheproductionofaREALsafetypaper。Somecompositionsandprocesseshaveinameasurebeensuccessful。Itisfound，however，thattheingenuityofthoseevil-mindedpersons，tothedetectionofwhoseeffortstoalterthewritingindocumentsthisclassofinventionhasmoreparticularlybeendirected，findsareadywayofremovinginsomecasestheevidencewhichthechemicalreagentfurnishes。Thisbeingtruemostofthemhavebecomeobsolete，havingentirelyfailedtoaccomplishthepurposesforwhichtheywereinvented。

Therearebutthreeso-calledsafetypapersnowonthemarket，ifweexcludethosepossessingprinteddesignsinfugitivecolors。

Itisastrangeanomaly，neverthelessitistrue，that90percentormoreofthe“raised“checks，notes，orothermonetaryinstrumentswhichwereintheiroriginalconditionwrittenonordinaryorso-calledsafetypaper，nevercouldhavebeensuccessfully“putthrough“butforthegrossandattimescriminalnegligenceoftheirwritersbythefailuretoadoptprecautionsoftheverysimplestkinds，andtherebyavoidedplacingtemptationinthewayofmanywhounderothercircumstanceswouldneverhavethoughtofbecomingforgers。

Thereisnosafetypaper，safetyink，ormechanicalappliancewhichwillpreventtheinsertionofwordsorfiguresbeforeotherwordsorfiguresifablankspacebeleftwheretheforgercanplacethem。

CHAPTERXXXII。

CURIOSA(INKANDOTHERWRITINGMATERIALS)。

ARTIFICIALINKANDPAPEROWETHEIRINVENTIONTO

THEWASP——PHoeNICIA，“LANDOFTHEPURPLE-DYE“——

LINES，ADDRESSEDTOTHEPHoeNICIAN——OLDEST

EXISTINGPIECEOFLITERARYCOMPOSITION——WHERE

PAPYRUSSTILLGROWS——DUCANGE’SLINESONTHE

STYLUS——MATERIALSUSEDTOPROMULGATEANCIENT

LAWSOFGREECE——ANCIENTMETHODOFWRITING

WILLS——MATERIALSEMPLOYEDINANCIENTHEBREW

ROLLS——ANTIQUITYOFEXISTINGHEBREWWRITING——

OLDESTSPECIMENOFGREEKWAXWRITING——

WOODENTALLIESASEMPLOYEDINENGLAND——WHEN

WRITINGINGOLDCEASED——DATEOFTHEFIRSTDISCOVERY

OFGREEKPAPYRUSINEGYPT——PERIODSTO

WHICHBELONGVARIOUSSTYLESOFWRITING——ANECDOTE

ANDPOEMABOUTTHEFIRSTGOLDPEN——INTERESTING

NOTESABOUTPENSANDINK-HORNS——EMPLOYMENT

OFTHEPENASABADGEINTHEFOURTEENTH

CENTURY——SOMELINESBYCOCKER——THEOLDEST

EXISTINGWRITTENDOCUMENTSOFRUSSIA——WHEN

SEALINGWAXWASFIRSTEMPLOYED——PLINY’S

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEDIFFERENTKINDSOFPAPYRUS

PAPER——MODEOFPRESERVINGTHEANCIENTPAPYRUS

ROLLS——SUGGESTIONSRESPECTINGUSESOFINK——

COMPARATIVETABLEABOUTCOALTARANDITSBY-

PRODUCTS——COMPOSITIONSOFSECRETINKSANDHOW

TORENDERTHEMVISIBLE——CHARACTEROFINKEMPLOYED

FORMANYYEARSBYTHEWASHINGTONPATENT

OFFICE——FACTSELICITEDBYHERAPATHINTHEUNROLLMENT

OFAMUMMY——LINESFROMSHAKESPEARE

ANDPERSEUS——SEVENTEENTHCENTURYOBSERVATIONS

ABOUTSECRETINKS——CAUSEOFTHEDESTRUCTION

OFMANYANCIENTMSS——METHODSTOBEEMPLOYED

INTHERESTORATIONOFSOMEOLDINKS——

VARIATIONSINTHEMEANINGOFWORDS——THEPOUNCE

BOXPRECEDEDBLOTTINGPAPER——SOMEOBSERVATIONS

ABOUTBLOTTINGPAPER——ANECDOTERELATING

TODR。GALE——WHENWAFERSWEREINTRODUCED——

PERSIANANECDOTEABOUTTHEDIVES——EPISODES

RESPECTINGTHESTYLUS——DESCRIPTIONBYBELOE

OFANCIENTPERSICANDARABICMSS——CITATIONFROM

OLDBOSTONNEWSPAPERANDPOEM——METHODOF

COLLECTINGRAGSIN1807ANDSOMELINESADDRESSED

TOTHELADIES——METHODTOPHOTOGRAPH

COLOREDINKS——POEMBYISABELLEHOWEFISKE。

INconsideringtheimportantandkindredsubjectsof“gall“inkand“pulp“paper，wearenottoforgettheLITTLEthingsconnectedwiththeirdevelopmentandwhich，indeed，madetheirinventionpossible。

Thegall-nutcontainsgallicandgallo-tannicacid，andwhichacids，inconjunctionwithanironsalt，formsthesolebaseofthebestink。Thisnutisproducedbythepuncturesmadeontheyoungbudsofbranchesofcertainspeciesofoaktreesbythefemalewasp。Thissamebusylittleinsectwasalsothefirstprofessionalpapermaker。Sheitwaswhotaughtusnotonlythewaytochangedrywoodintoasuitablepulp，thekindofsizetobeused，howtowaterproofandgivethepaperstrength，butmanymoremarvelousdetailsappertainingtothemanufactureofpaperwhichintheirramificationshaveprovedofinestimablebenefitandservicetothehumanrace。

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TheGreekword“Phoenicia“meansliterally“thelandofthepurpledye。”andtothePhoeniciansisattributedtheinventionoftheartofwriting。

TOTHEPHOENICIAN。

“Creatorofcelestialarts，Thypaintedwordspeakstotheeye；

TosimplelinesthyskillimpartsTheglowingspirit’secstasy。”

Theoldestpieceofliterarycompositionknownintheoldestbook(roll)inexistenceistobefoundinthecelebratedpapyrusPrisse，nowintheLouvreatParis。ItconsistsofeighteenpiecesinEgyptianhieraticwriting，ascribedtoabouttheyearB。C。

2500。