第7章

THEinstrumentsofantiquityemployedintheartofwritingbelongtotwoofthemostdistantepochs。

Inthefirstperiod，inscriptionswereengraved，carvedorimpressedwithsharpinstruments，andofpatternscharacteristicofagravingtool，chiselorotherformwhichcouldbeadaptedtoparticularsubstanceslikestone，leaves，metalorivoryplates，waxorclaytablets，cylindersandprisms。

TheancientAssyriansevenusedknivesorstampsforimpressingtheircuneiformwritinguponcylindersorprismsofsoftclaywhichwereoftenglazedbysubsequentbakingsinkilns。

Theotherperiodwasthatinwhichwrittencharactersweremadewithliquidsorpaintsofanykindorcolor。Theliquids(inks)wereusedinconnectionwithapenmanufacturedfromareed(calamus)，whilethepaintswere“painted“onthevarioussubstanceswithabrush。Thewritingexecutedwithbothoftheseinstrumentswasonmaterialslikethebarkoftrees，cloth，skins，papyrus，vellum，etc。

Theancientaswellasmodernpens，thoughofmanysortsandkinds，aretobeclassifiedundertwogeneralheads，thosewhichscratchandthosewhichuseanink。

Thereisnoauthoritytodisputethegenerallyconcededfactthatthe“scratching“instrumentwasthefirstoneused。Itsmostpopularformseemstohavebeenthestylusorbodkin，whichwasmadeofavarietyofmaterials，suchasiron，ivory，bone，mineralsoranyotherhardsubstance，whichcouldbesufficientlysharpenedatoneendtoindentthevariousmaterialsemployedinconnectionwithitsuse。Theotherendwasflattenedforerasingmarksmadeonwaxandsmoothingit。FromittheItalianstillettotookitsorigin。

Thestylusisbestdescribedinthefollowinglines：

“Myheadisflatandsmooth，butsharpmyfoot，Andbyman’shandtodifferentusesput；

Forwhatmyfootperformswithartandcare，Myheadmakesvoid，suchoppositestheyare。”

Relativetotheemploymentofmarkinginstrumentswhichbelongtothemostvenerableantiquity，NoelHumphreysobserves：

“Beforethegrowthofwealthandluxuryhadtaughtnationstoraisemagnificenttemplesandstatelypalaces，whosewallsthehieroglyphicsculptorcoveredwithrecordsofthepompandprideofprinces，morepurelynationalmemorialshadfoundtheirplaceuponthenativerock，themostconvenientsurfacesofwhichweresmoothedforthispurpose。Wherenosuchrockexistedinthesituationrequired，amassivestonewasraisedbyartificialmeansandtherecord，whetherreferringtoavictory，anewboundary，oranyothereventofnationalinterestwasengraveduponit。SuchmemorialshavebeendescribedbyHebrewwritersasaumadorammod，literally，thelipsofthepeople，or，thewordsofthepeople，butactuallymeaningapillar。Recordsinthisformandtheearlynametheyboreaccountforthestrangelegendsofmediaevaltimesreferringtospeakingstones——anamebywhichsuchmonumentswereprobablystillcalledlongaftertimehadeffacedthespeakingrecord，andtheoriginalpurportofthedefacedstonewasforgotten。Insemi-barbarousepochs，liketheerawhichfollowedthepartialextinctionofRomancivilization，popularcuriosityandsuperstitioncombinedwouldseektogiveameaningtothenameofsuch’speakingstones，’andasanexampleofthelegendswhichthusarose，theitinerariumcambriaeofGeraldusmaybecited，inwhichastoneismentionedatSt。David’sasthe’speakingstone’

(lechlavar)whichwassaidtocalloutwhenadeadbodywasplaceduponit。ThemostremarkablerockinscriptionsstillremainingarethoseofAssyriaandPersia，butmanynationaltabletsofmorerecentdatearestillinexistence。FortheexecutionofsuchrecordsandthoseofthepalacesofEgyptandAssyria，somekindofsteelpointmusthavebeenused，asnosoftersubstancewouldhaveservedtoengravethemingraniticandbasalticslabswiththesharpnesstheystillexhibit，whichprovesthattheartofhardeningsteel，longthoughtacomparativelymoderninvention，wasknowntotheancientpeopleofAsiaandAfrica。”

Alistofthevariousdevicesofdifferentcountries，bywhichcharacterscouldbelegiblyportrayedwithascratchingimplement，isbestrecapitulatedbyMr。

Knight，whopresentstheminthefollowingorder：

“Thetabulaorwoodenboardsmearedwithwax，uponwhichaletterwaswrittenbyastylus。

“TheAthenianscratchedhisvoteuponashellasdidtheloutwhenhevotedtoostracizeAristides。

“TherecordsofNinevahwereinscribedupontabletsofclay，whichwerethenbaked。

“ThelawsofRomewereengravedonbrassandlaidupintheCapitol。

“Thedecaloguewasgravenuponthetablesofstone。

“TheEgyptiansusedpapyrusandgranite。

“TheBurmese，tabletsofivoryandleaves。

“Plinymentionssheetsoflead，booksoflinen，andwaxedtabletsofwood。

“TheHebrewsusedlinenandskins。

“ThePersians，Mexicans，andNorthAmericanIndiansusedskins。

“TheGreeks，preparedskinscalledmembrana。

“ThepeopleofPergamus，parchmentandvellum。

“TheHindoos，palm-leaves。”

Thewrittendeedsofbiblicaltimewerekeptinvariousstylesofpottery(Jeremiahxxxii。14)。HandwritingontileswascommoninEgypt，AssyriaandPalestine(Ezekieliv。I)。Suchhandwritingswereontabletsofterra-cottaorcommonbakedclaybricks。

Oneofthekindwasfashionedbyinscribingdirectlywitha“stylus“ontheclay，beforebaking。Another，were“moulds“madefromolderinscriptionsorduplicatesfromthefirstkind。

TheHebrewtermsepher，translatedintoEnglishmeansa“book。”andsomeauthoritiesclaimitisderivedfromthesamerootastheGreek，astone，whichwouldseemtopointtoengravedstonesastheearliestkindsofrecords。IndeednearlyallthepassagesintheFiveBooksofMoses，inwhichwritingismentioned，refertorecordsofthiskind，ortotabletsofleadorwood，occasionallydescribedascoatedwithwax。

Longbeforetheuseofpapyrus，oranylikesubstancewasknownasamaterialforwritingon，thinbrickswerefrequentlyutilizedforsuchpurposes。

TheChinesewroteonslipsofbamboowhichhadbeenpreviouslyscrapedtobeafterwardssubmittedtointenseheatwhichsohardenedthem，thatagraverwouldcutlineswiththesamefacility，ascouldbeaccomplishedonsoftmetallikelead。Thesebambootabletswerejoinedtogetherbymeansofcordsmadeofbarkandwhenfoldedformeda“book。”Differentnationsadoptedothermodesintheirpreparationofsurfacestoengraveon。Manyoriginalspecimenshavecomedowntouswhichpresentdefiniteevidenceofthevarietyofmaterialsandmethodsemployedintheirmanufacture。

Hilprecht，“ExplorationsinBibleLands。”1903，mentionsmanydiscoveriesofsuchspecimens。Hesaysthatmorethanfourthousandclaytabletswerediscoveredduringtheexcavationsof1889and1900。

Theserelicscallattentiononlytoaveryfewdiscoveriesofthischaracter。TherewereotherexplorerswhoprecededHilprechtinthisdirection，andwhowithhimhavethussecuredtangibleevidencewhichfullyconfirmsallthathasbeensaidabouttheemploymentofthemostancientofwritinginstruments，the“stylus。”

Thediamondisalsotobeclassifiedundertheheadof“scratchingimplements“andmanyhistoricalincidentsarerecordedofitsuse。OneofthemostinterestingrelatestoSirWalterRaleighandQueenElizabethandtobefoundinScott’s“Kenilworth。”

SirWalter，usinghisdiamondring，wroteonapaneofglassinhersummer-houseatGreenwich：

“FainwouldIclimb，butthatIfeartofall。”

ThemaidenQueenaddingthewords：

“Ifthymindfailthee，donotclimbatall。”

Biblicalmentionofthediamond，employedasapen，isfoundinJeremiahxvii。1。

“ThesinofJudahiswrittenwithapenofiron，andwiththepointofadiamond。”

Ithasnotalwaysbeenpossibletodecipherandinterpretthecharactervaluesofthemostancienthieroglyphicsorpicturewritingsinscribedonbricks，stoneandmetalslabs，andtheEgyptianmonuments。Themeanstodosowerefurnishedastheresultofaveryfortunateaccidentor“find。”

AFrenchartilleryofficerin1799whileexcavatingthefoundationsforafortificationneartheRosettamouthoftheNile，foundacuriousblacktabletofstone。Onitwereengravedthreeinscriptions，eachofdifferentcharactersanddialects。

Thefirstofthethreeinscriptionswasinhieroglyphic，thenunreadable；thesecondindemoticorshorterscript，alsounknown，andthethirdinalivinglanguagepertainingtothetimeofPtolemyEpiphanes，whoreignedabout200B。C。

ThisrelicofantiquityiscalledtheRosettastone。

JeanFrancoisChampollion，whowithDr。ThomasYoungstudiedtheintricaciesofthesewritings，firstestablishedthefactthatthethreeinscriptionsonthisstoneweretranslationsofeachother。Dr。Young’sinvestigationscausedhimtostudythelanguageincludedinthesecondinscription，andmadehisdeductions，itissaid，“bydintofthousandsofscientificguesses，allbutafewofwhichwereeliminatedbytestswhichheinventedandapplied；heatlastdiscoveredandputtogetherthesetoffundamentalprinciplesthatgoverntheancientwritings。”

Champollion，however，beganatthebottomandhavingsuccessfullytranslatedtheLIVINGlanguage，establisheda“key“oralphabet。Henceitbecamepossible，althoughrequiringsomeyears，tosolvethemysteryofwritingsof4000ormoreyearsold。

Champollionpursuedhisdiscoveriessothoroughlyinthisdirectionastobeabletocompletein1829anEgyptianvocabularyandgrammar。

TheRosettastoneafterremaininginthepossessionoftheFrenchformanyyearswascapturedbytheEnglishonthedefeatoftheFrenchforcesinEgyptandisnowintheBritishmuseum。

Aswritingwithliquidcolorsonpapyrusoranalogousmaterialswhichcouldbeusedintheformofrolls，graduallycameintovogue，thecalamusorreedpen，pencilbrush(hairpencil)，orthejuncas，apenformedfromakindofcane，weremoreorlessemployed。

The“calamus“followedthe“brush。”justasphonographicwritingwhichdenotesarbitrarysoundsorthelanguageofsymbols，cameafterthepictureorideographicwriting。

Theplaceswherethecalamusgrewandthemodesofpreparingthemarevariouslydiscussedbydifferentancientandmodernwriters。SomeclaimthatthebestreedsforpenpurposesformerlygrewnearMemphisontheNile，nearCnidusofCaria，inAsiaMinor，andinArmenia。ThosegrowninItalywereestimatedtohavebeenofbutpoorquality。Chardincallsattentiontoakindtobefound，“inalargefenortractofsoggylandsuppliedwithwaterbytheriverHelle，aplaceinArabiaformedbytheunitedarmsoftheEuphratesandTigris。TheyarecutinMarch，tiedinbundles，laidsixmonthsinamanureheap，wheretheyassumeabeautifulcolor，mottledyellowandblack。”TournefortsawthemgrowingintheneighborhoodofTeflisinGeorgia。Millerdescribesthecaneas“growingnohigherthanaman，thestemthreeorfourlinesinthicknessandsolidfromoneknottoanother，exceptingthecentralwhitepith。”Theincipientfermentationinthemanureheapdriesupthepithandhardensthecane。Thepenswereaboutthesizeofthelargestswan’squills。

Theywerecutandslitlikeaquillpenbutwithmuchlargernibs。

InthefarEastthecalamusisstillused，thebestbeinggatheredinthemonthofMarch，nearAurac，onthePersianGulf，andstillpreparedaftertheoldmethodofimmersingthemforaboutsixmonthsinfermentingmanurewhichcoatsthemwithasortofdarkvarnishandthedarkertheircolorthemoretheyareprized。

The“brush“alsoholdsitscareerofusefulness，moreespeciallyinChinaandJapan。

TheearliestexamplesofreedpenwritingaretheancientrollsofpapyruswhichhavebeenfoundburiedwiththeEgyptiandead。SomeoftheseoldrelicsofantiquityareclaimedtohavebeenpreparedfullytwentycenturiesormorebeforetheChristianera。

The“reed“penforinkwritingheldalmostundisputedswayuntilthesixthcenturyaftertheChristianera，whenthequill(penna)cameintovogue。

ReedpenspreservedinexcellentconditionwerefoundintheruinsofHerculaneum。

“Whenhehadfinished，hedriedthebamboo-penonhishair，andreplaceditbehindhisear，saying，’Yakpose’(Thatiswell)。’Temouchu’(Restinpeace)，wereplied；and，afterpolitelyputtingoutourtongues，withdrew。”AbbeHueatLha-Ssa。

CHAPTERXXVI。

INKUTENSILS(QUILLPENSTEELPEN)。

THEQUILLPENTHEMOSTSUCCESSFULANDFITTINGOF

ALLWRITINGINSTRUMENTS——TENDENCYTO“WEAR“

OUT——THESOMETIMESAFFECTIONFOROLDPENS——DR。

HOLLAND’SLINESONTHEPEN——SELECTIONOFQUILLS

TOBEMADEINTOPENS——METHODOFPREPARING

THEM——BYRON’SESTIMATIONOFHISQUILLPEN——ITS

INVENTIONBEFORETHESIXTHCENTURYUNCERTAIN——

EMPLOYMENTOFTHEREEDANDQUILLPEN

TOGETHERUNTILTHETWELFTHCENTURY——WHEN

THESTEELPENCAMEINTOVOGUE——WHOWASITS

INVENTOR——SOMEOBSERVATIONSABOUTIT——QUANTITY

OFMATERIALSIXTYYEARSAGOCONSUMEDINPEN

MANUFACTURE——AFEWREMARKSABOUTGOLD，FOUNTAIN

ANDSTYLOGRAPHICPENS——MORESTEELUSEDIN

THEMANUFACTUREOFPENSTHANINTHATOFSWORDS

ANDGUNS——POETICALLINESABOUTTHEPEN。

THEquillsbelongingtothefeathersofbirdsseemtohavebeenthemostsuccessfulandfittingofallmaterialsforpens，for，thoughsteelandothermetalsarenowusedforthispurposetoanimmenseextent，thereisapowerofadaptationinaquillpenwhichhasneveryetbeenequalledinmetal。Quills，however，likeotherthings，haveatendencyto“wearout。”andthetroubleresultingfromthenecessityoffrequentlymendingquillpensandadesiretowritewithmorerapidityhavebeenthemaincausesoftheintroductionofsteelsubstitutes。Akindofaffectionhasoftenbeenfeltbyanauthororofficial，ortheiradmirers，forthepenwithwhichhehaswrittenanylargeorcelebratedworkorsignedsomeimportantdocument；

oldworn-outpens，aswellasnewones，havebeenpreservedasmemorialsinconnectionwithsuchmatters，andDr。Holland，whotranslatedPliny’s“NaturalHistory“inthesixteenthcentury，recordedanexploitconnectedwithitinthefollowinglines：

“WithonesolepenIwrotethisbook，Madeofagraygoose-quill：

ApenitwaswhenitItookApenIleaveitstill。”

Thequillsemployedforpensweregenerallythoseofthegoose，althoughthecrow，theswan，andotherbirdsyieldedfeatherswhichwereoccasionallyavailableforthispurpose。Eachwingproducedaboutfivegoodquills，butthenumberthusyieldedwassosmallthatthegeeserearedinEnglandcouldnotfurnishnearlyenoughforthedemand，hencetheimportationofgoosequillsfromtheContinentwasverylarge。

Theprocesssurroundingthemanufactureofaquillpenprovesofconsiderableinterest。

“Thegeesearepluckedoftheirfeathersthreeorfourtimesayear，thefirsttimeforthesakebothofthequillsandthefeathers，buttheothertimesforthefeathersonly。Thepenquillsaregenerallytakenfromtheendsofthewings。Whenpluckedthequillsarefoundtobecoveredwithamembranousskin，resultingfromadecayofakindofsheathwhichhadenvelopedthem；theinteriorvascularmembrane，too，resultingfromthedecayofthevascularpith，adheressostronglytothebarrelofthequillastobewithdifficultyseparated，while，atthesametime，thebarrelitselfisopaque，soft，andtough。Toremovethesevariousdefectsthequillsundergoseveralprocesses。Inthefirstinstance，asameansofremovingthemembraneousskin，thequillsareplungedintoheatedsand，thehightemperatureofwhichcausestheexternalskinofthebarreltocrackandpeeloff，andtheinternalmembranetoshrivelup。Theoutermembraneisthenscrapedoffwithasharpinstrument，whiletheinnermembraneremainsinastatetobeeasilydetached。Forthefinestquillstheheatingisrepeatedtwoorthreetimes。Theheatofthesand，byconsumingordryingupthenaturalmoistureofthebarrel，rendersitharderandmoretransparent。Inordertogivethebarrelayellowcolor，andatendencytosplitmorereadilyandclearly，itisdippedinweaknitricacid，butthiswasconsideredtorenderthequillmorebrittleandlessdurable，andwasthereforeasacrificeofutilityforthesakeofappearance。”

“Oh！nature’snoblestgift——mygraygoosequill！

Slaveofmythoughts，obedienttomywill，Tornfromthyparentbirdtoformapen，Thatmightyinstrumentoflittlemen！“

BYRON。

Tolocateanexactperiodfortheinventionofthequillpenisimpossible。Itcouldhardlyhavebeeninusebeforethefourthcentury，probablynotearlierthantwocenturieslater。SomewritershaveassumedthatitwasemployedbytheRomans，butasnodistinctmentionismadeofthembyearlyclassicalauthorswemustaccepttheonlyinformationathand。

Isidore(diedA。D。636)andcontemporariesstatethatthequillsofbirdscameintouseaspensonlyinthesixthcentury。Itisalsoknown，St。Brovverusbeingtheauthority，thatinhistime(seventhcentury)

thecalamusorreedpenandthequillpenwereemployedtogether，thecalamusbeingusedinthewritingoftheuncial(inch)lettersandcapitals，andthequillforsmallerletters。MentionisalsomadebymanywritersofthefivecenturieswhichfollowedIsidore’stimeofthecalamus，indicatingthatnotwithstandingithadbeensupersededbythequillitwasstillafavoritewritingimplementinsomeplaces。

Theuseofthe“steelpen“didnotspringimmediatelyfromthatofthe“quillpen。”Therewereseveralintermediatestagesadoptedbeforethefitnessofsteelforthispurposewassufficientlyknown，Fromabout1800to1835thenumberofproposedsubstitutesforthequillpenwasveryconsiderable。

Hornpens，tortoise-shellpens，nibsofdiamondorrubyimbeddedintortoiseshell，nibsofrubysetinfinegold，nibsofrhodiumandofiridiumimbeddedingold，——

allhavebeenadoptedatdifferenttimes，butmostofthemhavebeenfoundtoocostlyforgeneraladoption。

Steelisprovedtobesufficientlyelasticanddurabletoformverygoodpens，andtheingenuityofmanufacturershasbeenexertedtogivetosuchpensasmanyaspossibleofthegoodqualitiespossessedbythequillpen。

Theoriginalflexibleironpenofmoderntimeswasanexperimentalaffairprobably，beingmentionedbyChamberlayneasfarbackas1685。

ThefirststeelpensinregularuseweremadebyWise，inLondon，in1803，andformanyyearsthereafter。

Hispenwasmadewithabarrel，bywhichitwasslippeduponastraighthandle。Initsportableformitwasmountedinabonecaseforthepocket。

Prejudice，however，wasstrongagainstthem，andupto1835orthereaboutsquillsmaintainedtheirfullsway，andmuchlateramongtheold-fashionedfolks。

Tohim，however，isduethecreditofbeingtheinventorofthemodernsteelpen。

IthasbeenthethoughtofsomepeoplethatGillottwastheprogenitorofthesteelpen，buthewasnot。

Arnoux，aFrenchmechanic，mademetallicpenswithsideslitsin1750。SamuelHarrison，anEnglishman，madeasteelpenforDr。Priestlyin1780。PeregrineWilliamson，anativeofNewYork，whileengagedasajewelerinthecityofBaltimore，madesteelpensin1800。

Perry’sfirstpenswereofsteel，rolledfromwire，thematerialcostingsevenshillingsapound。Fiveshillingseachwaspaidtheworkmanformakingthem；

thiswasafterwardreducedtothirty-sixshillingspergross，whichpricewascontinuedforseveralyears。

ItwasJosephGillott，however，originallyaSheffieldcutler，andafterwardsaworkmaninlightsteelarticles，asbuckles，chains，andotherarticlesofthatclass，whoin1822gaveimpulsetothesteel-penmanufacture。

Previoustohisenteringthebusinessthepenswerecutoutwithshearsandfinishedwiththefile。Gillottadaptedthestampingpresstotherequirementsofthemanufacture，ascuttingouttheblanks，formingtheslits，bendingthemetal，andimpressingthemaker’snameonthepens。Healsodevisedimprovedmodesofpreparingthemetalfortheactionofthepress，tempering，cleansing，andpolishing，and，inshort，manylittledetailsofmanufacturenecessarytogivethemtherequiredflexibilitytoenablethemtocompetewiththequillpen。Onegreatdifficultytobeovercomewastheirextremehardnessandstiffness；

thiswaseffectedbymakingslitsatthesideinadditiontothecentralone，whichhadpreviouslybeensolelyused。Afurtherimprovement，thatofcrossgrindingthepoints，wassubsequentlyadopted。Thefirstgrossofpenswiththreeslitswassoldforsevenpounds。In1830thepricewas$2。00；in1832，$1。50；

in1861，12cents，andacommonvarietyfor4centsagross。About9，300tonsofsteelareannuallyconsumed，thenumberofpensproducedinEnglandalonebeingabout8，000，000，000。

Bramahpatentedquillnibsmadebysplittingquillsandcuttingthesemicylindersintosectionswhichwereshapedintopensandadaptedtobeplacedinaholder。Thesewere，perhaps，thefirstnibs，theprogenitorsofahostofsteel，gold，andotherpens。

HawkinsandMordan，in1823，madenibsofhornandtortoiseshell，insteadofquill。Thetortoiseshellbeingsoftened，pointsofrubyanddiamondwereimbedded。

Metallicpointswerealsocementedtotheshellnibs。

Doughty，about1825，madegoldpenswithrubypoints。

Goldpenswithrhodiumoriridiumpointswereintroducedsoonafterwards。

Mordan’sobliquepen，Englishpatent，1831，wasdesignedtopresentthenibsintherightdirectionwhilepreservingthecustomarypositionsofthepenandhand。

Thefountainpencarriesasupplyofink，fedgraduallytothepointoftheinstrument。ThefirstmadebySchefferwasintroducedabout1835byMordan。

Thepressureofthethumbonastudinaholdercausedacontinuoussupplyofinktoflowfromthereservoirtothepen。

The“stylographic“isareservoirpenshapedlikeapencil，inwhichtheflowofinkisregulatedbypressureofastyleorfineneedlewithbluntpointuponthepaper。Itmustbeheldinaverticalposition。

Allmarksmadewithone，bothupanddownstrokes，areequalinwidth。

Goldpensarenowusuallytippedwithiridium，makingwhatarecommonlyknownasdiamondpoints。

“Theiridiumforthispurposeisfoundinsmallgrainsofplatinum，slightlyalloyedwiththislattermetal。Thegoldforpensisalloyedwithsilvertoaboutsixteencaratsfineness，rolledintothinstrips，fromwhichtheblanksarestruck。Theundersideofthepointisnotchedbyasmallcircularsawtoreceivetheiridiumpoint，whichisselectedwiththeaidofamicroscope。Afluxofboraxandablowpipesecureittoitsplace。Thepointisthengroundonacopperwheelofemery。Thepen-blankisnextrolledtotherequisitethinnessbythemeansofrollersespeciallyadaptedforthepurpose，andtemperedbyblowsfromahammer。Itisthentrimmedaroundtheedges，stamped，andformedinapress。

Theslitisnextcutthroughthesolidiridiumpointbymeansofathincopperwheelfedwithfineemery，andasawextendstheaperturealongthepenitself。

Theinsideedgesoftheslitaresmoothedandpolishedbytheemerywheel；burnishingandhammeringproducetheproperdegreeofelasticity。”

Itisassertedthatmoresteelisusedinthemanufactureofpensthaninalltheswordsandgunsintheworld。Thisfactpartlyverifiestheoldsaying，“Thepenismightierthanthesword。”

“Threethingsbearmightyswaywithmen，TheSword，theSceptre，andthePen；

Whocantheleastofthesecommand，InthefirstrankofFamewillstand。”

CHAPTERXXVII。

SUBSTITUTESFORINKUTENSILS(“LEAD“ANDOTHER

PENCILS)。

“BLACK-LEAD“PENCILSANEXCELLENTPENSUBSTITUTE

UNDERCERTAINCONDITIONS——ITSCOMPOSITION——

“BLACK-LEAD“CONTAINSNOLEAD，HENCE

THENAMEISMISAPPLIED——THEDISCOVERYOFITS

PRINCIPALSOURCEOFSUPPLYANACCIDENT——A

DESCRIPTIONOFHOWITISMINED——TREATMENT

BEFOREBEINGINTRODUCEDINTOTHEGROOVED

WOOD——USEOFREDANDBLACKCHALKPENCILS

INGERMANY，1450——THEIRUSEINMEXICOINEARLY

TIMES——WHOMANUFACTURESLEADPENCILS——EMPLOYMENT

OFTHECOMPOSITIONOFLEADANDTIN

INMEDIAEVALTIMES——BAVARIANGOVERNMENTIN

1816AMANUFACTUREROFLEADPENCILS。

THEblack-leadpencil，undermanycircumstances，isaveryusefulsubstituteforthepen，inthatitrequiresnoliquidinkformarkingthecharactersonpaperorothermaterials。Thepeculiarsubstancewhichfillsthecentralchannelofthestickofcedarhasthepropertyofmarkingwhenittouchespaper；

and，asthemarksthusmadearesusceptibletoeasyremoval，apencilofthiskindisavailableforpurposeswhichwouldnotbeansweredbytheuseofpenandink。

Thesubstancemisnamed“black-lead“containsNO

LEADandisacarburetofiron，beingcomposedofcarbonandiron。ItgenerallyoccursinMountaindistricts，insmallkidney-shapedpieces，varyinginsizefromthatofapeaupwards，whichareinterspersedamongvariousstrata，andismetwithindifferentpartsoftheworld。

Itsprincipalsourceofsupplyuntilabout1845，whenitbecameexhausted，wastheBorrowdalemineinCumberland，England，whichwasdiscoveredin1564。About1852anumberofmineswereopenedcontainingthissubstanceinSiberiaandfromwhichplacethebestproductsarenowobtained。

TheaccidentaldiscoveryofthismineralatBorrowdalewasduringthereignofQueenElizabethwhomademanyinquiriesaboutit。Thenameofthismineralwaslocallyknownaswad(graphite)。Sovaluablewasitregardedthatitcommandedaveryhighprice，andthispriceactedasininducementtotheworkmenandotherstopilferpiecesfromthemine。Foranumberofyearsscenesofgreatcommotiontookplace，arisingoutofthesedepredations；andtheresultwasthattheproprietorsadoptedsuchstringentrulesthathardlyanythingwasknownoftheinternaleconomyoftheminetillaboutsixtyyearsago，whenMr。Parkesgaveadescriptionofit，fromwhichImaycondenseafewparticulars。

Themineisinthemidstofamountainabouttwothousandfeethigh，whichrisesatinangleofabout45degrees；and，asthatpartoftheminewhichhasbeenworkedduringthelastcenturyisnearthemiddleofthemountain，thepresententranceisaboutathousandfeetfromthesummit。Theopeningbywhichtheworkmenenterdescendsbyaflightofsteps；andinordertoguardthetreasurewithin，theproprietorshaveerectedastrongbrickbuildingoffourrooms，oneofwhichisimmediatelyovertheentranceintothemine。Thisentranceissecuredbyatrap-door，andtheroomconnectedwithitservesasadressing-roomforthemenwhentheyenterandleavethemine。Themenworkingangs，whichrelieveeachothereverysixhours，andwhenthehourofreliefcomes，astewardorforemanattendsthedressing-

roomtoseethemenchangetheirdressesastheycomeuponebyoneoutofthemine。Theclothesareexaminedbythestewardtoseethatnoblack-leadisconcealedinthem；andwhenthemenhavedressedtheyleavethemine，makingroomforanothergang，whochangetheirclothes，enterthemine，andarefastenedinforsixhours。Inoneofthefourroomsofwhichthehouseconsiststhereisatable，atwhichmenareemployedinsortinganddressingthemineral。Thisisnecessary，becauseitisusuallydividedintotwoqualities，thefinestofwhichhavegenerallypiecesofiron-

oreorotherimpurityattachedtothem，whichmustbedressedoff。Thesemen，whoarestrictlywatchedwhileatwork，putthedressedblack-leadintocasksholdingaboutonehundred-weighteach，inwhichstateitleavesthemine。Thecasksareconveyeddownthesideofthemountaininacuriousmanner。Eachcaskisfixeduponalightsledgewithtwowheels，andaman，whoiswellusedtotheprecipitouspath，walksdowninfrontofthesledge，takingcarethatitdoesnotacquiremomentumenoughtooverpowerhim。Whenthecaskhasbeenthusguidedsafelytothebottom，themancarriesthesledgeuphilluponhisshoulders，andpreparesforanotherdescent。

Uptoaboutthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturytheminewasopenedonlyonceinsevenyears，thequantitytakenoutateachtimeofopeningbeingsuchaswasdeemedsufficienttoservethemarketforsevenyears；

butwhen，atalaterperiod，itwasfoundthatthedemandwasincreasingandthesupplydecreasing，itwasdeemednecessarytoworktheminesixorsevenweekseveryyear。Duringthetimeofworking，themineisguardednightandday；andwhenaquantitysufficientforoneyear’sconsumptionhasbeentakenout，themineissecureduntilthefollowingyear。

Severalhundredcartloadsofrubbisharewheeledintothemine，soastoblockuptheentrancecompletely；

andthisrubbishactsasadamtopreventthespringsandlandwatersfromflowingout，sothattheminegraduallybecomesflooded。

WhentheYear’sminingisconcluded，thebarrelsofblack-leadarebroughttomarket，andthemodeofeffectingthesaleswasdescribedbyDr。Faradaysomeyearsagotobeasfollows：AmarketisheldonthefirstMondayofeverymonthatahouseinLondon，wherethebuyers，whoaregenerallyonlysevenoreightinnumber，examineeachpiecewithasharpinstrumenttoascertainitshardness，thosewhicharetoosoftbeingrejected。Thepersonwhohasthefirstchoicepays45s。perpound，theothers30s。

But，asthereisnoadditionmadetothefirstquantityinthemarket，theresidualportionsareexaminedoverandoveragainuntiltheyareexhausted。AtonetimetheannualsalewassaidtoamounttothevalueofL40，000perannum，butithasbeengreatlyreducedsince。

Amodeofapplyingmanufacturingprocessestothepreparationofblack-leadisdescribedbyDr。

UreasbeingadoptedinParis。Themineral，beingreducedtoafinepowder，ismixedwithverypurepowderedclay，andthetwoarecalcinedinacrucibleatawhiteheat；theproportionofclayemployedisgreaterasthepencilisrequiredtobeharder，theaveragebeingequalpartsofboth。Theingredientsaregroundwithamulleronaporphyryslabandthenmadeintoballs，whicharepreservedinamoistatmosphereintheformofpaste。Thepasteispressedintogroovescutinasmoothboard，andanotherboard，previouslygreased，ispresseddownuponit。Whenthepastehashadtimetodry，themouldorgroovedboardisputintoamoderatelyheatedoven，bywhichthepaste，nowintheformofsquarepencils，shrinkssufficientlytofalloutofthegrooves。Inordertogivesoliditytothepencilstheyaresetuprightinacrucibleandsurroundedwithpoundedcharcoal，finesand，orsiftedashes；thecrucible，beingcovered，isexposedtoadegreeofheatproportionatetothehardnessrequiredinthepencils，theharderpencilsrequiringthehigherdegreeofheat。Someofthepencilsareshapedinacuriousmanner：modelsofthepencils，madeofiron，arestuckuprightuponanirontray，havingedgesraisedashighastheintendedlengthofthepencils；andametallicalloy，madeoftin，lead，antimonyandbismuthispouredintothesheet-irontray。Whenthealloyhascooled，itisinvertedandshakenofffromthemodel-rods，soastoformamassofmetalperforatedthroughoutwithtubularcavitiescorrespondinginsizewiththeintendedpencilpieces；thepencilpasteisintroducedbypressureintothesecavities，andwhennearlydrythepiecesshrinksufficientlytobeeasilyremovedfromthecavities。

Thepencilsjustdescribedarealikethroughoutalltheirthickness，butinthemajorityofEnglishpencilsthereisawoodenholdertocontainanarrowfilamentofblackleadrunningdownthemiddle。Solongagoastheyear1618thismodewasadopted；forSirJohnPettus，whowasdeputygovernoroftheBorrowdalemineunderCharlesII，inhis“FletaMinor。”while，speakingofblack-leadsays，that“Oflateitiscuriouslyformedintocasesofdealorcedarandsosoldasdrypencils，somethingmoreusefulthanpenandink。”Inageneralwaymodernblack-leadpencils，aremadebysawingcedarfirstintolongplanks，andthenintosmallerrods；groovesarecutoutbymeansofacuttingmachinemovedbyafly-

wheeltosuchadepthaswillreceiveasmalllayerofblack-lead；thepiecesofthemineralarecutintothinslabsandthenintorodsthesamesizeasthegrooves，intowhichtheyareinserted；thetwohalvesofthecasearethengluedtogether，andthewholeisturnedintoacylindricalformbymeansofaguage。

Thekindofpencilcalled“crayon“isamixtureofsomekindofearthwithacoloringsubstance。

Theearthemployedissometimeschalk，andatothertimespipe-clay，gypsum，starch-flour，orochre。Thecoloringsubstanceisyellowochre，mineralyellow，chrome，redchalk，vermilion，indigo——indeed，anyoftheusualdrycolors，accordingtothetintrequired。

Besidestheearthandthecolor，thereisagummyliquidrequiredtocombinethemtogether；gumarabic，gumtragacanth，andinsomecasesoil，wax，orsuet，areusedasthethirdingredient。Thecrayonsherealludedtoareemployedratherfordrawingthanforwriting，buttheyobviouslybelongtotheclassofpencilsintheirmodeofaction。

Theancientsdrewlinesandletterswithwoodenstyles，andafterwardanalloyofleadandtinwasused。Plinyreferstotheuseofleadforrulinglinesonpapyrus。LaMoinecitesadocumentof1387

ruledwithgraphite。Slipsofgraphiteinwoodensticks(pencils)arementionedbyGesner，ofZurich，in1565；hecreditsEnglandwiththeproduction。TheyaredoubtlesstheproductoftheBorrowdalemine，thenlatelydiscovered。Intheearlypartoftheseventeenthcenturyblack-leadpencilsaredistinctlydescribedbyseveralwriters。TheyarenoticedbyAmbrosinus，1648；spokenofbyPettus，in1683，asinclosedinfirorcedar。

RedandblackchalkpencilswereusedinGermanyin1450；infact，fragmentsofchalk，charcoal，andshapedsticksofcoloredmineralshadbeeninusesincetimesprevioustoallhistoricmention。

WhenCortezlandedinMexico，in1520，hefoundtheAztecsusinggraphitecrayons，whichwereprobablymadefromamineralfoundinSonora。

ThefirmofA。W。Faberarethelargestmanufacturersofleadpencilsintheworld。Theyhavecompiledahistoryofthisimplementofhandwritingwhichtheyhavepermittedmetouseinthestorywhichfollows。

Theleadpencilisaninventionofmoderntimes，anditsintroductionmaydeservedlyberankedwiththelargenumberoftechnicalinnovationsinwhichmoreespeciallythelastthreecenturieshavebeensorich；norcanitbedeniedthatpencilshaveplayedanimportantpartinthediffusionofartsandsciencesandinfacilitatingstudyandintellectualintercourse。

Totheclassicagesandtheirartthepencil，andingeneraleveryapplicationofleadasawritingmaterial，wasentirelyunknown，anditwasnottilltheadventofthemiddleagesthatitbegantobeusedforthispurpose。Thislead，i。e。metalliclead，however，wasinnowayequivalenttothegraphiteorblack-leadofourpencils，whichareonlyhonoredwiththeprefixof“lead。”owingtotheleadencolorofthewritingdonewiththem。

Moreover，inthosedays，leadwasusedexclusivelyforrulingandinnowayforwritingordrawing；itwasemployedintheformofround，sharp-edgeddiscs，similartothosewhich，itissaid，werealreadyusedforthesamepurposeinancientclassictimes。Itisonlywiththedevelopmentandgrowthofmodernpaintingthattracesofpencil-likedrawingsfirstbegintobemet。Atsoearlyaperiodevenasthefourteenthcentury，mentionismadebythemastersofthattime，moreespeciallybythebrothersVanEyck，andagaininthefifteenthcenturybyMenlinkandothers，ofstudiesorcompositionswhichweremadewithaninstrumentsimilartoaleadpencil，uponapaperwithchalkpreparedsurface。

Thistypeofdrawingwascommonlyclassedas“silver-

style。”aterm，however，whichwasnodoubterroneous，astherecouldbenoquestionoftheuseofpuresilverinthisconnection。

InthesamewayitisalsoreportedofthelatermediaevalItalianartiststhattheydrewtheirsubjectsin“silver-style。”uponplanishedfig-treewood，thesurfaceofwhichhadbeenpreparedwiththepowderobtainedfromcalcinedbones，——amethod，however，whichseemsonlytohavebeenemployedinexceptionalinstances。

Butinthefourteenthcentury，drawingswerefrequentlydoneinItalywithpencilsconsistingofamixturecastfromleadandtin；thesedrawingscouldeasilybeerasedwithbreadcrumbs。

Petrarch’s“Laura“wasportrayedinthismannerbyoneofhiscontemporaries，andthemethodwasstillinvogueinthedaysofMichaelAngelo。FromItalythesepencilssubsequentlyfoundtheirwaytoGermany，butitisnotapparentunderwhatparticularname。InItalyitselftheywerecalled“stili。”theequivalentofthewordstylus。Atnotime，however，dothesevarietiesseemtohavebeenthepredominatingmaterialusedfordrawingpurposes。

Inconjunctionwiththese，penswereusedforwritinganddrawing，andatthezenithoftheartperiodofthosedaysblackandredcrayonswerealsousedonalargescale。TheItaliansimportedthebestqualitiesofredcrayonsfromGermany，thebestblackchalkbeingobtainedfromSpain。

Vasariwritesofacertainsixteenthcenturyartist，thathewasequallyskillfulinhandlingthestylusorthepen，blackchalkorredcrayon。

Itwasthisperiodwhichwitnessedthediscoveryofplumbago，amineralwhichwassoonworkedupintoanentirelynewmaterialforwritinganddrawing，——

theleadpencil。

Thisdiscovery，whichwasdestinedtoconfersuchgreatbenefitsnotonlyuponpracticallife，butalsouponart，wasmadeinEnglandduringthereignofQueenElizabeth，forintheyear1564thecelebratedblack-leadminesofBorrowdale，inCumberland，werediscovered。Withtheopeningofthismine，thefirstmaterialstepsweretakentoimplantonEnglishsoilaleadpencilindustrywhichinthecourseoftimewastoassumeimportantdimensions。

ThefirstleadpencilsaresupposedtohavebeenmanufacturedinEnglandinthesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury。Therawplumbago，or“wad。”asitwaslocallytermed，wassubjectedtothefollowingtreatment：“Onreachingthesurfaceitwassawnintostripsoftherequiredsize，andthese，withoutanyfurthermanipulation，wereinsertedintothewood。

Strangethoughitmayappear，theleadpencilsfirstmanufacturedinthismannerareacknowledgedtohavebeenthebest——andevenatthebeginningofthepresentcenturytheyremainedunsurpasseduponthescoreofthesoftnessandfinetoneofthelead。AlthoughtheCumberlandleadpencilswereingreatdemandowingtothefactthattheywerethefirsttosuccessfullymeetalong-feltwant，theyneverthelessowedtheirpermanentandwide-spreadreputation——

moreespeciallyinartisticcircles——totheirexcellentquality。

Towardstheendofthelastcenturytheblack-leadpencilindustrywasintroducedintoFrance，wherewithsomerestrictionsitsoondeveloped。

Withtheremovalofallrestrictionsonindustrialfreedomin1795，theideawasentertainedofusingclayasabindingmediumforblack-lead。Thismethodofferedseveraladvantages，fornotonlydidtheadditionofclaycauseasavingofalargepercentageofthevaluablemineral，butitgreatlyfacilitatedthemethodofmanufacture，sothatleadpencilscouldnowbeofferedatgreatlyreducedprices。

BytheseimprovementsanewerainthemanufactureofleadpencilswasbeguninFrance。Still，thereremainedmuchtobedoneinthefieldofblack-

leadpencilmakinginordertodojusticetotheincreasingdemandsofartandtherequirementsofmorecivilizedlife。

Itistrue，differentkindsofleadpencilsofvariousdegreeswereproduced，buttheydidnotcomplybyalongwaywiththedifferentusesforwhichtheywereneeded。Themanipulationofthebrittlematerialrequirednotonlydeepstudy，butalsoconscientiousandskillfulworkmen，inordertoimpartthenecessarystandardofperfectiontotheleadpencil。

AmongthevariousGermanindustriesthemanufactureofblack-leadpencilsoccupiedbutaverymodestplace。

ThefirsttracesofitsexistencearetobefoundatStein，avillagenotfarfromNuremberg。Asfarbackastheyear1726thechurchregistersmentionmarriagesbetween“black-leadpencilmakers。”and，atalaterdatereferencesarefoundinthesameregistersto“black-leadcutters“ofbothsexes。

Themanufactureofblack-leadpencils，however，occupiedapositionontheverylowestrungoftheindustrialladder。

ButistimeproceededtheBavariangovernmentdirectedtheirattentiontothisbranchofindustry，anddidallintheirpowertoencourageit；and，asearlyastheyear1766，aCountvonKronsfeldobtainedaconcessiontoestablishaleadpencilfactoryatJettenbach。Lateron，intheyear1816，theBavariangovernmentestablishedaroyalleadpencilmanufactoryatObernzell(Hafnerzell)，andintroducedintoittheFrenchprocess，describedabove，ofusingclayasabindingmediumforgraphite。

CHAPTERXXVIII。

ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDS(THEORIGINOFPAPYRUS)。

FROMWHENCECOMESTHENAMEPAPER——FIRSTCENTURY

COMMENTABOUTIT——KNIGHT’SCOMMENTSMORETHAN

1，800YEARSLATER——PAPYRUSANEGYPTIAN

REED——NAMESBESTOWEDBYANCIENTWRITERS——THE

SAMENAMESASEMPLOYEDINMODERNTIMES——LEAVES

OFPLANTSPRECEDEDTHEINVENTIONOFPAPYRUS——

WHENITWASTHATROLLEDRECORDSCAMEINTO

VOGUE——VARRO’SESTIMATIONASTOTHEORIGINALUSE

OFPAPYRUSNOTCORRECT——REALFACTSRESPECTING

THEINTRODUCTIONOFPAPYRUSBEYONDTHELIMITSOF

EGYPT——CHARACTEROFMATERIALSEMPLOYEDBYTHE

GREEKSBEFORETHATEPOCH——EMPLOYMENTOFIT

FORLITERARYPURPOSES——ADOPTIONOFPARCHMENT

ANDVELLUM——PAPYRUSMSS。EMPLOYEDINTHEFORM

OFROLLSANDTHEREASONFORSAME——ANCIENT

MANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSINEGYPT——SOMEOFTHENAMES

USEDTODESIGNATEDIFFERENTKINDS——PLINY’S

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEMANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSANDHIS

MISINFORMATIONABOUTIT——WHEREITFLOURISHED

BEST——PAPYRUSASKNOWNTOTHEHEBREWSANDITS

BIBLICALMENTION——MANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSIN

THEANCIENTCITYOFMEMPHIS——CHARACTERISTICSOF

THEPAPEREMPLOYEDBYTHEMEXICANS——MR。HARRIS’S

DISCOVERYOFANCIENTFRAGMENTSOFPAPYRUS——

THESTORYABOUTITASTOLDBYTHELONDON

ATHENaeUM——DATESOFTHEOLDESTKNOWNSPECIMENS

OFGREEKPAPYRI——DATEOFTHEFIRSTDISCOVERY

OFGREEKPAPYRI——USEOFOTHERPLIABLEMATERIALS

WITHPAPYRUS——HOWTHEYWEREPREPARED

FORWRITINGPURPOSES——DOUBTSASTOTIMETHAT

ROLLEDRECORDSSUPERSEDEDTABLETFORMS——SUGGESTIONS

BYNOELHUMPHREYS——VIEWSENTERTAINED

BYEARLIERWRITERS。

THEnamepaperisderivedfrompapyrus，areedgrowninEgypt，whosestalkfurnishedforsomanycenturiestheprincipalmaterialforwritingupontothepeopleofthatcountryandthoseborderingontheMediterraneanSea。InthefirstcenturyoftheChristianeratheyoungerPlinyremarks：

“Alltheusagesofcivilizedlifedependinaremarkabledegreeupontheemploymentofpaper。

Atallevents，theremembranceofpastevents。”

AstatementwhichhascausedMr。Knighttomakethefollowingcomment：

“Thisobservation，undoubtedlytrue1，800yearsago，ismuchmoreremarkablysonow；indeed，inconsideringthatpaperaswenowunderstanditwasentirelyunknowntoEuropeinthetimeofPliny，theexpressionofthegreatdependenceuponwhatseemstoussofragileandinefficientasubstituteforrealpaperappearsstrange。”

Mr。KnightalsosaysthattheGreeknamepapuros，mentionedbyTheophrastus，acontemporaryofAristotleandAlexander，wasprobablytheEgyptiannameofthereedwithaGreektermination。ItwasalsocalledbiblosbyHomerandHerodotus，whenceourtermbible。Thetermvolumen，ascroll，indicatestheearlyformofabookofbark，papyrus，skin，orparchment，asthetermliber(Latin，abook，ortheinnerbarkofatree)doestheuseofthebarkitself。Hencealsoourtermslibraryandlibrarian。“Book“isalsoderivedfromtheDanishwordbog，thebarkofthebeech。

PlinyquotingVarro，whoprecededhimsometwocenturies，assertsthatbeforetheinventionofpapyrus，thelargeleavesofcertainplantswerepreparedsothattheycouldbewrittenupon。Henceoriginatesourterm“leaves“ofabookwhichintheLatinformfoliumhasalsogivenusthemoderntermfolio。

When，however，thereedpenandthepencilbrushandtheirkindredsubstancesdenominatedcoloredliquidsorinks，cameintovogue，somematerialonwhichcharacterscouldbeinscribedandpreservedintheshapeofcontinuousrollsforrecordandotherusesbecamenecessary。Thepapyrusplantseemstohavemeteveryrequirement。Itisanoteworthyfactthatallinformationwhichcanbederivedfromanysource，specificallycallsattentiontopapyrusandsometimestheinnerbarksoftreesasbeingcoexistentwithpenandink。

Varrohasbeencreditedwithmanystatementswhichinthelightofinvestigationanddiscoveryareprovedtobeincorrect。OneoftheseisineffectthattheuseofpapyruswasanincidentpertainingtotheexpeditionsofAlexandertheGreat。ThisassertionisnotonlycontradictedbyPliny，thehistorian，whocallsattentionto“booksofpapyrusfoundinthetombofNuma“(NumaPompilius，thesecondkingofRome，B。C。716-672，)butevenatthislatedaymanymonumentsofancientpapyriarestillextantandbelongingtoperiodsmorethanathousandyearsbeforeAlexander’stime。

Therealfactsinrespecttothismatterare，thattheintroductionoftheuseofpapyrustonationsbeyondthelimitsofEgyptwasaneventthatdidnottakeplaceuntilafterthereignofthefirstMacedoniansovereignofEgypt，PtolemyLagus(B。C。323)when，inreturnforGreekliterature，Egyptgavebackherpapyrus。BeforethisepochtheGreekshadbeeninthehabitofemployingsuchmaterialsaslinen，wax，barkandleavesforordinarywritingpurposes，whiletheirpublicrecordswereinscribedonstone，brass，leadorothermetals。

Papyrusasthenintroducedintothosewesterncountrieswastheonlysubstanceforalongperiodemployedforliterarypurposes。

Parchmentandvellum，whichwereadoptedthereaswritingmaterialsabouttwocenturieslater，weretoocostlytobeusedsolongaspapyruswaswithinreach。

WhentheuseofthisancientpaperhadbecomeestablishedinthecountriesborderingontheMediterranean，alltheMSS。assumedtheformofrolls，beingrolledoncylindersofwood，ivory，bronze，glassandothersubstances。Sometimes，theendsweredecoratedbyvariousornaments。Asaruleonlyonesideofthematerialwaswrittenupon。Thiswasduelargelytothefactofitsbrittlecharacterwhichwouldcauseittobreakifrolledorbentthewrongway。

TheancientmanufactureofpapyrusforexportwascarriedoninEgyptonanextensivescaleandinthemostsystematicmanner。Agradualimprovementinqualitywastheresult，someofthekindsbeinggivenwell-knownRomannameswhicharementionedbycontemporarywriters。ThekindemployedbytheRomansforordinaryusewasdesignatedCharta。Moreexpensivequalitieswereknownas“Augusta。”“Livinia。”“Hieratica。”etc。，thelatterbeingreservedforreligiousbooks。Somekindsweresoldbyweightandemployedbythetradesmenforwrappingpurposes，whilethebarkoftheplantwasmanufacturedintocordandrope。

ThemethodsofthemanufactureofpapyrusasawritingmaterialPlinyundertakestodescribeatgreatlength，andwhileheassertsmanythingsfromprobableknowledgeandtheinformationathandinhistime，yetheisnotalwayscorrect。Hesaysthatthereedstalkswerecutintolengthsandseparated“bysplittingthesuccessivefoldsofthestalkwithafinemetalpoint。”

Mr。Knight，whoinvestigatedthismatterwithcare，isauthorityforthestatement，thatthepapyrusstalkasseenunderthemicroscopeshowsthatitdoesnotpossesssuccessivefolds，butisatriangularstalkwithasingleenvelopewithapithontheinside，whichcouldonlybedividedintosliceswithaknife，eitherinstripesofawidthpermittedbythesidesoftheprism，orelseshavedroundandround，liketheoperationofcorkmaking，andproducingalongspiralshaving。

InthedescriptionwhichPlinygivesofthevarioushomesofthisplantinEgypt，hecallsparticularattentiontoitsabundanceinmarshyplaceswheretheNileoverflowsandstagnates：“Itgrowslikeagreatbulrushfromfibrous，reedyroots，andrunsupinseveraltriangularstalkstoaconsiderableheight。”

Theypossessedlargetuftedheads，butonlythestemwasfitformakingintopaper。Afterthepelliclesorthincoatswereremovedfromthestalk，theywerelaidupontablestwoormoreovereachotherandgluedtogetherwiththemuddyandglutinouswateroftheNileorwithfinepastemadeofwheatflour；

afterbeingpressedanddriedtheyweremadesmoothwitharulerandthenrubbedoverwithaglasshemisphere。

Thesizeofthepaperseldomexceededtwofeet。

PapyruswasalsoknowntotheHebrews。

TheProphetIsaiah(B。C。752)referstothisplantwhenhesays：

“Thepaperreedsbythebrooks，andeverythingsownbythebrooks，shallwither，bedrivenawayandbenomore。”

Whichpredictionseemstohavebeenlongagofulfilledastheplantisnowexceedinglyrare。

ThemanufactureofEgyptianpaperfrompapyrusitissaidwasquiteanindustryintheancientcityofMemphismorethansixhundredyearsbeforetheChristianera。

TheMexicansemployedforwritingapaperwhichsomewhatresembledtheEgyptianpapyrus。Itwaspreparedfromthealoe，calledbythenativesMagueywhichgrowswildoverthetablelandsofMexico。Itcouldbeeasilycoloredandseemedtobindtoinkveryclosely。Itcouldberolledupinscrollsjustlikethemoreancientrollsofpapyrus。

Thefollowingaccountofaninterestingdiscoveryofafragmentofoneofthe“OrationsofHyperides。”

byMr。Harris，thewell-knownOrientalscholar，isderivedfromtheLondonAthenaeum：

“Inthewinterof1847Mr。Harriswassittinginhisboat，undertheshadeofthewell-knownsycamore，onthewesternbankoftheNile，atThebes，readytostartforNubia，whenanArabbroughthimafragmentofapapyrusroll，whichheventuredtoopensufficientlytoascertainthatitwaswrittenintheGreeklanguage，andwhichheboughtbeforeproceedingfurtheronhisjourney。

UponhisreturntoAlexandria，wherecircumstancesweremorefavorabletothedifficultoperationofunrollingafragilepapyrus，hediscoveredthatbepossessedafragmentoftheorationofHyperidesagainstDemosthenes，inthematterofHarpalus，andalsoaverysmallfragmentofanotheroration，thewholewritteninextremelylegiblecharacters，andofaformorfashionwhichthoselearnedinGreekMSS。considertobeofthetimeofthePtolemies。WiththeseinterestingfragmentsoforationsofanoratorsocelebratedisHyperides，ofwhoseworksnothing，isextantbutafewquotationsinotherGreekwriters，heembarkedforEngland。

UponhisarrivaltherehesubmittedthepreciousrelicstotheinspectionoftheCouncilandmembersoftheRoyalSocietyofLiterature，whowereunanimousintheirjudgmentastotheimportanceandgenuinenessoftheMSS。；andMr。Harrisimmediatelysettowork，andwithhisownhandmadealithographicfacsimileofeachpiece。OfthisperformanceafewcopieswereprintedanddistributedamongthesavantsofEurope，——andMr。HarrisreturnedtoAlexandria，whencehehasmademorethanonejourneytoThebesinthehopeofdiscoveringsomeotherportionofthevolume，ofwhichhealreadyhadapart。Inthesameyear(1847)

anotherEnglishgentleman，Mr。JosephArden，ofLondon，boughtatThebesapapyrus，whichhelikewisebroughttoEngland。InducedbythesuccessofMr。Harris，Mr。ArdensubmittedhisrolltotheskilfulandexperiencedhandsofMr。

Hogarth；anduponthecompletionoftheoperationofunrolling，theMSS。wasdiscoveredtobetheterminatingportionoftheverysamevolumeofwhichMr。Harrishadboughtafragmentoftheformerpartintheverysameyear，andprobablyoftheverysameArabs。Nodoubtnowexistedthatthevolume，whenentire，consistedofacollectionof，oraselectionfrom，theorationsofthecelebratedAthenianorator，Hyperides。

“TheportionofthevolumewhichhasfallenintothepossessionofMr。Ardencontains’fifteencontinuouscolumnsofthe“OrationforLycophron。”

towhichworkthreeofMr。Harris’sfragmentsappertained；

andlikewisethe“OrationforEuxenippus。”

whichisquitecompleteandinbeautifulpreservation。Whether，asMr。Babingtonobservesinhisprefacetothework，anymorescrapsofthe“OrationforLycophron“orofthe“OrationagainstDemosthenes“remaintobediscovered，eitherinThebesorelsewhere，maybedoubtful，butiscertainlyworththeinquiryoflearnedtravellers。’

Thecondition，however，ofthefragmentsobtainedbyMr。Harrisbuttoosignificantlyindicatethehopelessnessofsuccess。Thescrollhadevidentlybeenmorefrequentlyrolledandunrolledinthatparticularpart，namely，thespeechofHyperidesinamatterofsuchpeculiarinterestasthatinvolvingthehonorofthemostcelebratedoratorofantiquity；ithadbeenmorereadandhadbeenmorethumbedbyancientfingersthananyotherspeechinthewholevolume；andhencetheterriblegapbetweenMr。Harris’sandMr。Arden’sportionsThosewhoareacquaintedwiththebrittle，friablenatureofarollofpapyrusinthedryclimateofThebes，afterbeingburiedtwothousandyearsormoreandthencomingfirstintothehandsofaruthlessArab，who，perhaps，hadrudelysnatcheditoutofthesarcophagusofthemummiedscribe，willwellunderstandhowdilapidationsoccur。

Itfrequentlyhappensthatasingleroll，orpossiblyanentirebox，ofsuchfragiletreasuresisfoundinthetombofsomeancientphilologistormanoflearning，andthatthepossessionisimmediatelydisputedbythecompanyofArabswhomayhaveembarkedontheventure。Tosettlethedispute，whenthereisnotascrollforeachmemberofthecompany，anequitabledivisionismadebydividingthepapyrusanddistributingtheportions。

Thus，inthisvolumeofHyperides，itseemsthatithasfallenintotwopiecesattheplacewhereithadmostusuallybeenopened，andwhere，alas！itwouldhavebeenmostdesirabletohavekeptitwhole；andthatthesmallerfragmentshavebeenlostamidthedustandrubbishoftheexcavation，whilethetwoextremitieshavebeenmadedistinctproperties，whichhavebeensold，aswehaveseen，toseparatecollectors。So，atallevents，suchmattersaremanagedatThebes。

“Mr。Harrismentionsfragmentsofthe’Iliad，’

whichhehadpurchasedofsomeoftheArabdisturbersofthedeadinthesacredcemeteriesofMiddleEgypt，mostprobablySaccara。”

TheoldestknownspecimensoftheGreekpapyriandwhichwerefoundinEgypt，havearangeofonethousandyears；thatis，fromthethirdcenturyB。C。

totheseventhcenturyA。D。

ThefirstdiscoveryofGreekpapyriwasmadeatHerculaneumin1752。Papyrus，however，inthemostancient，periodswasnottheonlypliablematerialusedtowriteonwhichcouldberolledoncylinders。

Linenorcloth，whichhadbeenfirsttreatedwithsubstanceswhichfilledtheintersticesandcharacteristicofouroil-cloth，theinnerbarkofcertaintrees，orinfactanymaterialwhichwouldreceiveinkandrollaroundacylinderwasinvogue。ThisformofmanuscriptwaslatertermedbytheRomansrolles，torollround，ormorecommonlyvolvere，torollover。

Itisnotcertain，however，thatthischaracterofmanuscriptimmediatelysupersededthetabletformofrecordsinscribedonwoodormetal。NoelHumphreysisoneofseveraltosuggest：

“Thereferencetothe’penofareadywriter，’

mentionedinthePsalmsofDavid(B。C。1086-

1016)couldscarcelybethesharppoint，orstilus，bymeansofwhichcharacterswereengraveduponwoodormetal，butratherthecalamusorjuncas，usedforwritingwithadarkfluiduponbarkorlinen。ThewordvolumeindeedoccursinPsalmsxxxix。，andthesevoluminaorvolumesmusthavebeeneitherrollsofleaves，orbark，orEgyptianpapyrus。”

SomewriterslikeCasley，Purcelli，Haygen，Calmet，andothers，whoalsomoreorlessdiscussthissubject，donotviewitentirelythesame。

CHAPTERXXIX。

ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDS(PARCHMENTANDVELLUM)。

THEPERGAMUSLIBRARYCOMPOSEDPRINCIPALLYOF

PARCHMENTVOLUMES——CAUSESWHICHCONTRIBUTED

TOTHESUBSTITUTIONOFPARCHMENTFORPAPYRUS——

ANECDOTEABOUTEUMENESANDPTOLEMYPHILADELPHUS——

INVENTIONOFMETHODWHICHMADESKINS

AVAILABLEFORFLUIDINKWRITING——INTRODUCTION

OFDRESSEDSKINSTHEFIRSTSTEPTOWARDSTHE

MODERNFORMOFBOOKS——WHENPARCHMENTAND

VELLUMSUPERSEDEDOTHERSUBSTANCESASAGENERAL

MATERIALFORWRITINGUPON——MANUFACTURE

OFBARKPAPERPREVIOUSTOTHEINTRODUCTIONOF

THELINENPAPEROFTHEEAST——SOMEOBSERVATIONS

ABOUTCHINESEPAPER——ALLUSIONSOFCLASSICAL

WRITERSTOINSCRIPTIONSONSKINSANDDISCOVERY

OFSPECIMENS——EMPLOYMENTOFPARCHMENTBYTHE

HEBREWS——OLDSCRIPTURALMSS。DISCOVEREDON

PARCHMENT——NAMESOFTHEMOSTVALUABLENEW

TESTAMENTCODICES——STORYOFTHEDISCOVERYOF

THESINAITICCODEXASTOLDBYMADAN——ASSERTION

OFSIMONIDESTHATHEFORGEDIT——PAMLIMPSESTS

THELINKBETWEENCLASSICALTIMESANDTHEMIDDLE

AGES——OBSERVATIONSABOUTTHEMANDSOMEDISCOVERIES

OFTHEMOREFAMOUSONES——USEOFPAPYRUS，PARCHMENTANDVELLUMTOGETHERINMSS。

BOOKS——OBSERVATIONSBYTHOMPSON——CHARACTER

OFTHEROLLSANDRECORDSBELONGINGTOEARLY

PARLIAMENTARYTIMESINENGLAND——COMPARATIVE

METHODSOFTHEIRPREPARATION——MODESOFDEPOSITING

ANDCARRYINGANCIENTENGLISHRECORDS——

METHODOFFINDINGPARTICULARDOCUMENTS——

THEINDIVIDUALSWHOHANDLEDTHEBOOKSOFTHOSE

EPOCHS——CITATIONSFROMKNIGHT’S“LIFEOF

CAXTON“——REMARKSBYWARTON——EXPENSEACCOUNTOF

SIRJOHNHOWARD——METHODSOFTHETRANSCRIBERS

ANDLIMNERSOFTHOSETIMES——MODERNMETHODS

OFPREPARINGPARCHMENTANDVELLUM——CITATION

FROMTHEPENNYCYCLOPaeDIA——PASSAGEFROMA

SERMONOFTHEARCHBISHOPOFTOURS——ANECDOTE

ABOUTTHECOUNTOFNEVERS。

THEgreatabundanceofpapyrusinEgypt，thechiefsourceofitssupply，thegeniusandmagnificenceoftherulersofthatcountry，andthearmyoflearnedmenwhoresortedthither，causedittobecometheprincipalhomeofthoseimmenselibrariesofantiquityalreadymentionedashavingperishedbyfireandtumultsincludedinperiodsbetweenB。C。48andA。D。640。

ThePergamuslibrarywhichwasdepositedbyCleopatra，B。C。32，inthecityofAlexandria，issaidtohavebeencomposedalmostwhollyofparchmentwrittenvolumes。Thereasonorcauseofsuchemployment，ofparchmentinpreferencetopapyrusisattributedtojealousiesexistingbetweenEumenes，KingofPergamus，andPtolemyPhiladelphus，therulerofEgypt，contemporariesofeachother。

ThisPtolemy，B。C。202，issuedanedictprohibitingtheexportationofpapyrusfromEgypt，andhopedtherebytoridhimselfofforeignrivalsintheformationoflibraries；alsothathemightneverbesubjecttotheinconvenienceofwantingpaperforthemultitudeofscribeswhomhekeptconstantlyemployed，bothtowriteoriginalmanuscriptsaswellastomultiplythembyduplication。

BeforethisperiodtheexportationofpapyrushadbeenaveryconsiderablearticleofEgyptiancommerce，butthereafteritbecamemuchcurtailed，andaboutA。D。950hadceasedaltogether。

Eumenes，itappears，wasnottobedeterredfromhisfavoritestudyandpastime，soliecontrivedapeculiarmodeofdressingskins，whichseemstohaveansweredveryfullytherequirementsoffluid-inkwritingmethodsandthusavoidingthenecessityofemployingpaints，theonlymaterialwhichwould“bind“toundressedparchment(skins)。

ThattherefinedandluxuriousRomans，aftertheintroductionofparchment，vellum，andpaper，insistedonanimprovementinqualityandappearanceiscertain。

Thisappearsfromvariouspassagesintheirbestauthors。

Ovid，writingtoRomefromhisplaceofexile，complainsbitterlythathislettermustbesentplain，simple，andwithoutthecustomaryembellishments。

Wecansafelydatethefirststeptowardsthemodernformofbookstotheintroductionofdressedskins(parchmentandvellum)，assurfacestoreceiveinkwriting。Thesematerialscouldbeformedintoleaves，insteadofmetal，wood，ivory，orwaxtablets，ausetowhichpapyruscouldnotbeputonaccountofitsbrittleness。

Thusoriginatedthelibriquadrali，orsquarebooks，whicheventuallysupersededtheancientvolumina(rolls)。

ParchmentandvellumgraduallysupersededallothersubstancesinEuropeasageneralmaterialforwritingupon，afterthethirdorfourthcentury。

Theemploymentofpapyrus，however，inecclesiasticalcenterscontinuedevenaslateastheeleventhcentury。

AkindofbarkpaperwasmanufacturedinEuropeprevioustotheintroductionoflinen(“cotton。”

“Bombycina“)paperfromtheEast。TheancientChinesemadevariouskindsofpaperandhadamethodofproducingpiecessometimesfortyfeetinlength。TheChineserecord，called“Soukientchipou。”statesthatakindofpaperwasmadefromhemp，andanotherauthority(DuHalde)observes，“thatoldpiecesofwovenhempwerefirstmadeintopaperinthatcountryaboutA。D。95，byagreatmandarinofthepalace。”LinenragswereafterwardsemployedbytheChinese。

Theintroductionof“linen“paperintoEuropedidnotmateriallyaffectorinterferewiththeuseofparchmentorvellumuntilaftertheinventionofprintinginthefifteenthcentury。