第1章

Theunfortunateconditionssurroundingthealmostuniversaluseoftheoddlynamedcommercialandwithfewexceptionsrecordinks，andtheso-calledmodernpaper，isthemotiveforthewritingofthisbook。

Thenumerouscolorproductsofcoaltar，nowsolargelyemployedinthepreparationofink，andtheworsematerialutilizedinthemanufactureofthehard-

finishedwritingpapers，menacethefuturepreservationofpublicandotherrecords。Thosewhooccupyofficialpositionandwhocanhelptoamelioratethisincreasingevil，shouldbegintodosowithoutdelay。

AbroadEngland，GermanyandFranceandathomeMassachusettsandConnecticuthavesoughttomodifytheseconditionsbylegislationandourNationalTreasuryDepartmentonlylastyear，inestablishingastandardforitsink，givesofficialrecognitionofthesetruths。

Thereisno“HistoryofInk；“butofinkhistorythereisawealthofmaterial，althoughhistorianshaveneglectedtorecordinformationabouttheverysubstancebywhichtheysoughttokeepandtransmitthechroniclestheymostdesiredtopreserve。FromthebeginningoftheChristianeratothepresentday，“Ink“literature，exclusiveofitsetymology，chemicalformulas，andmethodsofmanufacture，hasbeenconfinedtobriefstatementsintheencyclopedias，whichbutrepeateachother。Ahalfdozenoriginalarticles，coveringonlysomeparticularbranchtogetherwithafewtreatisesmoregeneralintheirramificationsofthesubject，canalsobefound。Seventylinesabout“writingink“coveringitshistoryfornearlyfourthousandyearsisallthatissaidin“TheOriginandProgressofHandwriting。”arevisedbookofhundredsofpagesofSirThomasAstle，London，1876，andoncedeemedtheveryhighestauthority。

Themassofancientandcomparativelymoderndocumentswhichwehaveinherited，chroniclenothingaboutthematerialwithwhichtheywerewritten。

Themorevaluableofthemaredisfiguredbythesuperscriptionofnewerwritingsoverthepartiallyerasedearlierones，thusrenderingtheworkofascertainingtheirrealcharactermostdifficult。

Nevertheless，patientresearchandadvancedsciencehaveenabledustointelligentlystudyandinvestigate，andfromtheevidencethusgained，tostatefactsandformulateopinionsthatmayperhapsoutlastcriticism。

Thebibliographicalstoryof“Ink“isrepletewithmanyinterestingepisodes，anecdotesandpoeticaleffusions。

Itschemicalhistoryisavariedandphenomenalone。Beforethenineteenthcenturytheinkindustrywasconfinedtothefew。Sincethen，ithasdevelopedintooneofmagnificentproportions。Thenewdeparture，duetothediscoveryanddevelopmentofthe“Aniline“familyoffugitivecolors，isnoteworthyasbeingastepbackwardwhichmaytakeyearstoretrace。

Thecriminalabuseofinkisnotinfrequentbyevil-

disposedpersonswhotrybysecretprocessestoreproduceinkphenomenaonancientandmoderndocuments。

Whileitispossibletomakeanewinklookold，themethodsthatmustbeemployed，willofthemselvesrevealtotheexaminertheattemptedfraud，ifhebutknowshowtoinvestigate。

Howtoaccomplishthisaswellastogiveachronologicalhistoryonthesubjectofinksgenerally，bothastotheirgenesis，theeffectoftimeandtheelements，thedeterminationoftheconstituentsandtheconstitutionofinks，theirvalueastolastingqualities，theirremovalandrestoration，istheobjectofthiswork。

Thereisalsoincludedmanycourtcaseswherethematterofinkwasincontroversy；informationrespectingancientMSS。andtheimplementsandotheraccessoriesofinkwhichhavefromtimetotimebeenemployedintheactofwriting。

Tomakeacomprehensivereviewofthepastinitsrelationshiptoinkhasbeenmyaim。Intheconstructionofthisworkrecoursehasbeenhadtotheso-

calledoriginalsourcesofinformation。Inthese，thediversityoftheirincompletestatementsaboutdifferentcountriesandepochshasofferedmanyobstacles。

Inpresentingmyowndeductionsandinferences，itiswithadesiretoremoveanyimpressionsastothisvolumebeingamerecompilation。“Factsarethedataofalljustreasoning，andtheelementsofallrealknowledge。Itfollowsthatheisawisemanwhopossessesthegreateststoreoffactsonagivensubject。

Abook，therefore，whichassemblesfactsfromtheirscatteredsources，maybeconsideredasausefulandimportantauxiliarytothosewhoseekthem。”AprolongedandcontinuousintercourseforoveraquarterofacenturywithancientandmodernMSS，withbooksandotherliterature，withlaymenandchemists，withstudentsandmanufacturers，togetherwiththeinformationandknowledgederivedfromexperimentandstudyofresultsmayenabletheauthortomakethesubjectfairlyclear。EfforthasbeenmadetoavoidtechnicalwordsandphrasesinthatportiontreatingoftheChemistryofInks。

Thisworkwillnodoubtbevariouslyconsidered。

Criticismisexpected，indeeditisgladlyinvited，fortherebymayfollowcontroversy，discussionandperhapslegislation，whichwillbringaboutresultsbeneficialtothosewhoaretofollowafterus。

CONTENTS

I。GENESISOFINK

II。ANTIQUITYOFINK

III。CLASSICALINKANDITSEXODUS

IV。CLASSICALINKANDITSEXODUS(Continued)

V。REVIVALOFINK

VI。INKOFTHEWEST

VII。EARLYMEDIAEVALINK

VIII。MEDIAEVALINK

IX。ENDOFMEDIAEVALINK

X。RENAISSANCEINK

XI。ANCIENTINKTREATISES

XII。STUDYOFINK

XIII。STUDYOFINK

XIV。CLASSIFICATIONSOFINK

XV。OFFICIALANDLEGALINK

XVI。ENDURINGINK

XVII。INKPHENOMENA

XVIII。INKCHEMISTRY

XIX。FRAUDULENTINKBACKGROUNDS

XX。FUGITIVEINK。

XXI。ANCIENTANDMODERNINKRECEIPTS

XXII。INKINDUSTRY。

XXIII。CHEMICO-LEGALINK

XXIV。CHEMICO-LEGALINK(Continued)

XXV。INKUTENSILSOFANTIQUITY

XXVI。INKUTENSILS(QuillPENv。SteelPen)

XXVII。SUBSTITUTESFORINKUTENSILS(“Lead“andotherPencils)

XXVIII。ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDS(TheOriginofPapyrus)

XXIX。ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDS(ParchmentandVellum)

XXX。MODERNINKBACKGROUNDS(TruePaper)

XXXI。MODERNINKBACKGROUNDS(WoodPaperandSafetyPaper)

XXXII。CURIOSA(InkandotherWritingMaterials)

FORTYCENTURIESOFINK

CHAPTERI。

GENESISOFINK。

THEORIGINOFINK——COMPOSITIONOFTHECOLORED

INKSOFANTIQUITY——ANCIENTNAMESFORBLACK

INKS——METHODSOFTHEIRMANUFACTURE——THEINVENTION

OF“INDIAN“INK——THEARTOFDYEING

HISTORICALLYCONSIDERED——THESYMBOLICESTIMATION

OFCOLORS——THEEMPLOYMENTOFTINCTURES

ASINKS——CONSIDERATIONOFTHEANTIQUITY

OFARTIFICIALINKSANDTHEBLACKINKSOFINTERMEDIATE

TIMES——ORIGINOFTHECOLOREDPIGMENTS

OFANTIQUITY-CITATIONSFROMHERODOTUS，PLINYANDARBUTHNOT——PRICESCURRENT，OFANCIENT

INKSANDCOLORS——WHYTHENATURALINKS

FORMERLYEMPLOYEDARENOTSTILLEXTANT——THE

KINDOFINKEMPLOYEDBYTHEPRIESTSINTHE

TIMEOFMOSES——ILLUSTRATIVEHISTORYOFTHE

EGYPTIANSINITSRELATIONSHIPTOWRITING

IMPLEMENTS——THEUSEOFBOTHREDANDBLACKINK

INJOSEPH’STIME——ITSOTHERHISTORYPRECEDING

THEDEPARTUREOFISRAELFROMEGYPT——THE

DISAPPEARANCEOFALLBUTAFEWKINDSOF

INK——INKTRADITIONSANDTHEIRVALUE——STORY

ABOUTTHEORACLESOFTHESIBYLS——HOWTHEANCIENT

HISTORIANSSOUGHTTOBEMISLEADING——ILLUSTRATIVE

ANECDOTEBYRICHARDSON：

THEoriginofInkbelongstoanerafollowingtheinventionofwriting。Whenthedevelopmentofthatarthadadvancedbeyondtheageofstoneinscriptionorclaytablet，somematerialformarkingwiththereedandthebrushwasnecessary。Itwasnotdifficulttoobtainblackorcoloredmixturesforthispurpose。

Withtheiradvent，fortycenturiesormoreago，beginsthegenesisofink。

Thecoloredinksofantiquityincludedtheuseofavarietyofdyesandpigmentarycolors，typicalofthoseemployedintheancientartofdyeing，inwhichtheEgyptiansexcelledandstillthoughtbymanytobeoneofthelostarts。TheBibleandallegedcontemporaryandlaterliteraturemakefrequentmentionofblackandmanycolorsofbrillianthues。

Intracingtheartsofhandwritinganddyeing，somedefinitefactsaretobepredicatedastothemostremotehistoryofink。

TheHebrewwordforinkisdeyo，socalledfromitsblackness。Asprimitivelypreparedforritualisticpurposesandforacontinuingperiodofmorethantwothousandyears，itwasasimplemixtureofpowderedcharcoalorsootwithwater，towhichgumwassometimesadded。

TheArabianmethodsofmakingink(alchiber)weremorecomplex。Lampblackwasfirstmadebytheburningofoil，tarorrosin，whichwasthencommingledwithgumandhoneyandpressedintosmallwafersorcakes，towhichwatercouldbeaddedwhenwantedforuse。

About1200yearsbeforetheChristianera，theChineseperfectedthismethodandinvented“IndianInk。”

ostensiblyforblackeningthesurfaceofraisedhieroglyphics，which“wasobtainedfromthesootproducedbythesmokeofpinesandtheoilinlamps，mixedwiththeisinglass(gelatin)ofasses’skin，andmusktocorrecttheodouroftheoil。”DuHaldecitesthefollowing，asofthetimeofthecelebratedEmperorWu-Wong，whoflourished1120yearsbeforeChrist：

“AsthestoneMe(awordsignifyingblackeningintheChineselanguage)，whichisusedtoblackentheengravedcharacters，canneverbecomewhite；

soaheartblackenedbyviceswillalwaysretainitsblackness。”

Thattheartofdyeingwasknown，valuedandappliedamongearlynations，isabundantlyclear。Theallusionsto“purpleandfineraiment。”to“dyedgarments。”

to“clothofmanycolours。”&c。arenumerousintheBible。Inanotetothe“PictorialBible，afteranallusiontotheantiquityofthisart，andtothepre-

eminenceattachedbytheancientstopurplebeyondeveryothercolor，itisremarked：“Itisimportanttounderstandthatthewordpurple，inancientwritings，doesnotdenoteoneparticularcolour。”

Manyofthenamesofthedyestuffshavecomedowntous，someofthemstillinuseatthistimeandothersobsolete。Theywereemployedsometimesasink，andcertaincolorvaluesgiventothem，ofwhichthemoreimportantwereblue，red，yellow，green，white，black，purple，goldandsilver。Somecolorswereestimatedsymbolically。Whitewaseverywherethesymbolofpurityandtheemblemofinnocence，and，justopposite，blackwasheldupasanemblemofafflictionandcalamity。

Greenwastheemblemoffreshness，vigorandprosperity。

Bluewasthesymbolofrevelation；itwaspre-eminentlythecelestialcolorblessedamongheathennations，andamongtheHebrewsitwastheJehovahcolor，thesymbolofthereveredGod。Hence，itwasthecolorpredominantinMosaicceremonies。

Purplewasassociatedasthedressofkings，withideasofroyaltyandmajesty。

Crimsonandscarlet，fromtheirresemblancetoblood，becamesymbolicaloflife，andalsoanemblemofthatwhichwasindelibleordeeplyingrained。

Later，inChristiantimes，onlyfivecolorswererecognizedasfittingfortheologicalmeaningorexpression：

white，red，green，violetandblack。

Whitewasesteemedasbeingtheunionofalltheraysoflight，andisoftenreferredtoasthesymboloftruthandspotlesspurity。Redwasemblematicbothoffireandlove，whilegreenfromitsanalogytothevegetableworld，wasindicativeoflifeandhope。Violetwasconsideredthecolorofpenitenceandsorrow。

BluewasforbiddenexceptasacolorpeculiarlyappropriatedtotheVirginMary，whileblackrepresenteduniversallysorrow，destructionanddeath。

TheartofdyeingwasalsowellunderstoodandpracticedinPersiainthemostancientperiods。ThemodernPersianshavechosenChristastheirpatron，andBischoffsaysatpresentcalladyehouseChrist’sworkshop，fromatraditiontheyhavethatHewasofthatprofession，whichisprobablyfoundedontheoldlegend“thatChristbeingputapprenticetoadyer，Hismasterdesiredhimtodyesomepiecesofclothofdifferentcolors；Heputthemallintoaboiler，andwhenthedyertookthemouthewasterriblyfrightenedonfindingthateachhaditspropercolor。”

This，orasimilarlegend，occursintheapocryphalbookentitled，“TheFirstGospeloftheInfancyofJesusChrist。”Thefollowingisthepassage：

“Onacertaindayalso，whentheLordJesuswasplayingwiththeboys，andrunningabout，Hepassedbyadyer’sshopwhosenamewasSalem，andtherewereinhisshopmanypiecesofclothbelongingtothepeopleofthatcity，whichtheydesignedtodyeofseveralcolors。ThentheLord，Jesus，goingintothedyer’sshop，tookalltheclothsandthrewthemintothefurnace。WhenSalemcamehomeandsawtheclothspoiled，hebegantomakeagreatnoiseandtochidetheLordJesus，saying：’WhathastThoudone，untome，OthousonofMary？Thouhastinjuredbothmeandmyneighbors；theyalldesiredtheirclothsofapropercolor，butThouhastcomeandspoiledthemall。’

TheLordJesusreplied：’Iwillchangethecolorofeveryclothtowhatcolorthoudesirest，’andthenHepresentlybegantotaketheclothsoutofthefurnace；andtheywerealldyedofthosesamecolorswhichthedyerdesired。AndwhentheJewssawthissurprisingmiracletheypraisedGod。”

Theancientsusedalsoanumberoftincturesasink，amongthemabrowncolor，sepia，inHebrewtekeleth。Asanaturalinkitsoriginantedateseveryotherink，artificialorotherwise，intheworld。Itisablack-brownliquor，secretedbyasmallglandintoanovalpouch，andthroughaconnectingductisejectedatwillbythecuttlefishwhichinhabitstheseasofEurope，especiallytheMediterranean。Thesefishconstantlyemploythecontentsoftheir“inkbags“

todiscolorthewater，wheninthepresenceofenemies，inordertofacilitatetheirescapefromthem。

TheblackbrothoftheSpartanswascomposedofthisproduct。TheEgyptianssometimesuseditforcoloringinscriptionsonstone。Itisthemostlastingofallnaturalinksubstances。

Sogreatistheantiquityofartificialinkthatthenameofitsinventorordateofitsinventionarealikeunknown。ThepoetWhiteheadreferstoitasfollows：

Hardthathisnameitshouldnotsave，Whofirstpouredforththesablewave。”

Thecommonblackinkoftheancientswasessentiallydifferentincompositionandlessliabletofadethanthoseusedatthepresenttime。Itwasnotastainlikeours，andwhenHoracewrote“Andyetasinkthefairestpaperstains，Soworthlessversepollutesthefairestdeeds。”

hemusthavehadinmindthevitriolicinkofhisowntime。

Butlittleinformationrelativetoblackinksoftheintermediatetimeshascomedowntous，anditisconveyedthroughquestionedwritingsofauthorswhoflourishedabouttheperiodofthelifeofJesusChrist；

theYoungerPlinyandDioscoridesarethemostprominentofthem。Theypresentmanycuriousrecipes。

Oneofthese，suggestedbyPliny，isthattheadditionofaninfusionofwormwoodtoinkwillpreventthedestructionofMSS。bymice。

FromamemoirbyM。Roussetuponthepigmentsanddyesusedbytheancients，itwouldappearthatthevarietywasveryconsiderable。Amongthewhitecolors，theywereacquaintedwithwhitelead；andfortheblacks，variouskindsofcharcoalandsootwereused。Animalskinsweredyedblackwithgallapplesandsulphateofiron(copper)。Brownpigmentsweremadebymixingdifferentkindsofochre。UnderthenameofAlexanderblue，theancients——EgyptiansaswellasGreeksandRomans——usedapigmentcontainingoxideofcopper，andalsoonecontainingcobalt。

Fabricsweredyedbluebymeansofpastel-wood。

Yellowpigmentswereprincipallyderivedfromweld，saffron，andothernativeplants。

Vermilion，redochre，andminium(redlead)wereknownfromaremoteantiquity，althoughtheartificialpreparationofvermilionwasasecretpossessedonlybytheChinese。

ThetermscarletasemployedintheOldTestamentwasusedtodesignatetheblood-redcolorprocuredfromaninsectsomewhatresemblingcochineal，foundingreatquantitiesinArmeniaandothereasterncountries。TheArabiannameoftheinsectisKermez(whencecrimson)。Itfrequentstheboughsofaspeciesoftheilextree：ontheseitlaysitseggsingroups，whichbecomecoveredwithasortofdown，sothattheypresenttheappearanceofvegetablegallsorexcrescencesfromthetreeitselfandaredescribedassuchbyPlinyXVI，12，whoalsogaveitthenameofgranum，probablyonaccountofitsresemblancetoagrainorberry，whichhasbeenadoptedbymorerecentwritersandistheoriginoftheterm“ingraincolor“

asnowinuse。Thedyeisprocuredfromthefemalegrubalone，which，whenaliveisaboutthesizeofthekernelofacherryandofadarkred-browncolor，butwhendead，shrivelsuptothesizeofagrainofwheatandiscoveredwithabluishmold。Ithasanagreeablearomaticsmellwhichitimpartstothatwithwhichitcomesintocontact。ItwasfirstfoundingeneraluseinEuropeinthetenthcentury。About1550，cochineal，introducedtherefromMexico，wasfoundtobefarricherincoloringmatterandthereforegraduallysupersededtheolderdyestuff。

IndigowasusedinIndiaandEgyptlongbeforetheChristianera；anditisassertedthatblueribbons(strips)foundonEgyptianmummies4500yearsoldhadbeendyedwithindigo。ItwasintroducedintoEuropeonlyinthesixteenthcentury。

Theuseofmadderasareddyestuffdatesfromveryearlytimes。PlinymentionsitasbeingemployedbytheHindoos，PersiansandEgyptians。Inthemiddleagesthenamessandis，warantia，granza，garancia，wereappliedtomadder，thelatter(garance)beingstillretainedinFrance。Thecoloryieldingsubstanceresidesalmostentirelyintheroots。

ChilzonwasthenamegivenbytheancientHebrewstoabluedyeprocuredfromaspeciesofshell-fish。

Herodotus，B。C。443，assertsthatontheshoresoftheCaspianSealivedapeoplewhopaintedtheformsofanimalsontheirgarmentswithvegetabledyes：

“Theyhavetreeswhoseleavespossessapeculiarproperty；theyreducethemtopowder，andthenstriptheminwater；thisformsadyeorcoloringmatterwithwhichtheypaintontheirgarmentsthefiguresofanimals。Theimpressionissuchthatitcannotbewashedout；itappears，indeed，tobewovenintothecloth，andwearsaslongasthegarmentitself。”

Weareinformedbyanotherancientwriterthatthepagannationswereaccustomedtoarraytheimagesoftheirgodsinrobesofpurple。WhentheprophetEzekieltookupalamentationforTyre，hespokeofthe“blueandpurplefromtheislesofElishah“inwhichthepeoplewereclothed。ThisreferenceissaidtodoubtlessrefertotheislandsoftheAegianSea，fromwhencemanyclaim，theTyriansobtainedtheshell-fish，——themurexandpapura，whichproducedthedark-blueandbright-scarletcoloringmaterials，theemploymentofwhichcontributedsomuchtothefameofancientTyre。

Plinytheyoungerconfirmsthisstatement：

“TheTyrian-purplewasthejuiceofthePurpurea，ashell-fish，theveinsofitsneckandjawssecretingthisroyalcolor，butsolittlewasobtainedthatitwasveryrareandcostonethousandDenarii(about$150。00)perpound。”

Amoremodernwriterindiscussingacrimsonorrubycolorsays：

“ByamistakensensetheLatinwordpurpurus，hasbeencalledpurple，byalltheEnglishandFrenchwriters。”

Arbuthnot，London，1727，inhisbook“AncientCoins，WeightsandMeasures。”astheresultofhisexaminationsofthemostancientrecordsestimates：

“ThePurplewasverydear；thereweretwosortsofFisheswhereofitwasmade，thePelagii，(whichwerethosethatwerecaughtinthedeep)

andtheBuccini。ThePelagiumperPoundwasworth50Nummi，(8s。103/4d。)，andtheBuceinuntdoublethat，viz。17s。83/4d。(HarduinreadsahundredPoundsatthatprice。)TheTyriandoubleDyeperPoundcouldscarcebeboughtforL359s，13/4d。”

TheveryancientwritersstatethatthemostesteemedoftheTyrianpurpleswerethosewhichcomparedincolorwith“coagulatedbullocks’blood。”

ThisestimationseemstogobacktothetimeofthePhoenicians，whowereexcessivelyfondofthereddershadesofpurplewhichtheyobtainedalsofromseveralvarietiesofshell-fishandcomprehendedundertwospecies；one(Buccinum)foundincliffs，andtheother(Pelagia)whichwascapturedatsea。ThefirstwasfoundonthecoastsoftheMediterraneanandAtlantic。

TheAtlanticshellsaffordedthedarkestcolor，whilethoseofthePhoeniciancoastitselfyieldedscarletshadesofwonderfulintensity。

RespectingthecostanddurabilityoftheTyrianpurple，itisrelatedthatAlexandertheGreatfoundinthetreasuryofthePersianmonarch5，000quintalsofHermionepurpleofgreatbeauty，and180yearsold，andthatitwasworth$125ofourmoneyperpoundweight。ThepriceofdyeingapoundofwoolinthetimeofAugustusisgivenbyPliny，andthatpriceisequaltoabout$160ofourmoney。Itisprobablethathisremarksrefertosomeparticulartintorqualityofcoloreasilydistinguished，althoughnotatallclearlydefinedbyPliny。Healsomentionsasortofpurple，orhyacinth，whichwasworth，inthetimeofJuliusCaesar，100denarii(about$15ofourmoney)perpound。

Thebestauthoritiesofthepresentday，however，areofopinionthatthecelebratedTyrian-purplewasextractedfromamolluskknownastheJanthinaprolongata，ashellabundantintheMediterraneanandverycommonnearNarbonne，wheretheTyrianpurpledye-workswereinoperationatleastsixhundredyearsbeforeChrist。

Thepricecurrentofsomeoftheinksandcolorsofantiquity，asquotedbyArbuthnot，arecitedherewith：

Armenianpurple30hs。=4s。101/3d。

IndiapurplefromoneDenarius，or73/4d。to30

Denarii，19s。412d。

Pelagium，thejuiceofonesortfishesthatdyedpurple，50hs。=8s。07/8d。

Buccinumthejuiceoftheotherfishthatdyedpurple，100hs。=16s。13/4d。

Cinnabar50hs。=8s。07/8d。

Tarentineredpurple，pricenotmentioned。

Melinum，asortofcolourthatcamefromMelos，oneNummus，=115/16d。

Paretonium，asortofcolourthatcamefromaegypt，verylasting，6Denarii，=3s。101/2d。

Myrobalanus，2Denarii，=1s。31/2d。

Thelast-namedsubstanceisthefruitoftheTermi-

nalia，aproductofChinaandtheEastIndies，bestknownasMyrabolamsandmusthavebeenutilizedsolelyforthetannintheycontain，whichLoeweestimatestobeidenticalwithellago-tannicacid，laterdiscoveredinthedivi-divi，afruitgrowninSouthAmerica，andbablahwhichisalsoafruitofaspeciesofAcacia，wellknownalsoforitsgum。

NomonumentsareextantoftheancientMyrabolamink。

AntimonyandgallswereusedbytheEgyptianladiestotinttheireyesandlashesand(whoknows)

towritewith。

Manyofthedyesemployedasinkwerethoseoccurringnaturallyasanimalandvegetableproducts，orwhichcouldbeproducedtherefrombycomparativelysimplemeans，otherwisewewouldnotbeconfrontedwiththefactthatnospecimensofinkwritingofnaturaloriginremaintous。

Theveryfewspecimensofinkwritingwhichhaveoutlasteddecayanddisintegrationthroughsomanyages，arefoundtobecloselyalliedtomaterialslikebitumen，lampblackobtainedfromthesmokeofoil-

torchesorresins；orgold，silver，cinnabarandminium。

JosephusassertsthatthebooksoftheancientHebrewswerewritteningoldandsilver。

“Siccadewat“(Asilverinkstandeth)，astheancientArabicproverbruns。

Rosseliniasserts：

“themonumentalhireoglyphicsoftheEgyptianswerealmostinvariablypaintedwiththeliveliesttints；andwhensimilarhireoglyphicswereexecutedonareducedscale，andinamorecursiveformuponpapyriorscrollsmadefromtheleavesofthepapyrusthepageswerewrittenwithbothblackandcoloredinks。”

TheearlymodeofinkwritinginbiblicaltimesmentionedinNumbersv。23，whereItissaid“thepriestshallwritethecursesinabook，andblotthemoutwiththebitterwater。”waswithakindofinkpreparedforthepurpose，withoutanysaltsofironorothermaterialwhichcouldmakeapermanentdye；

thesemaledictionswerethenwashedintothewater，whichthewomanwasobligedtodrink，sothatshedranktheverywordsoftheexecration。TheinkstillusedintheEastisalmostallofthiskind；awetspongewillobliteratethefinestoftheirwritings。

InthebookofJeremiah，chap。xxxvi。verse18，itsays：“ThenBaruchanswered，Hepronouncedallthesewordsuntomewithhismouth，andIwroteTHEMwithinkinthebook。”andinEzek。ix。2，3，11，“Inkhorn“isreferredto。

SixhundredyearslaterintheNewTestamentisanothermentionofink“havingmanythingstowriteuntoyou。IwouldnotwritewithpaperandInk。”

&c。；secondepistle。ofJohn，12，andagaininhisthirdepistle，13，“Ihadmanythingstowrite，butIwillnotwithpenandInkwriteuntothee。”

TheillustrativehistoryoftheancientEgyptiansdoesnotpointtoatimebeforethereedwasusedasapen。Thevarioussculptures，carvings，potteryandpaintings，exhibitthescribesatworkintheiravocations，recordingdetailsaboutthehandsandearsofslaughteredenemies，thenumbersofcaptives，thebasketsofwheat，thenumerousanimals，thetribute，thetreatiesandthepublicrecords。Theseancientscribesemployedacylindricalboxforink，withwritingtablets，whichweresquaresectionsofwoodwithlateralgroovestoholdthesmallreedsforwriting。

DuringthetimeJosephwasViceroyofEgyptunderSethosisI，thefirstofthePharaohs，B。C。1717，heemployedasmallarmyofclerksandstorekeepersthroughoutEgyptinhisextensivegrainoperations。

Thescribeswhosedutiespertainedtomakingrecordsrespectingthisbusiness，usedbothredandblackinks，containedindifferentreceptaclesinadesk，which，whennotinuse，wasplacedinaboxortrunk，withleatherhandlesatthesides，andinthiswaywascarriedfromplacetoplace。Asthescribehadtwocolorsofink，heneededtwopens(reeds)andweseehimonthemonumentsofThebes，busywithonepenatwork，andtheotherplacedinthatmostancientpen-rack，behindtheear。Such，saysMr。Knight，ispresentedinapaintingatBeniHassan。

TheHistoricalSocietyofNewYorkpossessesasmallbundleofthesepens，withthestainsoftheinkyetuponthem，besidesabronzeknifeusedformakingsuchpens(reeds)，andwhichareallegedtobelongtoaperiodnotfarremovedfromJoseph’stime。

Theotherhistoryofink，longprecedingthedepartureofIsraelfromEgypt，andwithfewexceptionsuntilafterthemiddleages，canonlybeconsidered，asitisintimatelyboundupinthechronologyandstoryofhandwritingandwritingmaterials。Eventhenitmustnotbesupposedthatthehistoryofinkisauthenticandcontinuousfromthemomenthandwritingwasappliedtotherecordingofevents；fortheearliestrecordsarelosttousinalmosteveryinstance。Wearethereforedependentuponlaterwriters，whomadetheirrecordsintheinksoftheirowntime，andwhocouldrefertothoseprecedingthemonlybytheaidoflegendsandtraditions。

Thereisnoindependentdataindicatinganyvariationwhateverinthemethodsoftheadmixtureofblackorcoloredinks，whichdifferentiatesthemfromthoseusedintheearliesttimesoftheancientEgyptians，HebrewsorChinese。Onthecontraryifweexclude“Indian“andoneoftheredinks，foraperiodoffourteenhundredyearswefindtheirnumberdiminishinguntilthefirstcenturiesoftheChristianera。

Exaggeratedtraditionhasdescribedinksaswellasotherthingsandimaginationisnotlacking。Someoftheselegends，inlateryearsputinwriting，compelustodependontranslationsofobscureandobsoletetongues，whilethemajorityofthemaremingledwiththeerrorsandsuperstitiousofthetimeinwhichtheyweretranscribed。

Thevalueofsuchaccountsdependsuponavarietyofcircumstancesandwemustproceedwiththeutmostcautionanddiscriminationinexaminingandweighingtheauthenticityofthesesourcesofinformation。

Ifwereasonthattheartofhandwritingdidnotbecomeknowntoalltheancientnationsatonce，butwasgraduallyimpartedbyonetoanother，itfollowsthatrecordssupposedtobecontemporaneous，weremadeinsomecountriesatamuchearlierperiodthaninothers。ItmustalsobeobservedthattheAsiaticnationsandtheEgyptianspracticedtheartofwritingmanycenturiesbeforeitwasintroducedintoEurope。

Henceweareabletoestimatewithsomedegreeofcertaintythatink-writtenaccountsofsomeAsiaticnationsweremadewhileEuropewasinthisrespectburiedinutterdarkness。

AninterestingstorywhichbearsonthisstatementistoldbyKennett，inhis“AntiquitiesofRome。”

London，1743，astothediscoveryofancientMSS。fivehundredandtwentyyearsbeforetheChristianera，ofwhateventhenmusthavebeenremarkable：

“AstrangeoldwomancameoncetoTarquiniusSuperbuswithninebooks，which，shesaid，weretheoraclesoftheSybils，andprofferedtosellthem。

Butthekingmakingsomescrupleabouttheprice，shewentawayandburntthreeofthem；andreturningwiththesix，askedthesamesumasbefore。

Tarquinonlylaughedatthehumour；uponwhichtheoldwomanlefthimoncemore；andaftershehadburntthreeothers，cameagainwiththemthatwereleft，butstillkepttoheroldterms。Thekingnowbegantowonderatherobstinacy，andthinkingtheremightbesomethingmorethanordinaryinthebusiness，sentfortheaugars(soothsayers)

toconsultwhatwastobedone。They，whentheirdivinationswereperformed，soonacquaintedhimwhatapieceofimpietyhehadbeenguiltyof，byrefusingatreasuresenttohimfromheaven，andcommandedhimtogivewhatevershedemandedforthebooksthatremained。Thewomanreceivedhermoney，anddeliveredthewritings；andonly，chargingthembyallmeanstokeepthemsacred，immediatelyvanished。Twoofthenobilitywerepresentlyafterchosentobethekeepersoftheseoracles，whichwerelaidupwithallimaginablecareintheCapitol，inachestunderground。TheycouldnotbeconsultedwithoutaspecialorderoftheSenate，whichwasnevergranted，unlessuponthereceivingofsomenotabledefeat；upontherisingofanyconsiderablemutiny，orseditionintheState；oruponsomeotherextraordinaryoccasion；severalofwhichwemeetwithinLivy。”

Someoftheancienthistoriansevensoughttobemisleadingrespectingtheeventsnotonlyoftheirowntimes，butofepochswhichprecededthem。Richardson，inhis“DissertationonAncientHistoryandMythology。”

publishedin1778，remarks：

“TheinformationreceivedhithertohasbeenalmostentirelyderivedthroughthemediumoftheGrecianwriters；whoseeleganceoftaste，harmonyoflanguage，andfinearrangementofideas，havecaptivatedtheimagination，misledthejudgment，andstampedwiththedignifiedtitleofhistory，theamusingexcursionsoffancifulromance。Tooproudtoconsidersurroundingnations，(iftheEyptiansmaybeexcepted)inanylightbutthatofbarbarians；theydespisedtheirrecords，theyalteredtheirlanguage，andframedtoooftentheirdetails，moretotheprejudicesoftheirfellowcitizens，thantothestandardoftruthorprobability。

WehavenamesofPersiankings，whichaPersiancouldnotpronounce；wehavefactsrelatedtheyapparentlyneverknew；andwehavecustomsascribedtothem，whichcontradicteverydistinguishingcharacteristicofanEasternpeople。ThestoryofLysimachusandoneGreekhistorianmayindeed，withjustice，beappliedtomanyothers。

Thisprince，inthepartitionofAlexander’sempire，becameKingofThrace：hehadbeenoneofthemostactiveofthatconqueror’scommanders；andwaspresentateveryeventwhichdeservedtheattentionofhistory。AGrecianhadwrittenanaccountofthePersianconquest；andbewishedtoreaditbeforetheking。Themonarchlistenedwithequalattentionandwonder：’Allthisisveryfine，’sayshe，whenthehistorianhadfinished，’butwherewasIwhenthosethingswereperformed？’“

CHAPTERII。

ANTIQUITYOFINK。

THEINVENTIONOFTHEARTOFWRITING——TOWHOM

ITBELONGS——ITSUTILIZATIONBYNATIONSAND

INDIVIDUALS——WHENITISFIRSTMENTIONEDINTHE

BIBLE——CITATIONSFROMTHEENCYCLOPaeDIABRITANNICA

ANDSMITHSDICTIONARYOFTHEBIBLE——SOME

REMARKSBYHUMPHREYSOFTHEORIGINANDPROGRESS

OFHANDWRITING——COMMENTSBYPLATOAND

THECOLLOQUYBETWEENKINGTHAMUSANDTHOTH，THEEGYPTIANGODOFTHELIBERALARTS——FIRST

APPEARANCEOFINKWRITTENROLLS——DESTRUCTION

OFTHETEMPLESWHICHCONTAINEDTHEM——COMMENTS

OFTHEHISTORIANROLLINS——DESTRUCTION

OFTHEMOSTANCIENTCHINESEINKWRITTENMSS。

THEREisadifferenceofopinionastowhatnationbelongsthehonoroftheinventionoftheartofhandwriting。SirIsaacNewtonobserves：

“Thereistheutmostuncertaintyinthechronologyofancientkingdoms，arisingfromthevanityofeachclaimingthegreatestantiquity，whilethosepretensionswerefavouredbytheirhavingnoexactaccountoftime。”

Itsantiquityhasbeenexhaustivelytreatedbymanywriters；thebestknownareMassey，1763，TheOriginandProgressofLetters；“Astle，1803，“TheOriginandProgressofWriting；“Silvestre，“UniversalPalaeography。”Paris，1839-41；andHumphreys，1855，“TheOriginandProgressoftheArtofWriting。”

They，withothers，havesoughttorecordtheoriginandgradualdevelopmentoftheartofwritingfromtheEgyptianHieroglyphicsof4000B。C。；theChineseFigurative，3000B。C。；IndianAlphabetic，2000ormoreB。C。；theBabylonianorCuneiform，2000

yearsB。C。；andthePhoenicianinwhichtheyincludetheHebreworSamaritanAlphabet，2000ormoreB。C。，downtothewritingsoftheneworWesternworldoftheChristianera。

Thedatapresentedandtheargumentssetforth，deserveprofoundrespect，andthoughwefindsomefavoringtheEgyptians，orthePhoenicians，theChaldeans，theSyrians，theIndians，thePersiansortheArabians，itisbesttoaccepttheconcensusoftheiropinion，whichseemstodividebetweenthePhoeniciansandtheEgyptiansasbeingtheinventorsoftheforemostofallthearts。“For，inPhoenicia，hadlivedTaautorThoththefirstHermes，itsinventor，andwholatercarriedhisartintoEgyptwheretheyfirstwroteinpictures，some2200yearsB。C。”

TheartappearstohavebeenfirstexercisedinGreeceandtheWestabout1500or1800B。C。，andlikeallarts，itwasdoubtlessslowandprogressive。

TheGreeksrefertheinventionofwrittenletterstoCadmus，merelybecauseheintroducedthemfromPhoenicia，thenonlysixteeninnumber。Tothese，fourmorewereaddedbySimonides。EvanderbroughtlettersintoLatiumfromGreece，theLatinlettersbeingatfirstnearlythesameformastheGreek。TheRomansemployedadeviceofscatteringgreensandupontables，fortheteachingofarithmeticandwriting，andinIndiaa“sandbox“consistingofasurfaceofsandlaidonaboardthefingerbeingutilizedtotraceforms，wasthemethodfollowedbythenativestoteachtheirchildren。

Itissaidthatsuchmethodsstillobtaineveninthisage，insomeruraldistrictsofEngland。

Aftertheinventionofwritingwell-informednationsandindividualskeptscribesorchroniclerstorecordinwriting，historicalandotherevents，mingledwithclaimsofantiquitybasedonpopularlegends。

Theseindividualswerenotalwaysheldinthehighestesteem。AmongtheHebrewsitwasconsideredanhonorablevocation，whiletheGreeksforalongtimetreateditspractitionersasoutcasts。ItwasanaccomplishmentpossessedbythefewevendowntothefifteenthcenturyoftheChristianera。TherulersofthedifferentcountriesweredeficientintheartanddependedonotherstowritetheirdocumentsandletterstowhichtheyappendedtheirmonogramorthesignoftheCrossagainsttheirnamesasanattestation。

SolateasA。D。1516anorderwasmadeinLondontoexamineallpersonswhocouldwriteinordertodiscovertheauthorshipofaseditiousdocument。

TheartofwritingisnotmentionedintheBiblepriortothetimeofMoses，althoughasbeforestated，inEgyptandthecountriesadjacenttheretoitwasnotonlyknownbutpracticed。

ItsfirstmentionrecordedinScripturewillbefoundinExodusxvii。v。14；“AndtheLordsaiduntoMoses，Writethis，foramemorial，inabook；andrehearseitintheearofJoshua；forIwillutterlyputouttheremembranceofAmalekfromunderheaven。”

ThiscommandwasgivenimmediatelyafterthedefeatoftheAmalekitesnearHoreb，andbeforethearrivaloftheIsraelitesatMountSinai。

Itisobservable，thatthereisnottheleasthinttoinduceustobelievethatwritingwasthennewlyinvented；

onthecontrary，wemayconclude，thatMosesunderstoodwhatwasmeantbywritinginabook；

otherwiseGodwouldhaveinstructedhim，ashehaddoneNoahinbuildingtheArk；forhewouldnothavebeencommandedtowriteinabook，ifhehadbeenignorantoftheartofwriting；butMosesexpressednodifficultyofcomprehensionwhenhereceivedthiscommand。WealsofindthatMoseswrotealltheworksandallthejudgmentsoftheLord，containedinthetwenty-firstandthetwosucceedingchaptersofthebookofExodus，beforethetwowrittentablesofstonewereevensomuchaspromised。Thedeliveryofthetablesisnotmentionedtilltheeighteenthverseofthethirty-firstchapter，afterGodhadmadeanendofcommuningwithhimuponthemount，thoughthetencommandmentswerepromulgatedimmediatelyafterhisthirddescent。

MosesmakesfrequentmentionofancientbooksoftheHebrews，butdescribesnone，exceptthetwotablesonwhichGodwrotethetencommandments。Thesehetellsus，wereofpolishedstone，engravenonbothsidesandasCalmetremarks：“itisprobablethatMoseswouldnothaveobservedtousthesetwoparticularssooftenashedoes，wereitnottodistinguishthemfromotherbooks，whichweremadeoftables，notofstone，butofwoodandcuriouslyengraven，butononesideonly。”

ItcannotbesaidthatMosesusesanylanguagewhichcanbeconstruedtomeantheemploymentofrollsofpapyrus，orbarksoftrees，muchlessofparchment。

Wehavethereforereasontobelievethatbythetermbook，healwaysmeanstable-books，madeofsmallthinboardsorplates。

Theedicts，aswellasthelettersofkings，werewrittenupontabletsandsenttothevariousprovinces，sealedwiththeirsignets。Scriptureplainlyalludestothecustomofsealingupletters，edictsandthetabletsonwhichtheprophetswrotetheirvisions。

Thepracticeofwritinguponrollsmadeofthebarksoftreesisveryancient。ItisalludedtointheBookofJob：“Oh！thatmineadversaryhadwrittenabook；

surelyIwouldtakeituponmyshoulders，andbinditasacrowntome。”(Oldversion。)Thenewoneruns：“AndthatIhadtheindictmentwhichmineadversaryhathwritten！“Therolls，orvolumes，generallyspeaking，werewrittenupononesideonly。

ThisisintimatedbyEzekielwhoobservesthathesawoneofinextraordinaryformwrittenonbothsides：“AndwhenIlooked，behold，anHandwassentuntome，andlo！arollofabookwastherein；andhespreaditbeforeme，anditwaswrittenwithinandwithout。”

Tohavebeenabletowriteondrytabletsofwoodorbarksoftreeswiththereedorbrush，thethenonlyink-writinginstrumentsinvoguewouldhavenecessitatedtheemploymentoflampblacksuspendedinavehicleofthickgum，orintheformofapaint。Bothofthesemaybetermedpigmentaryinks。Theuseofthininkswouldhavecausedspreadingorblottingandthusrenderedthewritingillegible。

TheEncyclopaediaBritannicageneralizesitsremarksonthissubject：——

“Theearliestwritingswerepurelymonumentalandaccordinglythosematerialswerechosenwhichweresupposedtolastthelongest。Thesameideaofperpetuitywhichinarchitecturefindsitsmoststrikingexpositioninthepyramidswasrepeated，inthecaseofliteraryrecords，inthetwocolumnsmentionedbyJosephus，theoneofstoneandtheotherofbrick，onwhichthechildrenofSethwrotetheirinventionsandastronomicaldiscoveries；inthepillarsinCreteonwhich，accordingtoPorphyry，theceremoniesoftheCorybanteswereinscribed；

intheleadentabletscontaininlutheworksofHesiod，depositedinthetempleoftheMuses，inBoeotia；

inthetencommandmentsonstonedeliveredbyMoses；andinthelawsofSolon，inscribedonplanksofwood。Thenotionofaliteraryproductionsurvivingthedestructionofthematerialsonwhichitwasfirstwritten——the’momentum，aereperennius’

ofHorace’sambition——wasunknownbeforethediscoveryofsubstancesforsystematictranscription。

“TabletsofivoryormetalwereincommonuseamongtheGreeksandRomans。Whenmadeofwood——sometimesofcitron，butusuallyofbeechorfir——theirinnersideswerecoatedwithwax，onwhichthelettersweretracedwithapointedpenorstiletto(stylus)，oneendofwhichwasusedforerasure。ItwaswithhisstylusthatCaesarstabbedCascainthearmwhenattackedbyhismurderers。

WaxtabletsofthiskindcontinuedinpartialuseinEuropeduringthemiddleages；theoldestextantspecimen，nowinthemuseumatFlorence，belongstotheyear1301。”

LatertheHebrewScriptureswerewrittenininkorpaintupontheskinsofceremoniallycleananimalsorevenbirds。Thesewererolleduponsticksandfastenedwithacord，theendsofwhichweresealedwhensecuritywasanobject。Theywerewrittenincolumns，andusuallyupononeside，only。Thewritingwasfromrighttoleft；theuppermarginwasthreefingersbroad，theloweronefourfingers；abreadthoftwofingersseparatedthecolumns。Thecolumnsranacrossthewidthofthesheet，therolledendsofwhichwereheldverticallyintherespectivehands。Whenonecolumnwasread，anotherwasexposedtoviewbyunrollingitfromtheendinthelefthand，whiletheformerwashiddenfromviewbyrollinguptheendgraspedbytherightband。Thepenwasareed，theinkblack，carriedinabottlesuspendedfromthegirdle。

TheSamaritanPentateuchisveryancient，asisprovedbythecriticismsofTalmudicwriters。Acopyofitwasacquiredin1616byPietrodellaValle，oneofthefirstdiscoverersofthecuneiforminscriptions。

ItwasthusintroducedtothenoticeofEurope。ItisclaimedbytheSamaritansofNablusthattheircopywaswrittenbyAbisha，thegreat-grandsonofAaron，inthethirteenthyearofthesettlementofthelandofCanaanbythechildrenofIsrael。ThecopiesofitbroughttoEuropeareallwritteninblackinkonvellumor“cotton“paper，andvaryfrom12motofolio。ThescrollusedbytheSamaritansiswritteningoldletters。(SeeSmith’s“DictionaryoftheBible。”

vol。III，pp。1106-1118。)Itsclaimstogreatantiquityarenotadmittedbyscholars。

Theenumerationofsomeofthemodesofwritingmaybeinteresting：

TheMexicanwritingisinverticalcolumns，beginningatthebottom。

TheChineseandJapanesewriteinverticalcolumns，beginningatthetopandpassingfromlefttoright。

TheEgyptianhieroglyphicsarewritteninverticalcolumnsorhorizontallinesaccordingtotheshapeandpositionofthetablet。Itissaidthatwiththehorizontalwritingthedirectionisindifferent，butthatthefiguresofmenandanimalsfacethebeginningoftheline。Withfigures，theunitsstandontheleft。

TheEgyptiansalsowrotefromrighttoleftinthehieraticanddemoticandenchorialstyles。ThePalasgiansdidthesame，andwerefollowedbytheEtruscans。

Inthedemoticcharacter，Dr。Brugschremarksthatthoughthegeneraldirectionofthewritingwasusuallyfromrighttoleft，yettheindividualletterswereformedfromlefttoright，asisevidentfromtheunfinishedendsofhorizontalletterswhentheinkfailedinthepen。

Inwritingnumbersinthehieraticandenchorialtheunitswereplacedtotheleft。TheArabswritefromrighttoleft，butreceivedtheirnumeralsfromIndia，whencetheycallthem“Hindee。”andtherethearrangementoftheirnumeralsislikeourown，unitstotheright。

ThefollowingnoteworthypassageistakenfromHumphreys’work“OntheOriginandProgressoftheArtofWriting：“

“Nearlyalltheprincipalmethodsofancientwritingmaybedividedintosquarecapitals，roundedcapitals，andcursiveletters；thesquarecapitalsbeingtermedsimplycapitals，theroundedcapitalsuncials，andthesmallletters，orsuchashadchangedtheirformduringthecreationofarunninghand，minuscule。Capitalsare，strictlyspeaking，suchlettersasretaintheearliestsettledformofanalphabet；beinggenerallyofsuchangularshapesascouldconvenientlybecarvedonwoodorstone，orengravedinmetal，tobestampedoncoins。TheearliestLatinMSS。knownarewrittenentirelyincapitalslikeinscriptionsinmetalormarble。

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Theuncialletters，astheyaretermed，appeartohavearisenaswritingonpapyrusorvellumbecamecommon，whenmanyofthestraightlinesofthecapitals，inthatkindofwriting，graduallyacquiredacurvedform，tofacilitatetheirmorerapidexecution。Howeverthismaybe，fromthesixthtotheeighth，oreven10thcentury，theseuncialsorpartlyroundedcapitalsprevail。

“Themodernminuscule，differingfromtheancientcursivecharacter，appearstohaveariseninthefollowingmanner：Duringthe6thand7thcenturies，akindoftransitionstyleprevailedinItalyandsomeotherpartsofEurope，theletterscomposingwhichhavebeentermedsemi-uncials，which，inafurthertransition，becamemorelikethoseoftheoldRomancursive。Thismanner，whendefinitelyformed，becamewhatisnowtermedtheminusculemanner；itbegantoprevailoveruncialsinacertainclassofMSS。aboutthe8thcentury，andtowardsthe10thitsgeneralusewas，withfewexceptions，established。Itissaidtohavebeenoccasionallyusedasearlyasthe5thcentury；butIamunabletociteanauthenticexistingmonument。ThePsalterofAlfredtheGreat，writteninthe9thcentury，isinasmallRomancursivehand，whichhasinducedCasleytoconsiderittheworkofsomeItalianecclesiastic。”

Thelearnedwhohavemadealifestudyofthehistoryofthemostancientmanuscripts，mentionthemspecificallyingreatnumberandofdifferentcountries，whichwouldseemtoindicatethattheartofhandwritinghadmadegreatstridesintheveryoldentimes；manynationshadadoptedit，andB。C。650“ithadspreaditselfoverthe(thenknown)greaterpartofthecivilizedworld。”

Wecanwellbelievethistobetrueinreadingabouttheancientlibraries，notwithstandingthatsomerulershadsoughttoprohibititsexercise。

Plato，wholivedB。C。350，expresseshisviewsoftheimportanceofwritinginhisimaginarycolloquybetweenThamus，kingofEgypt，andThoth，thegodoftheliberalartsoftheEgyptians；heacquaintsus：

“Thatthediscourseturneduponletters。ThothmaintainedthevalueofWriting，ascapableofmakingthePeoplewiser，increasingthepowersofMemory；tothisthekingdissented，andexpressedhisopinionthatbytheexerciseofthisArtthemultitudewouldappeartobeknowingofthosethingsofwhichtheywerereallyignorant，possessingonlyanideaofWisdom，insteadofWisdomitself。”

Pythagoras，B。C。532，weareinformedbyAstle：

“WentintoEgyptwhereheresidedtwenty-twoyears；hewasinitiatedintothesacerdotalorder，and，fromhisspiritofinquiry，hehasbeenjustlysaidtohaveacquiredagreatdealofEgyptianlearning，whichheafterwardsintroducedintoItaly。

ThePythagoreanschoolswhichheestablishedinItalywhenwritingwastaught，weredestroyedwhenthePlatonicornewphilosophyprevailedovertheformer。Polybius(lib。ii。p。175)andJamblichus(invitaPythag。)mentionmanycircumstances，relativetothesefacts，quotedfromauthorsnowlost；asdothPorphyry，inhislifeofPythagoras。”

Forthehundredyearsormorefollowing，however，thedisseminationoflearningandthetranscriptionofeventswasnottobedenied。Wefindink-writtenvolumes(rolls)relatingtodiversesubjectsbeingloanedtooneanother；correspondencebylettertoandfromdistantlandsoffrequentoccurrence，andtheartofhandwritingregularlytaughtintheschoolsoflearning。

ItsprogresswastobeinterruptedbythewarsofthePersians。Mr。Astleincallingattentiontoeventswhichhavecontributedtodepriveusoftheliterarytreasuresofantiquitythusreferstothem：

“Averyfatalblowwasgiventoliterature，bythedestructionofthePhoeniciantemples，andoftheEgyptiancolleges，whenthosekingdoms，andthecountriesadjacent，wereconqueredbythePersians，aboutthreehundredandfiftyyearsbeforeChrist。Ochus，thePersiangeneral，ravagedthesecountrieswithoutmercy，andfortythousandSidoniansburntthemselveswiththeirfamiliesandrichesintheirownhouses。TheconquerorthendroveNectanebusoutofEgypt，andcommittedthelikeravagesinthatcountry；afterwardshemarchedintoJudea，wherehetookJericho，andsentagreatnumberofJewsintocaptivity。ThePersianshadagreatdisliketothereligionofthePhoeniciansandtheEgyptians；thiswasonereasonfordestroyingtheirbooks，ofwhichEusebius(DePreparat。

Evang。)says，theyhadagreatnumber。”

Theselosses，apparently，didnotinterferewiththeprogressoftheartinmorewesterncountries。ProfessorRollininhis“AncientHistory。”1823，remarks：

“PtolemySoter，KingofEgyptB。C。285，hadbeencarefultoimprovehimselfinpublicliterature，aswasevidentbyhiscompilingthelifeofAlexander，whichwasgreatlyesteemedbytheancients，butisnowentirelylost。Inordertoencouragethecultivationofthesciences，whichhemuchadmired，hefoundedanacademyatAlexandria，calledtheMuseum，whereasocietyoflearnedmendevotedthemselvestophilosophicstudies，andtheimprovementofallothersciences，almostinthesamemannerasthoseofLondonandParis。Forthispurpose，hebeganbygivingthemalibrary，whichwasprodigiouslyincreasedbyhissuccessors。

“HissonPhiladelphusleftahundredthousandvolumesinitatthetimeofhisdeath，andthesucceedingprincesofthatraceenlargeditstillmore，tillatlastitconsistedofsevenhundredthousandvolumes。

“Thislibrarywasformedbythefollowingmethod：AlltheGreekandotherbooksthatwerebroughtintoEgyptwereseized，andsenttotheMuseum，wheretheyweretranscribedbypersonsemployedforthatpurpose。Thecopieswerethendeliveredtotheproprietors，andtheoriginalsweredepositedinthelibrary。

“AstheMuseumwasatfirstinthatquarterofthecitywhichwascalledBruchion，andneartheroyalpalace，thelibrarywasfoundedinthesameplace，anditsoondrewvastnumbersthither；butwhenitwassomuchaugmented，astocontainfourhundredthousandvolumes，theybegantodeposittheadditionalbooksintheSerapion。Thislastlibrarywasasupplementtotheformer，forwhichreasonitreceivedtheappellationofitsDaughter，andinprocessoftimehadinitthreehundredthousandvolumes。

“InCaesar’swarwiththeinhabitantsofAlexandria，afire，occasionedbythosehostilities，consumedthelibraryofBruchion，withitsfourhundredthousandvolumes。Senecaseemstometobeoutofhumour，when，speakingoftheconflagration，hebestowshiscensuresbothonthelibraryitself，andtheeulogiummadeonitbyLivy，whostylesitanillustriousmonumentoftheopulenceoftheEgyptiankings，andoftheirjudiciousattentiontotheimprovementofthesciences。Seneca，insteadofallowingittobesuch，wouldhaveitconsideredonlyasaworkresultingfromtheprideandvanityofthosemonarchs，whohadamassedsuchanumberofbooks，notfortheirownuse，butmerelyforpompandostentation。Thisreflection，however，seemstodiscoververylittlesagacity；forisitnotevidentbeyondcontradiction，thatnonebutkingsarecapableoffoundingthesemagnificentlibraries，whichbecomeanecessarytreasuretothelearned，anddoinfinitehonourtothosestatesinwhichtheyareestablished？

“ThelibraryofSerapion，didnotsustainanydamage，anditwasundoubtedlytherethatCleopatradepositedthosetwohundredthousandvolumesfromthatofPergamus，whichwaspresentedtoherbyAntony。Thisaddition，withotherenlargementsthatweremadefromtimetotime，renderedthenewlibraryofAlexandriamorenumerousandconsiderablethanthefirst；andthoughitwasransackedmorethanonce，duringthetroublesandrevolutionswhichhappenedintheRomanempire，italwaysretrieveditslosses，andrecovereditsnumberofvolumes。Inthisconditionitsubsistedformanyages，displayingitstreasurestothelearnedandcurious，tilltheseventhcentury，whenitsufferedthesamefatewithitsparent，andwasburntbytheSaracens，whentheytookthatcityintheyearofourLord642。Themannerbywhichthismisfortunehappenedistoosingulartobepassedoverinsilence。

“John，surnamedtheGrammarian，afamousfollowerofAristotle，happenedtobeatAlexandria，whenthecitywastaken；andashewasmuchesteemedbyAmriEbnolAs，thegeneraloftheSaracentroops，heentreatedthatcommandertobestowuponhimtheAlexandrianlibrary。Amrireplied，thatitwasnotinhispowertograntsucharequest；

butthathewouldwritetotheKhalif，oremperoroftheSaracens，forhisordersonthathead，withoutwhichhecouldnotpresumetodisposeofthelibrary。HeaccordinglywrotetoOmar，thethenKhalif，whoseanswerwas，thatifthosebookscontainedthesamedoctrinewiththeKoran，theycouldnotbeofanyuse，becausetheKoranwassufficientinitself，andcomprehendedallnecessarytruths；

butiftheycontainedanyparticularscontrarytothatbook，theyoughttobedestroyed。Inconsequencetothisanswer，theywereallcondemnedtotheflames，withoutanyfurtherexamination；and，forthatpurpose，weredistributedamongthepublicbaths；where，forthespaceofsixmonths，theywereusedforfuelinsteadofwood。Wemayfromhenceformajustideaoftheprodigiousnumberofbookscontainedinthatlibrary；andthuswasthisinestimabletreasureoflearningdestroyed！

TheMuseumofBruchionwasnotburntwiththelibrarywhichwasattachedtoit。Straboacquaintsus，inhisdescriptionofit，thatitwasaverylargestructurenearthepalace，andfrontingtheport；andthatitwassurroundedwithaportico，inwhichthephilosopherswalked。Headds，thatthemembersofthissocietyweregovernedbyapresident，whosestationwassohonourableandimportant，that，inthetimeofthePtolemies，hewasalwayschosenbythekinghimself，andafterwardsbytheRomanemperor；andthattheyhadahallwherethewholesocietyatetogetherattheexpenseofthepublic，bywhomtheyweresupportedinaveryplentifulmanner。”

Amongtheothereventscontributingtothedeplorablelosseswhichmankindhassustainedinthisrespect，asadonewaswhenthemostancientinkwritingsoftheChinesewereorderedtobedestroyedbytheiremperorChee-Whange-Tee，inthethirdcenturybeforeChrist，withtheavowedpurposethateverythingshouldbeginanewasfromhisreign。Thesmallportionofthemwhichescapeddestructionwererecoveredandpreservedbyhissuccessors。

CHAPTERIII。

CLASSICALINKANDITSEXODUS。

THEMATERIALSANDMETHODSEMPLOYEDINPREPARING

THEINKMSS。OFANTIQUITY——THEINTRODUCTION

OFPARCHMENTASASUBSTITUTEFOR

PAPYRUS——MODEOFWRITINGONPARCHMENT——HOW

SEPARATEPIECESWEREFIRSTJOINEDINTOBOOK

FORM——EVIDENCEOFTHECHARACTEROFWRITING

UTENSILSTOBEFOUNDINANCIENTPICTURES——SOME

FORMULASBYTHEYOUNGERPLINYANDHISCONTEMPORARY

DIOSCORIDES——HOWTHEGREEKSAND

ROMANSKEPTTHEIRPAPYRIFROMBREAKING——WHEN

BLACKINKBEGANTOFALLINTODISUSEANDITS

CAUSE——THEADOPTIONOFTHESTYLUSANDITSACCOMPANYING

SHEETSOFLEAD，IVORY，METALAND

WOODCOATEDWITHWAX——THEEFFORTSMADETO

RESUMETHEUSEOFSOMEINKWHICHWOULDBIND

TOPARCHMENT——WHYTHEREARENOORIGINALMSS。

EXTANTBELONGINGTOTHETIMEOFCHRIST——THE

INVENTIONOFTHEVITRIOLICINKS——HUMPHREY’S

BLUNDERINLOCATINGDATESOFEARLYGREEK

MSS——THEDESTRUCTIONOFTHECITIESOFHERCULANEUM

ANDPOMPEII——AWAKENINGOFINTEREST

AGAINABOUTTHEEMPLOYMENTOFINKS——REDISCOVERIES

OFSOMEOFTHEMOREREMOTEANCIENT

RECIPES——THEWRITERSINGOLDANDSILVER——RECORDED

INSTANCESOFILLUMINATEDMSS——PASSAGE

FROMTHEBOOKOFJOBWRITTENBYST。

JEROME——DENIALOFTHEEMPLOYMENTOFTANNO-

GALLATEOFIRONINKINTHEFOURTHCENTURY——

DESTRUCTIONOFTHEINSPIREDWRITINGSBYORDER

OFTHEROMANSENATE——THEECLIPSEOFCLASSICAL

LITERATUREANDDISMEMBERMENTOFTHE

ROMANEMPIRE——POEMONTHETHOUSANDYEARS

KNOWNASTHEDARKAGESWHICHFOLLOWED。

THEOPHRASTUSsaysthatthepapyrusbooksoftheancientswerenootherthanrollspreparedinthefollowingmanner：Twoleavesoftherushwereplasteredtogether，usuallywiththemudoftheNile，insuchafashionthatthefibresofoneleafshouldcrossthefibresoftheotheratrightangles；theendsofeachbeingthencutoff，asquareleafwasobtained，equallycapableofresistingfracturewhenpulledortakenholdofinanydirection。Inthisformthepapyriwereexportedingreatquantities。Inordertoformthesesingleleavesintothe“scapi。”orrollsoftheancients，abouttwentyweregluedtogetherendtoend。Thewritingwasthenexecutedinparallelcolumnsafewincheswide，runningtransverselytothelengthofthescroll。Toeachendofthescrollswereattachedroundstavessimilartothoseweuseformaps。Tothesestaves，strings，knownas“umbilici。”wereattached，totheendsofwhichbullaeorweightswerefixed。