第2章

Thebookswhenrolledup，wereboundupwiththeseumbilici，andweregenerallykeptincylindricalboxesorcapsae，atermfromwhichtheMediaeval“capsula。”

orbook-coverwasderived。“ThemodeinwhichthestudentsheldtherollsinordertoreadfromthemiswellshowninapaintinginthehouseofasurgeonatPompeii。Oneofthestaves，withthepapyrusrolledroundit，washeldineachhand，atadistanceapartequaltothewidthofoneormoreofthetransversecolumnsofwriting。Assoonastheeyewascarrieddowntothebottomofacolumn，onehandrolledupandtheotherunrolledsufficientofthepapyrustobringafreshcolumnoppositetothereader’seye，andsoonuntilthewholewaswoundroundoneofthestaves，when，ofcourse，thestudenthadarrivedattheendofhisbook。”

Eumenes，kingofPergamus，beingunabletoprocuretheEgyptianpapyrus，throughthejealousyofoneofthePtolemies，whooccupiedhimselfinformingarivallibrarytotheonewhichsubsequentlybecamesocelebratedatPergamus，introducedtheuseofParchmentproperly“dressed“fortakinginkandpigmentsandhencethederivationoftheword“pergamena“asappliedtoparchmentorvellum，theformersubstancebeingthepreparedskinofsheep，andthelatterofcalves。

Thesheetsofparchmentwerejoinedendtoend，asthesheetsofpapyrushadbeen，andwhenwrittenupon，ononesideonly，andinnarrowcolumnsacrossthebreadthofthescroll，wererolleduparoundstavesandboundwithstrings，towhichsealsofwaxwereoccasionallyattached，inplaceofthemorecommonleadenbullae。

Thecustomofdividingwax，ivory，woodandmetalMSS。intopagesandinthiswayintobookformissaidbySuetoniustohavebeenintroducedbyJuliusCaesar，whoseletterstotheSenateweresomadeup，andafterwhosetimethepracticebecameusualforalldocumentseitheraddressedto，orissuingfromthatbody，ortoorfromtheEmperors。Asthatformsubsequentlycreptintogeneraluse，thebookswereknownas“codices；“andhencetheordinarytermasappliedtomanuscriptvolumes。

Allclassesof“books。”thereedsforwritinginthem，theinkstands，andthe“capsae“or“scrinia。”

theboxesinwhichthe“scapi“orrollswerekept，areminutelyportrayedinancientwall-paintingsandivorydiptychs(doubletablets)，andwhichmaybelongtoaperiodnearthebeginningoftheChristianera。

PlinyandDioscorideshavegiventheformulasforthewritinginksusedbytheGreekandRomanscribesimmediatelybeforeandduringtheirtime。Plinydeclaresthattheinkofthebookmakerswasmadeofsoot，charcoalandgum，althoughhedoesnotstatewhatfluidwasemployedtocomminglethem。Hedoes，however，mentiontoanoccasionaluseofsomeacid(vinegar)togivetheinkabindingpropertyonthepapyrus。

Dioscorides，however，specifiestheproportionsofthis“soot“ink。Anotherformulaalludedtobythesameauthorcallsforahalfounceeachofcopperas(blue)andox-glue，withhalfpoundofsmokeblackmadefromburnedresin。Headds，“isagoodapplicationincasesofgangreneandisusefulinscalds，ifalittlethickenedandemployedasasalve。”DeVinnespeaksofthisasa“crude“receiptwhichwillenableonetoformacorrectopinionofthequalityofscientificknowledgethenappliedtomedicineandthemechanicalarts；alsothatthesemixtureswhicharemorelikeshoeblackingthanwritingfluidwereusedwithimmaterialmodificationsbythescribesofthedarkages。

TheoldGreeksandRomanshadnosubstituteforthepapyrus，whichwassobrittlethatitcouldnotbefoldedorcreased。Itcouldnotbeboundupinbooks，norcoulditberolledupunsupported。Itwassecureonlywhenithadbeenwoundaroundawoodenormetalroller。

Afterthewholesaledestructionofthelibrariesofink-writtenMSS。，theblackinksbegantofallintodisuse；

theirvalueinrespecttoqualitygraduallydeteriorated，causedbythedisplacementofgummyvehicles，andaconsequentabsenceofanychanceofunionbetweentheparchmentorpapyrusandthedryblackparticles，whichcouldbe“blown“orwashedoff。Toemployanyotherkindofinkexceptoneofnaturaloriginlikethejuiceofberrieswhichsoondisappeared，wasforbiddenbyprevailingreligiouscustoms。Suchconditionsnaturallymergedintoothers，intheshapeof“ink“substitutesforwriting；

thestylus，withitsaccompanyingsheetsortabletsofivory，wood，metalandwaxcameintopopularvogueandsocontinuedformanycenturies，evenaftertheemploymentofinkforwritingpurposeshadbeenresumed。

Ovid，inhisstoryofCaunusandByblis，illustratestheuseofthetables(tablets)，andhelivedatthetimeofthebirthofChrist，thustranslated：

“ThenfitshertremblinghandstoWrite：

OneholdstheWax，theStyletheotherguides，Begins，doubts，writes，andattheTablechides；

Notes，razes，changesoft，dislikes，approves，Throwsallaside，resumeswhatsheremoves。

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“TheWaxthusfilledwithhersuccesslesswit，SheVersesintheutmostmarginwrit。”

Healsomakesreferencetoinks，inthepassagetakenfromhisfirstelegy，“AdLibrum：“

“Nectepurpureovelentvacciniasucco；

Nonestconveniensluctibusillecolor。

Nectitulusminio，neccedrochartanotetur。

Candidanecnigracornuafrontegeras。”

whichDavidstranslatesasfollows：

“TOHISBOOK。

“Norshallhuckleberriesstain(literallyveil)theewithpurplejuice：

Thatcolorisnotbecomingtolamentations。

Norshalltitle(orhead-letter)bemarkedwithvermillion，orpaperwithcedar，Thoushaltcarryneitherwhitenorblackhornsonthyforehead(orfront，orfrontispiece)。”

Thetraditionshandeddownasofthiserarelatingtotheeffortstofindsomesubstitutefor“Indian“

inkwhichwouldnotonly“bind“toparchmentandvellumbutalsowouldbesatisfactorytothepriests，aremoreorlessconfirmedbytheyoungerPliny，andmakesitsafetoassumethatseveralwereinventedandemployedinwriting，thoughpossessingbutlittlelastingqualities。TheiruseandnaturaldisappearanceisperhapstherealcauseofthefactthattherearenooriginalMSS。extantdatingasoforbelongingtothetimeimmediatelyprecedingorfollowingthebirthofChrist，orindeeduntillongafterhisdeath。

Thereissomeauthoritythoughforthestatementthatatthistimetwovitriolicsubstanceswereusedinthepreparationofblackink，——aslimeorsediment(Salsugo)andayellowvitriolicearth(Misy)。Thislast-namedmineral，isunquestionablythesamenaturalchemicalmentionedbywriters，whichabouttheendofthefirstcenturywasdesignated“kalkanthum“or“chalkanthum“andpossessednotonlytheappearanceof，butthevirtuesofwhatweknowasbluecopperasorsulphateofcopper。Itcontinuedinuseaslongasmenwereunacquaintedwiththeartoflixiviatingsalt，or，inotherwords，aslongastheyhadnovitriolmanufactories。Commingledwithlampblack，bitumenorlikeblacksubstancesingummywater，itwasacceptabletothepriestsforritualisticwritingsandwasingeneralvogueforseveralcenturiesthereafterunderthenameof(blue)“vitriolic“

ink，notwithstandingthefactthattherecouldnotbeanylastingchemicalunionbetweensuchmaterials。

Itwastheso-called“vitriolic“ink，whichissaidtohave“corrodedthedelicateleavesofthepapyrusandtohaveeatenthroughbothparchmentandvellum。”

Thesedeductions，however，donotagreewithsomeofthehistoriansandscholarslikeNoelHumphreys，authorofthe“OriginandProgressoftheArtofWriting。”London，1855，arecognizedauthorityonthesubjectofancientMSS。，whobutrepeatsinpartthetextofearlierwriters，whenhesays，p。101：

“ExamplesofearlyGreekMSS。ofthelastcenturyprevioustotheChristianeraarenotconfinedtoEgyptiansources；theburiedcityofHerculaneum，inItaly，partiallydestroyedaboutseventy-

nineyearsbeforetheChristianera，andinjuredbysubsequeuteruptions，tilltotallydestroyedbythemostviolenteruptionofVesuviusonrecord，thatoftheyear471A。D。havingyieldedseveralspecimens。”

TheMSS。examplesmentionedinthecitation，mustofnecessityrefertospecimensofwritingmadewith“vitriolic“andevenmoreancientinks。Theyaretobeconsideredinconjunctionwiththehistoricalfactthatthesecitieswereburiedformorethansixteenhundredyears，countingfromthefirsteruption，beforetheywerebroughttolight(HerculaneumwasdiscoveredA。D。1713andPompeii，fortyyearslater)；

alsothattheymusthavebeensubjectedtointenseheatandalongperiodofdecaywhichcouldonlyoperatetorobthemofalltracesofnaturalinkphenomena。

Furthermore，theinformationMr。Humphreysseekstoconvey，datescontemporaneouslywiththefirsteruptionofVesuvius，whichoccurredseventy-nineyearsAFTERtheChristianeraandnotseventy-nineyearsBEFOREit。

Thisstupendousblunderinvolvesaperiodofonehundredandfifty-eightyears；ifitisrectified，the“earlyGreekMSS。”areshowntoemanatefromthesecondhalfofthefirstcenturyfollowingthebirthofChristandconfirmingtosomeextentthedeductionshereinbeforemade，althoughtheprobabilitiesarethattheybelongtolaterperiods，includedinthethirdandfourthcenturies。

ItisaffirmedthattheeruptionofMt。VesuviusA。D。79，didnotentirelydestroythecitiesofHerculaneumandPompeii，andthattheyemergedfromtheirruinsinthereignoftheEmperorTitus。TheyarealsomentionedasinhabitedcitiesinthechartofPeutinger，whichisofthedateofConstantine。

Thenexteruption，A。D。471，wasprobablythemostfrightfulonrecordifweexcludethevolcaniceruptionofMt。Pelee，whichoccurredinMartinique，WestIndies，in1902，destroyingthirtythousandhumanbeingsinfifteenminutesanddevastatingnearlytheentireisland。FromMarcellinuswelearnthattheashesoftheVesuviusvolcanowerevomitedoveragreatportionofEurope，reachingtoConstantinople，whereafestivalwasinstitutedincommemorationofthestrangephenomenon。Afterthis，wehearnomoreofthesecities，buttheportionoftheinhabitantswhoescapedbuiltoroccupiedsuburbsatNolainCampaniaandatNaples。Inthelattercity，theRegioHerculanensium，orQuarteroftheHerculaneans，aninscriptionmarkedonseverallapidarymonuments，indicatesthepartdevotedtothepopulationdrivenfromthedoomedcity。

TheancientinkstandfoundatHerculaneum，saidtocontainasubstanceresemblingathickoilorpaintcharacteristicofamaterialwhichitisalleged，“someofthemanuscriptshavebeenwritteninasortofrelievo，visibleintheletterswhena’leaf’isheldtothelightinahorizontaldirection。”itisnotimpossible，indeeditisquiteprobable，belongedtoaneracenturieslaterthantheperiodtowhichithasbeenassigned。

“Noperfectpapyri，butonlyfragments，havebeenfoundatPompeii。AtHerculaneum，uptotheyear1825，1，756hadbeenobtained，besidesmanyothersdestroyedbytheworkmen，whoimaginedthemtobemeresticksofcharcoal。Mostofthemwerefoundinasuburbanvilla，inaroomofsmalldimensions，rangedinpressesroundthesidesoftheroom，inthecenterofwhichstoodasortofrectangularbookcase。

“SirHumphryDavy，afterinvestigatingtheirchemicalnature，arrivedattheconclusionthattheyhadnotbeencarbonizedbyheat，butchangedbythelongactionofairandmoisture；andhevisitedNaplesinhopesofrenderingtheresourcesofchemistryavailabletowardsdecipheringtheselong-lostliterarytreasures。Hisexpectations，however，werenotfullycrownedwithsuccess，althoughthepartialefficacyofhismethodswasestablished；andherelinquishedthepursuitattheendofsixmonths，partlyfromdisappointment，partlyfromabeliefthatvexatiousobstacleswerethrowninhiswaybythejealousyofthepersonstowhomthetaskofunrollinghadbeenintrusted。

Aboutfivehundredvolumeshavebeenwellandneatlyunrolled。Itisratherremarkablethat，asfarascanbelearned，nomanuscriptofanyknownstandardworkhasbeenfound，nor，indeed，anyproductionofanyofthegreatluminariesoftheancientworld。ThemostcelebratedpersonofwhomanyworkhasbeenfoundisEpicurus，whosetreatise，DeNatura，hasbeensuccessfullyunrolled。Thisandafewothertreatiseshavebeenpublished。ThelibraryinwhichthiswasfoundappearstohavebeenrichintreatisesontheEpicureanphilosophy。TheonlyLatinworkwhichitcontainedwasapoem，attributedtoRabirius，onthewarofCaesarandAntony。”

BeginningwithA。D。200，theemploymentofinksbecamemoreandmoreconstantandpopular。Rediscoveriesofancientformulasbelongingtoamoreremoteantiquitymultipliedinnumber。Silverinkwasagainquitecommoninmostcountries。Redinkmadeofvermilion(acompositionofmercury，sulphurandpotash)andcinnabar(nativemercuricsulphide)

wereemployedinthewritingofthetitlesaswasblueinkmadeofindigo，cobaltoroxideofcopper。Tyrianpurplewasusedforcoloringtheparchmentorvellum。

The“Indian“inksmadebytheChinesewereimportedandusedinpreferencetothoseofsimilarcharactermanufacturedathome。Thestylusandwaxedtabletsthoughstillused，inameasuregavewaytothereawakenedinterestininkandinkwritings。

Agreaterfacilityinwriting，duetothegradualreductioninsizeoftheuncial(inch)letterswastherebyattained。

Therewere“writersingold“and“writersinsilver“whotravelledfromtheEastintoGreeceandwhobadfoundtheirwaybeforethethirdcenturyintotheveryheartofRome。Theirbusinesswastoembellishthemanuscriptwritingsofthosetimes。Itwasconsideredenregaleforauthorsto“illuminate“

theirMSS。andthosewhofailedtodososufferedinpopularity。

Theseauthorsfrequentlyalludetotheiruseofred，blackandsecretinks。

Martialinhisfirstepistlepointsoutthebookseller’sshopoppositetheJulianForumwherehisworksmaybeobtained“smoothedwithpumicestoneanddecoratedwithpurple。”Senecamentionsbooksornamented“cumimaginabus。”VarroisrelatedbytheyoungerPlinytohaveillustratedhisworksbypicturesofmorethansevenhundredillustriouspersons。

MartialdwellsontheeditionofVirgil，withhisportraitasafrontispiece。

Theearliestrecordedinstanceofthericheradornmentsofgoldenletteringonpurpleorrose-stainedvellumisgivenbyJuliusCapitolinusinhislifeoftheEmperorMaximinustheyounger。Hethereinmentionsthatthemotheroftheemperorpresentedtohimonhisreturntohistutor(earlyinthethirdcentury)，acopyoftheworksofHomer，writteningolduponpurplevellum。

Thefugitivecharacter，asbeforestated，ofagreatmanyofthecoloredinks，andindeedmostoftheblackoneswhichwereundoubtedlyemployed，istheprincipalreasonwhysofewspecimensofthemremaintous。Thosewhichhaveprovedthemselvessolastingincharacterastobestillextant，bearevidenceofextremecareinthepreparationofboththeinksandthematerialsonwhichthewritingsappear。PerhapsoneofthefinestillustrationsofthispracticeistobefoundinabookoftheFourGospelsofItalianorigin，discoveredinthetenthcentury(aworkofthefourthcentury)anddepositedintheHarleinLibrary。

Thisbookiswrittenin“Indian“inkandpossessesmagnificentlyembellishedandilluminatedlettersatthebeginningofeachGospel，whichareonvellumstainedindifferentcolors。

St。Jeromecallsattentiontothisclassofbooksinawell-knownpassageofhisprefacetotheBookofJob，alsowritteninthefourthcentury，whereheexplainsastranslated：

“Letthosewhowillhaveoldbookswritteningoldandsilveronpurpleparchment，or，astheyarecommonlycalled，inuncial-letters，——ratherponderousloadsthanbooks，——solongastheypermitmeandminetohavecopies，andrathercorrectthanbeautifulbooks。”

IthasbeensaidthattheTanno-gallateofIronInks(ironsalts，nut-gallsandgum)werefirstusedinthefourthcentury。Thereispositivelynocredibleauthorityforsuchastatement，noristhereasinglemonumentintheshapeofadocumentaryspecimenofinkwritingofthatoneoranearliercenturymadewithsuchaninkinanypublicorprivatelibraryandasfarasknowninexistence。

AboutA。D。390theinspiredwritings(oftentermedpagan)oftheclassicalcountries，oratleastthecopiesorextractsofthem，uponaspecialsearchmadebyorderoftheRomanSenate，includingthosealreadymentionedasofthetimeofTarquin(someninehundredyearsearlier)，weregatheredupinGreece，Italyandotherpartsanddestroyed，because，asweareinformed，thisRomanSenatehadembracedtheChristianfaithandfurthermore“suchvanitiesbegantogrowoutoffashion；tillatlastStilichoburntthemallunderHonorius(asonofTheodosiustheGreat)，forwhichheissoseverelycensuredbythenoblepoetRutilius，inhisingeniousitinerary。”

NotonlyRomanArmstheWretchbetrayedTobarbarousFoes；beforethatcursedDeed，HeburnttheWritingsofthesacredMaid，WehateAlthaeaforthefatalBrand；

WhenNisiusfell，theweepingBirdscomplained：

MorecruelhethantherevengefulFair；

MorecruelhethatNisius’Murderer。

WhoseimpiousHandsintotheFlameshavethrownTheHeavenlyPledgesoftheRomanCrown，Unrav’llingalltheDoomthatcarefulFatehadspun。”

ThedestructionofRomebyAlaric，KingoftheWesternGoths，A。D。410，andthesubsequentdismembermentoftheentireRomanEmpirebythebarbariansoftheNorthwhofollowedinhiswake，announcedthatancienthistoryhadcometoanend。

Itmaybetrulysaidaswellthattheendingoftheancienthistoryoftheblackandcoloredwritinginkswhichbeganintheobscurityoftraditionbetween2000and1800B。C。，aperiodofsome2200years，wasalsocontemporaneouswiththeseevents。

Theeclipseofink-writtenliteratureforatleast500ofthe1000yearswhichfollowed，andknownastheMiddleor“Dark“Ages，exceptintheChurchalone，whoseemtohavekeptuptheproductionofmanuscriptbooksprincipallyforecclesiasticalandmedicalpurposeswascomplete。Hence，anyinformationpertainingtothoseepochsaboutink，writingmaterialsandinkwritings，mustbesoughtforintheundestroyedrecordsandtheinkwritingsthemselvesleftbythefathersoftheChurch。Allelseistaintedandofdoubtfulauthority。

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“WhenwanedthestarofGreecewastherenocry，Torouseherpeoplefromtheirlethargy？

WastherenosentryontheParthenon——

Nowatch-fireonthefieldofMarathon，WhensciencelefttheAtheniancity’sgate，Toseekprotectionfromanamelessfate？

Thesluggishsentryslept——nocrywasheardNohandstheglimm’ringwatch-fire’sembersstirr’d。

Fairscienceunmolestedlefttheland，Thatshehadnurturedwithmaternalhand；

Andwanderedforthsomegenialspottofind，Whereshemightrearheraltartothemind。

“Longthro’thedarken’dagesofaworld，Backtoprimevalchaosrudelyhurled，Shejourney’donamidthegath’ringgloom，Aspectreformemergingfromthetomb。

Earthhadnorestingplace——noworshipper——

Nodovereturnedwitholivebranchtoher：

Herlampburneddimly，yetitsflick’ringlight，Guidedthewandererthro’thelengthen’dnight。

Oftinherwearysearch，shepausedthewhile，Tocatchonegleamofhope——onefavour’dsmile；

Butthedimmistsofignorancestillthrew，Theirblightinginfluenceo’erthefamish’dfew，Whodeignedtolookuponthatlustrouseye，Whichpiercedtheagesoffuturity。

“Fortenlongcenturiesshegropedherway，Throughgloom，anddarkness，ruinanddecay；

Yetcameatlastthemorning’srosylight，Athousandechoeshail’dtheglorioussight——

Joythrill’dtheuniverse——oneiningledcryOfexultation，pealedalongthesky！

SciencecameforthinricherrobesarrayedShetrodapathwayne’erbeforeessayed；

Upthesteepmountoffameshefleetlypressed，Andhunghertrophiesonitsgildedcrest。”

CHAPTERIV。

CLASSICALINKANDITSEXODUS(CONTINUED)。

DESTRUCTIONOFTHEPERGAMUSLIBRARYOFALEXANDRIA——

SOMEOBSERVATIONSBYSIRTHOMASASTLE——

COMPARISONOFHISSTATEMENTSWITHTHOSEOF

PROFESSORANTHONRELATIVETOFRAGMENTSOF

ANTIQUITYWHICHREMAIN——AUTHENTICITYOF

THEMNOTDISTURBEDIFTHEYAREOFPROPERAGE——

TAYLOR’SVIEWSONTHISSUBJECT。

THEstormingofAlexandriaandthedestructionofthePergamuslibrary，composedlargelyofink-writtenvolumes，bytheSaracens，A。D。642，hasalreadybeenrevertedto。Astleobserves：

“Thusperishedbyfanaticalmadness，theinestimableAlexandrianlibrary，whichissaidtohavecontainedatthattimeupwardsoffivehundredthousandvolumes；andfromthisperiod，barbarityandignoranceprevailedforseveralcenturies。InItalyandalloverthewestofEuropelearningwasinameasureextinguished，exceptsomesmallremainswhichwerepreservedinConstantinople。

“Theodosious，theyounger，wasveryassiduousinaugmentingthislibrary，bywhom，inthelatterendofthefourthcentury，itwasenlargedtoonehundredthousandvolumes，aboveone-halfofwhichwereburntinthefifthcenturybytheEmperorLeotheFirst，sofamousforhishatredtoimages。

“TheinhabitantsofConstantinoplehadnotlosttheirtasteforliteratureinthebeginningofthethirteenthcentury，whenthiscitywassackedbytheCrusaders，intheyear1205；thedepredationsthencommittedarerelatedinMr。Harris’sposthumousworks，vol。ii，p。301，fromNicetastheChoniate，whowaspresentatthesackingofthisplace。Hisaccountofthestatues，bustos，bronzes，manuscripts，andotherexquisiteremainsofantiquity，whichthenperished，cannotbereadbyanyloverofartsandlearningwithoutemotion。

“TheravagescommittedbytheTurkswhoplunderedConstantinople，intheyear1453，arerelatedbyPhilelphus，whowasamanoflearning，andwastutortoaeneasSylvius(afterwardspope，underthenameofPiustheSecond)andwasaneye-witnesstowhatpassedatthattime。Thistutorsays，thatthepersonsofquality，especiallythewomen，stillpreservedtheGreeklanguageuncorrupted。Heobserves，thatthoughthecityhadbeentakenbefore，itneversufferedsomuchasatthattime；andadds，that，tillthatperiod，theremembranceofancientwisdomremainedatConstantinople，andthatnooneamongtheLatinswasdeemedsufficientlylearned，whohadriotstudiedforsometimeatthatplace；heexpressedhisfearthatalltheworksoftheancientswouldbedestroyed。

“Still，however，therearetheremainsofthreelibrariesatConstantinople：thefirstiscalledthatofConstantinetheGreat；thesecondisforallranksofpeoplewithoutdistinction；thethirdisinthepalace，andiscalledtheOttomanlibrary；butafireconsumedagreatpartofthepalace，andalmostthewholelibrary，whenasissupposed，Livyandagreatmanyvaluableworksoftheancientsperished。FatherPosseviushasgivenanaccountofthelibrariesatConstantinople，andinotherpartsoftheTurkishdominions，inhisexcellentworkentitled，ApparatusSacer。(Hecallsattentiontonolessthansixthousandauthors。)

ManyotherlossesofthewritingsoftheancientshavebeenattributedtothezealoftheChristians，whoatdifferentperiodsmadegreathavockamongsttheHeathenauthors。NotasinglecopyoftheworkofCelsusisnowtobefound，andwhatweknowofthatworkisfromOrigen，hisopponent。Thevenerablefathers，whoemployedthemselvesinerasingthebestworksofthemosteminentGreekorLatinauthors，inordertotranscribethelivesofsaintsorlegendarytalesupontheobliteratedvellum，possiblemistooktheselamentabledepredationsforworksofpiety。Theancientfragmentofthe91stbookofLivy，discoveredbyMr。Bruns，intheVatican，in1772，wasmuchdefacedbythepiouslaboursofsomewell-intentioneddivine。TheMonksmadewaronbooksastheGothshaddonebeforethem。Greatnumbersofmanuscriptshavealsobeendestroyedinthiskingdom(GreatBritain)byitsinvaders，thePaganDanes，andtheNormans，bythecivilcommotionsraisedbythebarons，bythebloodycontestsbetweenthehousesofYorkandLancaster，andespeciallybythegeneralplunderanddevastationsofmonasteriesandreligioushousesinthereignofHenrytheEighth；bytheravagescommittedinthecivilwarinthetimeofCharlestheFirst，andbythefirethathappenedintheCottonianlibrary，October23，1731。”

Mr。Astle’scommentsonthevolumesorremnantsofvolumeswhichremaintous，becomesmostinterestinginthelightsthrownonthembyProfessorAnthoninhis“ClassicalDictionary。”1841，whicharequotedinpartfollowingthoseofMr。Astle。

Mr。Astleremarks：

“ThehistoryofPhoeniciabySanconiatho，whowasacontemporarywithSolomon，wouldhavebeenentirelylosttous，haditnotbeenforthevaluablefragmentspreservedbyEusebius。”

SaysProf。Anthon：

“Sanchoniathon，aPhoenicianauthor，whoifthefragmentsofhisworksthathavereachedusbegenuine，andifsuchapersoneverexisted，mustberegardedasthemostancientwriterofwhomwehaveanyknowledgeafterMoses。Astotheperiodwhenbeflourished，allisuncertain。Heistheauthorofthreeprincipalworks，whichwerewritteninPhoenician。TheyweretranslatedintotheGreeklanguagebyHerenniusPhilo，wholivedinthesecondcenturyofourera。ItisfromthistranslationwhichweobtainallthefragmentsofSanchoniathonthathavereachedourtimes。Philohaddividedhistranslationintoninebooks，ofwhichPorphyrymadeuseinhisdiatribeagainsttheChristians。

ItisfromthefourthbookofthislostworkthatEusebiustook，foranenddirectlyoppositetothis，thepassageswhichhavecomedowntous。

AndthuswehavethosedocumentsrelatingtothemythologyandhistoryofthePhoeniciansfromthefourthhand。”

Mr。Astlecontinues：

“Manetho’sHistoryofEgypt，andtheHistoryofChaldea，byBerosus，havenearlymetwiththesamefate。”

FromAnthon：

“Berosus；aBabylonianhistorian。HewasapriestofthetempleofBelusinthetimeofAlexander。

TheancientsmentionthreebooksofhisofwhichJosephusandEusebiushavepreservedfragments。AnniusofViterbopublishedaworkunderthenameofBerosus，whichwassoondiscoveredtobeaforgery。”

ByAstle：

“TheHistoricalLibraryofDiodorusSiculusconsistedlikewiseoffortybooks，butonlyfifteenarenowextant；thatis，fivebetweenthefifthandtheeleventh，andthelastten，withsomefragmentscollectedoutofPhotiusandothers。”

ByAnthon：

“Diodorus，surnamedSiculus，acontemporaryofJuliusCaesarandAgustus。Hepublishedageneralhistoryinfortybooks，underthetitle’HistoricalLibrary，’whichcoveredaperiodof1138years。Wehaveonlyasmallpartremainingofthisvastcompilation。TheserescuedportionsweowetoEusebius，toJohnMalalaandotherwritersofthelowerempire，whohavecitedtheminthecourseoftheirworks。Heisthereputedauthorofthefamoussophismagainstmotion。’Ifanybodybemoved，itismovedintheplacewhereitis，orinaplacewhereitisnot，fornothingcanactorsufferwhereitisnot，andthereforethereisnosuchthingasmotion。’“

ByAstle：

“TheGeneralHistoryofPolybiusoriginallycontainedfortybooks；butthefirstfiveonly，withsomeextractsorfragments，aretransmittedtous。”

ByAnthon：

“Polybius，aneminentGreekhistorian，bornabout，B。C。203。Polybiusgavetotheworldvarioushistoricalwritings，whichareentirelylostwiththeexceptionofhisGeneralHistory。Itembracedaperiodof53years。Ofthefortybookswhichitoriginallycomprehended，timehassparedonlythefirstfiveentire。Oftherest，asfarastheseventeenth，wehavemerelyfragmentsthoughofconsiderablesize。OftheremainingbookswehavenothingleftexceptwhatisfoundintwomergerabridgmentswhichtheEmperorConstantinePorphyrogenitus，inthetenthcenturycausedtobemadeofthewholework。”

FromAstle：

“DionysiusHalicarnassensiswrotetwentybooksofRomanantiquities，extendingfromthesiegeofTroy，tothePunicwarA。U。C。488；butonlyelevenofthemarenowremaining，whichreachnofurtherthantheyearofRome312。”

FromAnthon：

“HewasborninthefirstcenturyB。C。Hisprincipalworkwas’RomanAntiquities。’Itoriginallyconsistedoftwentybooks，ofwhichthefirsttenremainentire。DionysiuswrotefortheGreeks，andhisobjectwastorelievethemfromthemortificationwhichtheyfeltatbeingconqueredbyaraceofbarbarians，astheyconsideredtheRomanstobe。

Andthisheendeavoredtoeffectbytwistingandforgingtestimonies，andbotchinguptheoldlegends，soastomakeoutaprimafacieproofoftheGreekoriginofthecityofRome。Valuableadditionsweremadein1816，byMai，fromanoldMSS。”

ByAstle：

“AppianissaidtohavewrittentheRomanHistoryintwenty-fourbooks；butthegreatestpartoftheworksofthatauthorislost。”

ByAnthon：

“HewastheauthorofaRomanHistoryintwenty-fourbookswhichnolongerexistentire；

thepartsmissinghavebeensuppliedbutwasnotwrittenbyAppianbutisamerecompilationfromPlutarch’sLivesofCrassusandAntony。”

ByAstle：

“DionCassiuswroteeightybooksofhistory，butonlytwenty-fiveareremaining，withsomefragments，andanepitomeofthelasttwentybyXiphilinus。”

ByAnthon：

“HistruenamewasCassius，bornA。D。155；——

wehavefragmentsremainingofthefirstthirty-

sixbooks，theycomprehendaperiodfromB。C。65

toB。C。10；——theywerefoundbyMaiintwoVaticanMSS。，whichcontainasyllogeorcollectionmadebyMaximusPlanudes(wholivedinthefourteenthcentury。HewasthefirstGreekthatmadeuseoftheArabicnumeralsastheyarecalled)。”

Mr。Astlefurtherobserves：

“TheEmperorTacitusorderedtencopiesoftheworksofhisrelation，thehistorian，tobemadeeveryyearwhichhesentintothedifferentprovincesoftheempire；andyet，notwithstandinghisendeavourstoperpetuatetheseinestimableworks，theywereburiedinoblivionformanycenturies。

SincetherestorationoflearninganancientMSS。

wasdiscoveredinamonasteryinWestphalia，whichcontainedthemostvaluablepartofhisannals；

butinthisuniquemanuscript，partofthefifth，seventh，ninthandtenthbooksaredeficient，asarepartoftheeleventh，andthelatterpartofthesixteenth。ThisMSS。wasprocuredbythatgreatrestoreroflearningPopeLeoX。，underwhosepatronageitwasprintedatRomein1515；heafterwardsdepositeditintheVaticanlibrary，whereitisstillpreserved。ThusposterityisprobablyindebtedtotheabovemagnificentPontiff，forthemostvaluablepartoftheworksofthisinimitablehistorian。”

Accountswhichdifferentiateintheirdescriptivedetailsofquestionedink-writtenfragmentsofantiquityandonthegenuinenessorauthenticityofwhichreststhetruthorfalsityofancienthistoryorotherliterature，servetotaintsuchremainswithacertaindegreeofsuspicionanddoubt。When，however，inthelightofinvestigation，thematerialsofwhichtheyarecomposedarefoundtoapproachcloselytheagetheypurporttorepresent，thenitisthatsuchfragmentscanbesaidtohavefairlyestablishedtheirownidentity。

Taylorasserts：

“TheremoteantiquityofamanuscriptisoftenestablishedbythepeculiarcircumstanceofitsexistingBENEATHanotherwriting。SomeinvaluablemanuscriptsoftheHolyScriptures，andnotafewpreciousfragmentsofclassicliterature，havebeenthusbroughttolight。

“Theageofamanuscriptmayoftenbeascertainedwithlittlechanceoferror，bysomesuchindicationsasthefollowing：——thequalityorappearanceoftheINK，thenatureofthematerial；

thatistosay，whetheritbesoftleather，orparchment，orthepapyrusofEgypt，orthebombycinepaper；forthesematerialssucceededeachother，incommonuse，atperiodsthatarewellknown；——

thepeculiarform，size，andcharacterofthewriting；

foraregularprogressioninthemodesofwritingmaybetracedbyabundantevidencethrougheveryagefromtheremotesttimes；——thestyleoftheornamentsorilluminations，astheyaretermed，oftenservestoindicatetheageofthebookwhichtheydecorate。

“Fromsuchindicationsasthese，moreorlessdefiniteandcertain，ancientmanuscripts，nowextant，areassignedtovariousperiods，extendingfromthesixteenth，tothefourthcenturyoftheChristianera；orperhaps，inoneortwoinstances，tothethirdorsecond。Veryfewcanclaimanantiquitysohighasthefourthcentury；butnotafewaresafelyattributedtotheseventh；andagreatproportionofthoseextantwereunquestionablyexecutedinthetenth；whilemanybelongtothefollowingfourhundredyears。Itis，however，tobeobserved，thatsomemanuscripts，executedatsolateatimeasthethirteenth，oreventhefifteenthcentury，affordclearinternalevidencethat，byasingleremoveonly，thetexttheycontainclaimsaREALantiquity，higherthanthatevenoftheoldestexistingcopyofthesamework。Fortheseoldercopiessometimesprove，bythepeculiarnatureofthecorruptionswhichhavecreptintothetext，thattheyhavebeenderivedthroughalongseriesofcopies；whileperhapsthetextofthemoremodernmanuscriptspossessessuchadegreeofpurityandfreedomfromalltheusualconsequencesoffrequenttranscription，astomakeitmanifestthatthecopyfromwhichitwastaken，wassoancientasnottobefardistantfromthetimeofthefirstpublicationofthework。”

CHAPTERV。

REVIVALOFINK。

THEDISAPPEARANCEANDPRESERVATIONOFINKWRITINGS，ASESTIMATEDBYLACROIX——COMMENTSOF

OTHERWRITERS——DEVINNE’SINTERESTINGEXPLANATIONS

OFTHESTATUSQUOOFMANUSCRIPTWRITINGS

DURINGTHEDARKAGESWHICHPRECEDEDTHEINVENTION

OFPRINTING——PRICESPAIDFORBOOKSIN

ANCIENTTIMES——LIMITATIONSOFHANDWRITINGAND

HANDWRITINGMATERIALSATTHEBEGINNINGOF

THEFIFTHCENTURY——WHOCONTROLLEDTHERECORDS

ABOUTTHEM——INVENTIONOFTHEQUILL

PEN——THECAUSEOFINCREASEDFLUIDITYOF

INKS——ORIGINOFTHESECRETA——CHARACTEROF

INFORMATIONOBTAINEDFROMTHEM——IMPROVEMENT

OFBLACKINKSINTHEEIGHTHCENTURYANDEMPLOYMENT

OFPOMEGRANITEINK。

LACROIX’prefacetohis“ScienceandLiteratureoftheMiddleAgesandtheRenaissance。”referstotheDarkAges：

“InthebeginningoftheMiddleAges，atthecommencementofthefifthcentury，theBarbariansmadeaninroadupontheoldworld；theirrenewedinvasionscrushedout，inthecourseofafewyears，theGreekandRomancivilization；andeverywheredarknesssucceededtolight。ThereligionofJesusChristwasalonecapableofresistingthisbarbarianinvasion，andscienceandliterature，togetherwiththearts，disappearedfromthefaceoftheearth，takingrefugeinthechurchesandmonasteries。Itwastherethattheywerepreservedasasacreddeposit，anditwasthencethattheyemergedwhenChristianityhadrenovatedpagansociety。ButcenturiesandcenturieselapsedbeforethesumofhumanknowledgewasequaltowhatithadbeenatthefalloftheRomanempire。Anewsociety，moreover，wasneededfortheneweffortsofhumanintelligenceasitresumeditsrights。Schoolsanduniversitieswerefoundedundertheauspicesoftheclergyandofthereligiouscorporations，andthusscienceandliteraturewereenabledtoemergefromtheirtombs。Europe，amidstthetumultuousconflictsofthepolicywhichmadeandunmadekingdoms，witnessedageneralrevivalofthescholasticzeal；poets，orators，novelists，andwritersincreasedinnumbersandgrewinfavour；savants，philosophers，chemistsandalchemists，mathematiciansandastronomers，travellersandnaturalists，wereawakened，sotospeak，bythelife-givingbreathoftheMiddleAges；andgreatscientificdiscoveriesandadmirableworksoneveryimaginablesubjectshowedthatthegeniusofmodernsocietywasnotawhitinferiortothatofantiquity。Printing，wasinvented，andwiththatbrilliantdiscovery，theMiddleAges，whichhadaccomplishedtheirworkofsocialrenovation，madewayfortheRenaissance，whichscatteredabroadinprofusiontheprolificandbrilliantcreationsofArt，Science，andLiterature。”

Thisauthortosomeextentdiscreditshimself，however，p。455，whereheremarks：

“LongbeforetheinvasionsoftheBarbariansthehistorieswrittenbyGreekandLatinauthorsconcerningtheannalsoftheancientpeopleshadbeenfallingintodisfavor。Eventhebestofthemwerelittleread，fortheChristiansfeltbutslightinterestinthesepagannarratives，andthatiswhyworksrelatingtothehistoryofantiquitywerealreadysoscarce。”

Anotherauthoritywritingonthesamesubjectdiscussesitfromadifferentstandpoint，remarking：

“Asinthemiddleagesinventionbusieditselfwithinstrumentsoftorture，andasinourdaysitistakenupalmostasmuchwiththedestructiveenginesofwaraswiththeproductiveartsofpeace，sointhoseearlyagesitapplieditselftothefabricationofidols，tothemechanismandtheatricalcontrivancesformysteriesandreligiousceremonies。

Therewasthennodesiretocommunicatediscoveries，sciencewasasortoffreemasonry，andsilencewaseffectuallysecuredbypriestlyanathemas；menofsciencewereasjealousofoneanotherastheywereofallotherclassesofsociety。

Ifwewishtoformaclearpictureofthisearlieststageofcivilization，anagewhichrepresentsatoncethenaiveteofchildhoodandthesuspiciousreticenceofsenility，wemustturnoureyestothepriest，ontheonehand，claimingashisownallartandscience，andcommandingrespectbyhiscontemptuoussilence；and，ontheotherhand，tothemechanicplyingtheloom，extractingtheTyriandye，practisingchemistry，thoughignorantofitsveryname，despisedandoppressed，andonlytoleratedwhenhefurnishedReligionwithhertrappingsorWarwitharms。Thusthegrowthofchemistrywasslow，andbyreasonofitsbackwardnessitwaslongerthananyotherartinriddingitselfoftheleading-stringsofmagicandastrology。Practicaldiscoveriesmusthavebeenmademanytimeswithoutscienceacquiringtherebyanynewfact。Fortopreventanewdiscoveryfrombeinglosttheremustbesuchacombinationoffavorablecircumstancesaswasrareinthatageandformanysucceedingages。Theremustbepublicity，andpublicityisofquiterecentgrowth；theapplicationofthediscoverymustbenotonlypossiblebutobvious，assatisfyingsomewant。Butwantsareonlyfeltascivilizationprogresses。Noristhatall；forapracticaldiscoverytobecomeascientificfactitmustservetodemonstratetheerrorofonehypothesis，andtosuggestanewone，betterfittedforthesynthesisofexistingfacts。But(some)oldbeliefsareproverbiallyobstinateandvirulentintheiroppositiontonewerandtruertheorieswhicharedestinedtoejectandreplacethem。Tosumup，eveninourownday，chemistryrestsonalesssoundbasisthaneitherphysics，whichhadtheadvantageoforiginatingaslateasthe17thcentury，orastronomy，whichdatesfromthetimewhentheChaldeanshepherdhadsufficientlyprovidedforhisdailywantstofindleisureforgazingintothestarryHeavens。”

Theobservationsofastillearliercommentatorareofthesamegeneralnature。Hesays：

“InthefirstagesofChristianity，whenthefathersoftheChurch，theJews，andtheHeathenphilosophersweresowarmlyengagedincontroversy，thereisreasontobelievethatpiousfraudswerenotuncommon：andthatwhenonepartysuspectedforgeries，insteadofanattemptatconfutation，whichmighthavebeendifficult，theyhadrecourseperhapstoacountermine：andeitherinventedaltogether，orekedoutsomeobscuretraditionalscrapsbytheembellishmentsoffancy。

Whenweconsider，amongstmanyliteraryimpositionsoflatertimes，thatPsalmanazar’shistoryofFormosawas，eveninthisenlightenedageandcountry(England，about1735)，consideredbyourmostlearnedmenasunquestionablyauthentic，tilltheconfessionoftheauthordiscoveredthesecret，Ithinkitisnotdifficulttoconceivehowforgeriesofremoteevents，beforetheinventionofprintingandthegeneraldiffusionofknowledgemightgainanauthority，andespeciallywiththezealous，hardlyinferiortothatofthemostgenuinehistory。”

DeVinne，however，inhis“InventionofPrinting。”

NewYork，1878，bestexplainsthestatusquoofthosetimes，relativenotonlytobook(MSS。)making，andmethodsofcirculation，butthecauseswhichleduptotheireventualdisappearanceandtheliterarydarknesswhichensued。Hisremarksaresopertinentthattheyarequotedatlength：

“ThecivilizationofancientRomedidnotrequireprinting。Ifalltheprocessesoftypographyhadbeenrevealedtoitsscholarstheartwouldnothavebeenused。Thewantsofreadersandwriterswereabundantlysuppliedbythepen。Papyruspaperwascheap，andscribeswerenumerous；Romehadmorebooksellersthanitneeded，andbooksweremadefasterthantheycouldbesold。Theprofessionalscribeswereeducatedslaves，who，fedandclothedatnominalexpense，andorganizedunderthedirectionofwealthypublishers，weremadesoefficientintheproductionofbooks，thattypography，inanopencompetition，couldhaveofferedfewadvantages。

“OurknowledgeoftheRomanorganizationoflaborinthefieldofbookmakingisnotaspreciseascouldbewished；butthefrequentnoticesofbooks，copyistsandpublishers，madebymanyauthorsduringthefirstcentury，teachusthatbookswereplentiful。Horace，theelegantandfastidiousmanofletters，complainedthathisbooksweretoocommon，andthattheyweresometimesfoundinthehandsofvulgarsnobsforwhoseentertainmenttheywerenotwritten。Martial，thejovialmanoftheworld，boastedthathisbooksofstingingepigramsweretobefoundineverybody’shandsorpockets。Bookswerereadnotonlyinthelibraries，butatthebaths，intheporticoesofhouses，atprivatedinnersandinmixedassemblies。Thebusinessofbookmakingwaspractisedbytoomanypeople，andsomewereincompetent。Lucian，whohadakeenperceptionofpretenseineveryform，ridiculesthepublishersasignoramuses。Strabo，whoprobablywroteillegibly，saysthatthebooksofbooksellerswereincorrect。

“Thepriceofbooksmadebyslavelaborwasnecessarilylow。Martialsaysthathisfirstbookofepigramswassoldinplainbindingforsixsesterces，abouttwenty-fourcentsofAmericanmoney；thesamebookinsumptuousbindingwasvaluedatfivedenarii，abouteightycents。Hesubsequentlycomplainedthathisthirteenthbookwassoldforonlyfoursesterces，aboutsixteencents。Hefranklyadmitsthathalfofthissumwasprofit，butintimates，somewhatungraciously，thatthepublisherTryphongavehimtoosmallashare。Ofthemeritsofthisolddisagreementbetweentheauthorandpublisherwehavenotenoughoffactstojustifyanopinion。

Welearnthatsomepublishers，likeTryphonandthebrothersSosii，acquiredwealth，buttherearemanyindicationsthatpublishingwasthen，asitisnow，oneofthemostspeculativekindsofbusiness。

Onewriterchucklesovertheunkindfatethatsentsomanyoftheunsoldbooksofrivalauthorsfromthewarehousesofthepublisher，totheshopsofgrocersandbakers，wheretheywereusedtowrapuppastryandspices；anotherwritersaysthattheunsoldstockofabooksellerwassometimesboughtbybutchersandtrunkmakers。

“TheRomansnotonlyhadplentyofbooksbuttheyhadamanuscriptdailynewspaper，theActaDiurna，whichseemstohavebeenarecordoftheproceedingsofthesenate。Wedonotknowhowitwaswritten，norhowitwaspublished，butitwasfrequentlymentionedbycontemporarywritersastheregularofficialmediumfortransmittingintelligence。Itwassenttosubscribersindistantcities，andwas，sometimes，readtoanassembledarmy。CiceromentionstheActaasasheetinwhichheexpectedtofindthecitynewsandgossipaboutmarriagesanddivorces。

“WiththedeclineofpowerintheRomanempirecamethedeclineofliteraturethroughouttheworld。Inthesixthcenturythebusinessofbookmakinghadfallenintohopelessdecay。Thebooksthathadbeenwrittenwereseldomread，andthenumberofreadersdiminishedwitheverysucceedinggeneration。Ignorancepervadedinallranksofsociety。TheEmperorJustinI，whoreignedbetweentheyears518and527，couldnotwrite，andwasobligedtosignstatepaperswiththeformofstencilplatethathadbeenrecommendedbyQuintilian。

Respectforliteraturewasdead。Intheyear，476，Zeno，theIsaurian，burned120，000volumesinthecityofConstantinople。Duringtheyear640，Amrou，theSaracen，fedthebathsofAlexandriaforsixmonthswiththe500，000booksthathadbeenaccumulatingforcenturiesinitsfamouslibraryoftheSerapion。YetbooksweresoscarceinRomeatthecloseoftheseventhcenturythatPopeMartinrequestedoneofhisbishopstosupplythem，ifpossible，fromGermany。Theignoranceofecclesiasticsinhighstationwasalarming。Duringthiscentury，andforcenturiesafterward，thereweremanybishopsandarchbishopsofthechurchwhocouldnotsigntheirnames。Itwasassertedatacouncilofthechurchheldintheyear992，thatscarcelyasinglepersonwastobefoundinRomeitselfwhoknewthefirstelementsofletters。Hallamsays，’Tosumuptheaccountofignoranceinaword，itwasrareforalaymanofanyranktoknowbowtosignhisname。’HerepeatsthestatementsthatCharlemagnecouldnotwrite，andFredericBarbarossacouldnotread。

John，kingofBohemia，andPhilip，theHardy，kingofFrance，wereignorantofbothaccomplishments。

Thegracesofliteratureweretoleratedonlyintheranksoftheclergy；thelaymanwhopreferredletterstoarmswasregardedasamanofmeanspirit。

WhentheCrusaderstookConstantinople，in1204，theyexposedtopublicridiculethepensandinkstandsthattheyfoundintheconqueredcityastheignoblearmsofacontemptibleraceofstudents。

“Duringthisperiodofintellectualdarkness，whichlastedfromthefifthuntilthefifteenthcentury，aperiodsometimesdescribed，andnotimproperly，asthedarkages，therewasnoneedforanyimprovementintheoldmethodofmakingbooks。Theworldwasnotthenreadyfortypography。

Theinventionwaitedforreadersmorethanitdidfortypes；themultitudeofbookbuyersuponwhichitssuccessdependedhadtobecreated。

Bookswereneededaswellasreaders。ThetreatisesoftheoldRomansophistsandrhetoricians，thedialecticsofAristotleandtheschoolmen，andthecommentariesonecclesiasticallawofthefathersofthechurch，weretheworkswhichengrossedtheattentionofmenoflettersformanycenturiesbeforetheinventionoftypography。Usefulasthesebooksmayhavebeentothesmallclassofreadersforwhosebenefittheywerewritten，theywereofnousetoapeoplewhoneededtheelementsofknowledge。”

Inthemoreancienttimes，however，whenMSS。books(rolls)werenotquitesoplentifultherewasseeminglynodifficultyinobtaininglargesumsforthem。

Aristotle，diedB。C。322，paidforafewbooksofLeusippus，thephilosopher，threeAtticktalents，whichisabout$3，000。PtolemyPhiladelphusissaidtohavegiventheAtheniansfifteentalents，anexemptionfromtributeandalargesupplyofprovisionsfortheMSS。

ofaeschylus，SophoclesandEuripideswrittenbythemselves。

Arbuthnot，discussingthissubject，remarksthatCicero’shead，“whichshouldjustlycomeintotheaccountofEloquencebroughttwenty-fiveMyriadsofDrachms，whichistheequivalentof$40，000。Also，“thepricesofthemagicalbooksmentionedtobeburntintheActsoftheApostlesisfive。MyriadsofPiecesofSilverorDrachms。”

PicoliminirelatesthattheequivalentofeightygoldencrownswasdemandedforasmallpartoftheworksofPlutarch。

Ifwearetobelieveanyoftheaccounts，theenvironmentoftheartofhandwritingandhandwritingmaterialsatthebeginningofthefifthcenturyhadcontractedwithinasmallcompass，dueprincipallytothegeneralignoranceofthetimes。

Aspracticeditwasprettymuchunderthecontrolofthedifferentreligiousdenominationsandtheinformationobtainableaboutinksfromthesesourcesisbutfragmentary。WhathascomedowntousofthisparticulareraismostlyfoundontheoldwrittenHebrewrelics，showingthattheyatleasthadmadenoinnovationsinrespecttotheuseoftheirritualisticdeyo。

Theinventionofthequillpeninthesixthcenturypermittedadegreeoflatitudeinwritingneverbeforeknown，theinksweremadethinnerandnecessarilywerelessdurableincharacter。Greaterattentionwasgiventothestudyandpracticeofmedicineandalchemywhichwerelimitedtothewallsofthecloisterandsecretplaces。Themonkphysiciansendeavoredbyoralinstructionsandlaterbywrittenonestocommunicatetheirink-makingmethodsnotonlyoftheblackandcolored，butofsecretorsympatheticinks，totheiryoungerbrethren，thattheymightthusbeperpetuated。Allthetraditionalandpracticalknowledgetheypossessedwascondensedintomanuscriptforms；additionsfromotherhandswhichincludednumerouschemicalreceiptsfordyeingcausedthemtomultiply；sothatasoccasionrequiredfromtimetotime，theywerebounduptogetherbooklikeandthencirculatedamongfavoredsecularindividuals，underthenameof“Secreta。”

Themoreremoteofsuchtreatiseswhichhavecomedowntousseemtoindicatethetrendoftheresearchesrespectingwhatmusthavebeeninthosetimesunsatisfactoryinks。Scatteredthroughthemappearavarietyofformulaswhichspecifypyrites(acombinationofsulphurandmetal)，metals，stonesandotherminerals，soot，(blue)vitriol，calxes(limeorchalk)，dye-woods，berries，plants，andanimalcolors，someofwhichifmadeintoinkcouldonlyhavebeenusedwithdisastrousresults，whenpermanencyisconsidered。

Theblackinkformulasoftheeighthcenturyarebutfew，andshowmarkedimprovementinrespecttotheconstituentstheycallfor，indicatingthatmanyofthoseofearliertimeshadbeentriedandfoundwanting。Oneinparticularisworthyofnoticeasitnames(blue)vitriol，yeast，thelees(dregs)ofwineandtherindofthepomegranateapple，whichifcommingledtogetherwouldgiveresultsnotaltogetherunlikethecharacteristicphenomenaof“gall“ink。

ConfirmationoftheemploymentofsuchaninkonadocumentofthereignofCharlemigneinthebeginningoftheninthcenturyonyellow-brownEsparto(aSpanishrush)paper，isstillpreserved。Specimensof“pomegranate“ink，towhichlampblackandotherpigmentshadbeenaddedofvaryingdegreesofblackness，onMSS。，butlesseninginnumberaslateasthefourteenthcentury，arestillextantintheBritishMuseumandotherpubliclibraries。

CHAPTERVI。

INKOFTHEWEST。

REMARKSOFARCH-DEACONCARLISLE——WHENREADING

ANDWRITINGCEASEDTOBEMYSTERIES——ORIGIN

OFTHEWORDSCLERKANDSIGN——SCARCITYOFMANUSCRIPTS——

FOUNDINGOFIRISHSCHOOLSOFLEARNING

INTHESEVENTHCENTURY——MONKSNOTPERMITTED

TOUSEARTIFICIALLIGHTINPREPARING

MSS——OBSERVATIONSOFMADANABOUTTHEHISTORY

OFWRITINGDURINGTHEDARKAGES——INK-

WRITTENMSS。TREASURES。

THEancienthistoryoftheartofwritinginmorenorthernsectionsoftheWesternworld，WilliamNicolson，Arch-DeaconofCarlisle，authorof“TheEnglishHistoricalLibrary。”London，1696，tellsveryquaintly：

“TheDanesregister’dtheirmoreconsiderabletransactionsuponRocks；oronpartsofthem，hewenintovariousShapesandFigures。Onthesetheyengrav’dsuchInscriptionsaswereproperfortheirHeathenAlters，TriumphalArches，SepulchralMonumentsandGenealogicalHistoriesoftheirAncestors。Theirwritingsoflessconcern(asLetters，Almanacks，&c。)wereengravenuponWood：AndbecauseBeechwasmostplentifulinDemnark，(thoFirrandOakbesoinNorwayandSweden)andmostcommonlyemploy’dintheseServices，formthewordBog(whichintheirLanguageistheNameofthatsortofWood)theyandallotherNorthernNationshavetheNameofBook。

ThepoorersortusedBark；andtheHornsofRain-

DeerandElkswereoftenfinelypolish’dandshapedintoBooksofseveralLeaves。ManyoftheseoldCalendarsarelikewiseuponBonesofBeastsandFishes：ButtheInscriptionsonTapestry，Bells，ParchmentandPaper，areoflateruse。

“SomeotherMonumentsmaybeknowntobeofaDanishExtraction，thotheycarrynothingofaRunicInscription。FewoftheirTempleswerecover’d；andthelargestobserv’dbyWormius(atKialernesinIsland)was120footinlength，and60

inbreadth。

“ThenextMonumentofAgeistheirEddaIslandorum；themeaningofwhichAppellationtheythatpublishtheBookhardlypretendtounderstand。

AsfarasIcangivetheReaderanysatisfaction，heisto。knowthatIslandwasfirstinhabited(intheyear874)byaColonyofNorwegians；whobroughthithertheTraditionsoftheirForefathers，incertainmetricalComposures，which(asisusualwithMentransplantedintoaForeignLand)wereheremorezealouslyandcarefullypreserv’dandkeptinmemorythanbytheMenofNorwaythemselves。

About240yearsafterthis(A。D。1114)

theirHistorybegantobewrittenbyoneSaemund，surnam’dFrodeorthewise；who(innineyears’

travelthroughItaly，GermanyandEngland)hadamass’dtogetheramightyCollectionofHistoricalTreatises。Withthesehereturn’dfullfraughtintoIsland；wherehealsodrewupanaccountoftheaffairsofhisownCountry。ManyofhisWorksarenowsaidtobelost：ButthereisstillanEdda，consistingofseveralOdes(whenceIsuspectitsNameisderived)writtenbymanyseveralhands，andatdifferenttimes，whichbearshisName。

TheBookisaCollectionofMythologicalFables，relatingtotheancientStateandBehaviouroftheGreatWodenandhisfollowers，intermspoeticalandadaptedtotheServiceofthosethatwereemploy’dinthecomposureoftheiroldRhymesandSonnets。

“ThereislikewiseextantacoupleofNorwegianHistoriesofgoodAuthenticCredit；whichexplainsagreatmanyparticularsrelatingtotheExploitsoftheDanishKingsinGreatBritain，whichourownHistorianshaveeitherwhollyomittedorverydarklyrecorded。Theformerofthesewaswrittensoonaftertheyear1130，byoneTheodoricaMonk，whoacknowledgeshiswholeFabricktobebuiltuponTradition，andthattheoldNorthernHistoryisnowherenowtobehadsaveonlyabIslendingorumantiquisCarminibus。

“’TisaverydiscouragingCensurewhichSirWilliamTemplepassesuponalltheAccountsgivenusoftheAffairsofthisIsland，beforetheRomanscameandInvadedit。TheTales(sayshe)wehaveofwhatpass’dbeforeCaesar’sTime，ofBruteandhisTrojans，ofmanyAdventuresandSuccessions，arecover’dwiththeRustofTime，orInvolv’dintheVanityofFablesorpretendedTraditions；

whichseemtoallMenobscureoruncertain，buttobeforgedatpleasurebytheWitorFollyoftheirfirstAuthors，andnottoberegarded。Andagain；

IknowfewancientAuthorsuponthisSubject(oftheBritishHistory)worththepainsofperusal，andofDividingorRefiningsolittleGoldoutofsomuchcourseOar，orfromsomuchDross。ButsomeotherInferiourPeoplemaythinkthisworththeirpains；sinceallMenarenotborntobeAmbassadors：

And，accordingly，wearetoldofaveryEminentAntiquarywhohasthoughtfittogivehisLaboursinthiskindtheTitleofAurum，exStercore。

There’sadealofServileDrudgeryrequir’dtotheDiscoveryoftheseriches，andsuchaseveryBodywillnotstoopto：forfewStatesmenandCourtiers(asoneislatelysaidtohaveobserv’dinhisownCase)carefortravellinginIreland，orWales，purelytolearntheLanguage。

“AdiligentEnquirerintoouroldBritishAntiquitieswouldratherobserve(withIndustriousLeland)

thatthepoorBritains，beingharass’dbythoseRomanConquerourswithcontinualWars，couldneitherhaveleisurenorthoughtforthepenningofaRegularHistory：andthatafterwardstheirBack-Friends，theSaxons，were(foragoodwhile)anIlliterateGeneration；andmindednothingbutKillingandtakingPossession。Sothat’tisawonderthatevensomuchremainsoftheStoryofthoseTimesasthesorryFragmentsofGildas；whoappearstohavewritteninsuchaConsternation，thatwhathehasleftuslooksmoreliketheDeclamationofanOrator，hiredtoexposethemiserableWretches，thananyHistoricalAccountoftheirSufferings。”

Palgraveassertsthatreadingandwritingwerenolongermysteriesafterthepaganage，butwerestillacquirementsalmostwhollyconfinedtotheclergy。

Theword“clericus“or“clerk。”becamesynonymouswithpenman，thesenseinwhichitisstillmostusuallyemployed。Ifamancouldwrite，orevenread，hisknowledgewasconsideredasproofpresumptivethathewasinholyorders。Ifkingsandgreatmenhadoccasiontoauthenticateanydocument，theysubscribedthe“sign“ofthecrossoppositetotheplacewherethe“clerk“hadwrittentheirname。Hencewesay，tosignadeedoraletter。

Books(MSS。)wereextremelyrareamongsttheScandinavianandnorthernnations。BeforetheircommunicationwiththeLatinmissionaries，woodappearstohavebeenthematerialuponwhichtheirruneswerechieflywritten：andtheverb“write。”

whichisderivedfromaTeutonicroot，signifyingtoscratchortear，isoneofthetestimoniesoftheusage。

Theirpoemsweregravenuponsmallstavesorrods，onelineuponeachfaceoftherod；andtheOldEnglishword“stave。”asappliedtoastanza，isprobablyarelicofthepractice，which，intheearlyages，prevailedintheWest。Vellumorparchmentafterwardssuppliedtheplaceofthesematerials。Realpaper，manufacturedfromthepellicleoftheEgyptianreedorpapyras，wasstillusedoccasionallyinItaly，butitwasseldomexportedtothecountriesbeyondtheAlps；andtheelaboratepreparationofthevellum，uponwhichmuchgreatercarewasbestowedthaninthemodernmanufacture，rendereditacostlyarticle；

somuchso，thatapainstakingclerkcouldfinditworthhiswhiletoerasethewritingofanoldbook，inordertousetheblankpagesforanothermanuscript。

Thebooksthusrewrittenwerecalled“codicesrescripti。”

or“palimpsests。”Theevanescenttracesofthefirstlayerofcharactersmayoccasionallybediscernedbeneaththemorerecenttextwhichhasbeenimposeduponthem。

InIreland，firstknownastheIsleofSaints，wasfoundedintheseventhcenturyagreatschooloflearningwhichincludedwritingandilluminating，whichpassedtotheEnglishbywayofthemonasteriescreatedbyIrishmonksinScotland。TheirearliestexistingMSS。aresaidtobelongtothatperiod。IntheIrishscriptoriums(roomsorcellsforwriting)oftheBenedictinemonasterieswheretheywereprepared，soparticularwerethemonksthatthescribeswereforbiddentouseartificiallightforfearofinjuringthemanuscripts。

MostinterestingandentertainingaretheobservationsofFalconerMadan，amodernscholarofsomerepute。Ofthehistoryofwritingininkduringthe“DarkAges“hesays：

“Intheseventhandeighthcenturieswefindthefirsttendencytoformnationalhands，resultingintheMerovingianorFrankishhand，theLombardicofItaly，andtheVisigothicofSpain。Thesearethefirstdifficultbandswhichweencounter；andwhenwerememberthattheobjectofwritingistobeclearanddistinct，andthatthetestofagoodstyleisthatitseizesontheessentialpointsinwhichlettersdiffer，andputsasidetheflourishesandornamentswhichdisguisethesimpleform，weshallseehowmuchastronginfluencewasneededtopreventwritingfrombecomingobscureanddegraded。

ThatinfluencewasfoundinCharlestheGreat。

“InthefieldofwritingithasbeengrantedtonopersonbutCharlestheGreattoinfluenceprofoundlythehistoryofthealphabet。WithrareinsightandrarertastehediscountenancedtheprevalentMerovingianhand，andsubstitutedineclectichand，knownastheCarolingianMinuscule，whichwaystillberegardedasamodelofclearnessandelegance。ThechiefinstrumentinthisreformwasAlcuinofYork，whomCharlesplaced，partlyforthispurpose，attheheadoftheSchoolofToursinA。D。796。TheselectionofanEnglishmanforthepostnaturallyleadsustoinquirewhathandswerethenusedinEngland，andwhatamountofEnglishinfluencetheCarolingianMinuscule，thefoundationofourmodernstyles，exhibits。

“IfwegazeinwonderonthepersonalinfluenceofCharlestheGreatinreforminghandwriting，weshallbestillmorestruckbythespectaclepresentedtousbyIrelandinthesixth，seventhandeighthcenturies。Itisthegreatmarvelinthehistoryofwriting。Modernhistorianshaveatlastappreciatedtheblazeoflife，religions，literary，andartistic，whichwaskindledinthe’IsleofSaints’withinacenturyafterSt。Patrick’scoming(aboutA。D。

450)；howtheenthusiasmkindledbyChristianityintheCelticnaturesofartranscendedthelimitsoftheisland，andindeedofGreatBritain，thatIrishmissionariesandmonksweresoonfoundinthechiefreligiouscentresofGaul，Germany，Switzerland，andNorthItaly，whileforeignersfoundtheirtoilsomewaytoIrelandtolearnGreek！ButlessprominencehasbeengiventotheartisticsideofthisgreatreflexmovementfromWesttoEastthantotheothertwo。Thesimplefactsattestthatintheseventhcentury，whenourearliestexistingIrishMSS。werewritten，wefindnotonlyastyleofwriting(orindeedtwo)distinctive，national，andofahightypeofexcellence，butalsoaschoolofilluminationwhich，inthecombinedlinesofmechanicalaccuracyandintricacy，offertileinventionofformandfigureandofstrikingarrangementsofcolour，hasneverbeensurpassed。Andthisisintheseventhcentury——thenadiroftherestofEurope！

“ItiscertainthatAlcuinwastrainedinHiberno-

Saxoncalligraphy，sothatwemaybesurprisedtofindthatthewritingwhich，underCharlestheGreat，hedevelopedatTours，bearshardlyatraceofthestyletowhichhewasaccustomed。Enrevanche，intheornamentationandilluminationofthegreatCarolingianvolumeswhichhavecomedowntoourtimes，wefindthoseconstant，persistenttracesofEnglishandIrishworkwhichweseekforinvainintheplainerwriting。

“ThisminusculesupersededallothersalmostthroughouttheempireofCharlestheGreat，andduringtheninth，tenth，andeleventhcenturiesunderwentverylittlemodification。Eveninthetwonextcenturies，thoughitissubjecttogeneralmodification，nationaldifferencesarehardlyobservable，andwecanonlydistinguishtwolargedivisions，thegroupofNorthernEurope(England，NorthFrance，Italy，andSpain)。Thetwoexceptionsare，thatGermany，bothinwritingandpainting，hasalwaysstoodapart，andlagsbehindtheothernationsofWesternEuropeinitsdevelopment，andthatEnglandretainsherHiberno-SaxonhandtillaftertheConquestof1066。Itmaybenotedthatthetwelfthcenturyproducedthefinestwritingeverknown——alarge，freeandflowingformoftheminusculeofTours。InthenextcenturycomesintheangularGothichand，thedifferencebetweenwhichandthetwelfthcenturyhandmaybefairlyunderstoodbyacomparisonofordinaryGermanandRomantype。Inthethirteenth，fourteenth，andfifteenthcenturiesthewritingofeachcenturymaybediscerned，whilethegeneraltendencyistowardscomplication，useofabbreviationsandcontractions，anddevelopmentofunessentialparasiticformsofletters。

“TheBookofKells，thechieftreasureofTrinityCollege，Dublin，isso-calledfromhavingbeenlongpreservedattheMonasteryofKells，foundedbyColumbahimself。Stolenfromthence，iteventuallypassedintoArchbishopUssher’shands，and，withotherpartsofhislibrary，toDublin。ThevolumecontainstheFourGospelsinLatin，ornamentedwithextraordinaryfreedom，elaboration，andbeauty。Writtenapparentlyintheseventhcentury，itexhibits，bothinformandcolour，allthesignsofthefulldevelopmentandmaturityoftheIrishstyle，andmustofnecessityhavebeenprecededbyseveralgenerationsofartisticworkers，whofoundedandimprovedthisparticularschoolofart。ThefollowingwordsofProfessorWestwood，whofirstdrewattentiontothepeculiarexcellencesofthisvolume，willjustifytiletermsmadeuseofabove：’ThiscopyoftheGospels，traditionallyassertedtohavebelongedtoColumba，isunquestionablythemostelaboratelyexecutedMS。

ofearlyartnowinexistence，farexcelling，inthegiganticsizeofthelettersinthefrontispiecesoftheGospel，theexcessiveminutenessoftheornamentaldetails，thenumberofitsdecorations，thefinenessofthewriting，andtheendlessvarietyofinitialcapitalletterswithwhicheverypageisornamented，thefamousGospelsofLindisfarneintheCottonianLibrary。ButthisMS。isstillmorevaluableonaccountofthevariouspictorialrepresentationsofdifferentscenesinthelifeofourSaviour，delineatedinastyletotallyunlikethatofeveryotherschool。’“

CHAPTERVII。

EARLYMEDIAEVALINK。

CONTROVERSIESAMONGHEBREWSCHOLARSRELATINGTO

RITUALISTICINKS——THECLASSOFINKSEMPLOYEDBY

THEFRENCHANDGERMANJEWS——CONVENTIONOF

REPRESENTATIVESFROMJEWISHCENTERS——SUBMISSION

OFTHEIRDIFFERENCESTOMAIMONIDES——HEDEFINES

TALMUDICINK——SIXTHCENTURYREFERENCETO

“GALL“INK——ASSERTIONOFHOTZ-OSTERWALDTHAT

EXCLUSIVEOFTHEINDIANINK，THEWRITINGPIGMENTS

OFANTIQUITYHAVENEVERBEENINVESTIGATED——HIS

BELIEFTHATYEASTFORMEDAPORTION

OFTHEM——SOMEOTHEROBSERVATIONSONTHIS

SUBJECT——ANCIENTFORMULASABOUTTHELEESOF

WINEININK-MAKING——COMMENTSONINK-MAKINGBY

PLINY——ANCIENTFORMULAOFPOMEGRANATEINK——

SECRETABYTHEMONKTHEOPHILUS——WHATTHE，THORNTREEHEREFERSTOREALLYIS——IDENTITYOF

THEMYROBOLAMINKOFTHEMOSTREMOTEANTIQUITY

WITHTHEPOMEGRANATEINKOFTHEMIDDLEAGES——

THEUSESOFTHEACACIATREE。

MOSTofthedocumentsofearlymediaevaltimeswhichremaintouscontaininginkinfairlygoodcondition，likecharters，protocols，bulls，wills，diplomas，andthelike，werewrittenorengrossedwith“Indian“

ink，inwhichrespectweofthepresentcenturycontinuetofollowsuchestablishedprecedentwhenpreparingimportantwritteninstruments。Itisnotremarkable，therefore，thattheblackinksoftheseventh，eighth，ninthandtenthcenturiespreservetheirblacknesssomuchbetterthanmanybelongingtosucceedingages，includinganewclassofinkswhichcouldnotstandthetestoftime。

DuringthetwelfthandfirstyearsofthethirteenthcenturiestherewerebittercontroversiesamongTalmudic(Hebrew)scholars，relativetothecharacteroftheinktobeemployedinthepreparationofritualisticwritings。NicedistinctionsweredrawnastotherealmeaningoftheworddeyoasunderstoodbytheJewsofthewesternpartoftheworld，andtheArabicwordalchiber，asthenunderstoodnearerPalestineandtheothereasterncountries。