第4章

THEincreasingdemandsforink，andthelackofinterestastoitscompositionduringtheeighteenthcentury，ifviewedinthesamelightswhichprevailinourowntimes，permittedthegeneralmanufactureofcheapgradesofinkwhichpossessednoverylastingqualities。ThechemistryofInkswasnotfullyunderstood，indeedwefindProfesserTurneroftheCollegeofEdinburghdeclaringin1827：

“GallicacidwasdiscoveredbyScheelein1786，andexistsreadyformedinthebarkofmanytrees，andingall-nuts。Itisalwaysassociatedwithtannin，asubstancetowhichitisalliedinamannerhithertounexplained。Itisdistinguishedfromtanninbycausingnoprecipitateinasolutionofgelatine。Withasaltofironitformsadarkbluecolouredcompound，whichisthebasisofink。Thefinestcolourisprocuredwhentheperoxideandprotoxideofironaremixedtogether。Thischaracterdistinguishesgallicacidfromeveryothersubstanceexceptingtannin。”

Thegenerallackofinformationorknowledgerespectinginkchemistryoritstime-phenomenawasnotconfinedtoanyparticularcountry，anditdoesnotappearthatanygeneralorspecificattentionwasscientificallydirectedtoituntil1765，whenWilliamLewis，F。R。S。，anEnglishchemist，publiclyannouncedthatheproposedtoinvestigatethesubject。

Hisexperimentationscoveredaperiodofmanyyearsandtheirresultsandhistheoriesastothephenomenaofinkswerepublishedin1797。Themostvaluableofhisconclusionswerethatanexcessofironsaltintheinkisdetrimentaltocolorpermanence(suchinkbecomingbrownonexposure)andalsothataceticacidinthemenstruumprovidesaninkofgreaterbodyandblacknessthansulphuricaciddoes(acircumstanceduetothesmallerresistanceofaceticacidtotheformationofirongallo-tannate)。Manyofhisotherobservationswerelatershowntohavebeenerroneous。Dr。Lewiswasthefirsttoadvocatelog-

woodasatinctorialagentinconnectionwithironandgallcompositions。

Ribaucourt，aFrenchinkmaker，in1798determinedthatanexcessofgallsisquiteasinjurioustothepermanenceofinkasanexcessofiron。

PendingthecompletionoftheresearchesofLewis，theRoyalSocietyofEngland，affectedbycomplaintsfromallquartersrelativetotheinferiorityofinksascomparedwiththoseofearliertimes，broughtthesubjecttotheattentionofmanyofitsmembersfordiscussionandadvice。Itssecretary，CharlesBlagden，M。D。，readapaperbeforethesociety，June28，1787，whichwaspublishedinthe“PhilosophicalTransactions“

andwidelycirculated。Itissointerestingthatcopiousextractsaregiven：

“InaconversationsometimeagowithmyfriendThomasAstle，Esq。，F。R。S。andA。S。，relativetothelegibilityofancientMSS。aquestionarose，whethertheinksinuseeightortencenturiesago，whichareoftenfoundtohavepreservedtheircolourremarkablywell，weremadeofdifferentmaterialsfromthoseemployedinlatertimes，ofwhichmanyarealreadybecomesopaleasscarcelytoberead。

Withaviewtothedecisionofthisquestion，Mr。

AstleobliginglyfurnishedmewithseveralMSS。，onparchmentandvellum，fromtheninthtothefifteenthcenturiesinclusively，someofwhichwerestillblack，andothersofdifferentshadesofcolour，fromadeepyellowishbrowntoaverypaleyellow，insomepartssofaintastobescarcelyvisible。OnalloftheseImadeexperimentswiththechemicalre-agentswhichappearedtomebestadaptedtothepurpose，namely，alkalisbothsimpleandphlogisticated，themineralacids，andinfusionsofgalls。

“Itwouldbetediousandsuperfluoustoenterintoadetailoftheparticularexperiments，asallofthem，oneinstanceonlyexcepted，agreedinthegeneralresult，toshewthattheinkemployedanciently，asfarastheabove-mentionedMSS。

extended，wasofthesamenatureasthepresent；

forthelettersturnedofareddishoryellowbrownwithalkalis，becamepale，andwereatlengthobliterated，withthedilutemineralacids，andthedropofacidliquorwhichhadextractedaletter，changedtoadeepblueorgreenontheadditionofadropofphlogisticatedalkali；moreover，thelettersacquiredadeepertingewiththeinfusionofgalls，insomecasesmore，inothersless。Henceitisevident，thatoneoftheingredientswasiron，whichthereisnoreasontodoubtwasjoinedwiththevitriolicacid；andthecolourofthemoreperfectMSS。whichinsomewasdeepblack，andinotherspurplishblack，togetherwiththerestitutionofthatcolour，inthosewhichhadlostit，bytheinfusionofgalls，sufficientlyprovedthatanotheroftheingredientswasastringentmatter，whichfromhistoryappearstobethatofgalls。Notraceofablackpigmentofanysortwasdiscovered，thedropofacidwhichhadcompletelyextractedaletter，appearingofanuniformpaleferrugineouscolor，withoutanatomofblackpowder，orotherextraneousmatter，floatinginit。

“Astothedurabilityofthemoreancientinks，itseemed，fromwhatoccurredtomeintheseexperiments，todependverymuchonabetterpreparationofthematerialuponwhichthewritingwasmade，namely，theparchmentorvellum；theblackestlettersbeingthosewhichhadsunkintoitdeepest。Somedegreeofeffervescencewascommonlytobeperceivedwhentheacidscameintocontactwiththesurfaceoftheseoldvellums。I

wasled，however，tosuspect，thatthemoremodern；

foringeneralthetingeofcolour，producedbythephlogisticatedalkaliintheacidlaiduponthem，seemedlessdeep；which，however，mightdependinpartuponthelengthoftimetheyhavebeenkept：andperhapsmoregumwasusedinthem，orpossibletheywerewashedoverwithsomekindofvarnish，thoughnotsuchasgavegloss。

“OneofthespecimenssentmebyMr。Astle，ofthefifteenthcentury，andtheletterswerethoseofanengrossinghand，angular，withoutanyFINE

strokes，broadandveryblack。Onthisnoneoftheabove-mentionedre-agentsproducedanyconsiderableeffect；mostofthemseemedtomakethelettersblacker，probablybycleaningthesurface；

andtheacids，afterhavingbeenrubbedstronglyontheletters，didnotstrikeanydeepertingewiththephlogisticatedalkali。Nothinghadasensibleeffecttowardobliteratingtheselettersbutwhattookoffpartofthesurfaceofthevellum，whensmallrolls，asofadirtymatter，weretobeperceived。Itisthereforeunquestionable，thatnoironwasusedinthisink；andfromitsresistancetothechemicalsolvents，aswellasacertainclottedappearanceintheletterswhenexaminedclosely，andinsomeplacesaslightdegreeofgloss，Ihavelittledoubtbuttheywereformedwithacompositionofablack，sootyorcarbonaceouspowderandoil，probablysomethinglikeourpresentprinter’sink，andamnotwithoutsuspicionthattheywereactuallyprinted(asubsequentexaminationofalargerportionofthissupposedMSS。hasshownthatitisreallyapartofaveryancientprintedbook)。

“WhilstIwasconsideringoftheexperimentstobemade，inordertoascertainthecompositionofancientinks，itoccurredtomethatperhapsoneofthebestmethodsofrestoringlegibilitytodecayedwritingmightbetojoinphlogisticatedalkaliwiththeremainingcalxofiron，because，asthequantityofprecipitateformedbythesetwosubstancesverymuchexceedsthatoftheironalone，thebulkofthecolouringmatterwouldtherebybegreatlyaugmented。M。Bergmanwasofopinionthattheblueprecipitatecontainsonlybetweenafifthandasixthpartofitsweightofiron，andthoughsubsequentexperimentstendtoshowthat，insomecasesatleast，theproportionofironismuchgreater，yetuponthewholeitiscertainlytrue，thatiftheironleftbythestrokeofapenwerejoinedtothecolouringmatterofphlogisticatedalkali，thequantityofPrussianbluethenceresultingwouldbemuchgreaterthanthequantityofblackmatteroriginallycontainedintheinkdepositedbythepen，thoughperhapsthebodyofcolourmightnotbeequallyaugmented。Tobringtheideatothetest，Imadeafewexperimentsasfollows：

“Thephlogisticatedalkaliwasrubbeduponthebarewritingindifferentquantities，butingeneralwithlittleeffect。Inafewinstances，however，itgaveabluishtingetotheletters，andincreasedtheirintensity，probablywheresomethingofanacidnaturehadcontributedtothediminutionoftheircolour。

“Reflectingthatwhenphlogisticatedalkaliformsitsblueprecipitatewithironthemetalisfirstusuallydissolvedinanacid，Iwasnextinducedtotrytheeffectofaddingadilutemineralacidtowritingbesidesthealkali。Thisansweredfullytomyexpectations，theletterschangingveryspeedilytoadeepbluecolour，ofgreatbeautyandintensity。

“Itseemsoflittleconsequenceastothestrengthofcolourobtained，whetherthewritingbefirstwettedwiththeacid，andthenthephlogisticatedalkalibetoucheduponit，orwhethertheprocessbeinverted，beginningwiththealkali；butonanotheraccountIthinkthelatterwaypreferable。FortheprincipalinconveniencewhichoccursintheproposedmethodofrestoringMSS。is，thatthecolourfrequentlyspreads，andsomuchblotstheparchmentastodetractgreatlyfromthelegibility；nowthisappearstohappeninalessdegreewhenthealkaliisputonfirst，andthediluteacidisaddeduponit。

“ThemethodIhavehithertofoundtoanswerbesthasbeentospreadthealkalithinwithafeatherorabitofstickcuttoabluntpoint，thoughthealkalihasoccasionednosensiblechangeofcolour，yetthemomentthattheacidcomesuponit，everytraceofaletterturnsatoncetoafineblue，whichsoonacquiresitsfullintensity，andisbeyondcomparisonstrongerthanthecolouroftheoriginaltracehadbeen。Ifnowthecornerofabitofblottingpaperbecarefullyanddexterouslyappliedneartheletters，inordertosuckupthesuperfluousliquor，thestainingoftheparchmentmaybeinagreatmeasureavoided：foritisthissuperfluousliquorwhichabsorbingpartofthecolouringmatterfromthelettersbecomesadyetowhateverittouches。

Caremustbetakennottobringtheblottingpaperincontactwiththeletters，becausethecolouringmatterissoftwhilstwet，andmayeasilyberubbedoff。TheacidIhavechieflyemployedhasbeenthemarine；butboththevitriolicandnitroussucceedverywell。Theyshouldundoubtedlybesofardilutedasnottobeindangerofcorrodingtheparchment，afterwhichthedegreeofstrengthdoesnotseemtobeamatterofmuchnicety。

“Themethodnowcommonlypracticedtorestoreoldwritings，isbywettingthemwithaninfusionofgallsinwhitewine。”

(SeeacomplicatedprocessforthepreparationofsuchaliquorinCanepariusDeAtramentis，A。D。

1660，p。277)

“Thiscertainlyhasagreateffect；butissubject，insomedegree，tothesameinconvenienceasthephlogisticatedalkali，ofstainingthesubstanceonwhichthewritingwasmade。Perhapsif，insteadofgallsthemselves，thepeculiaracidoforothermatterwhichstrikestheblackwithironwereseparatedfromthesimpleastringentmatter，forwhichpurposetwodifferentprocessesaregivenbyPiesenbringandbyScheele，thisinconveniencemightbeavoided。Itisnotimprobable，likewise，thataphlogisticatedalkalimightbepreparedbettersuitedtothisobjectthanthecommon；asbyrenderingitasfreeaspossiblefromiron，dilutingittoacertaindegree，orsubstitutingthevolatilealkaliforthefixed。Experimentwouldmostlikelypointoutmanyothermeansofimprovingtheprocessdescribedabove；butinitspresentstateIhopeitmaybeofsomeuse，asitnotonlybringsoutaprodigiousbodyofcolouruponletterswhichwerebeforesopaleastobealmostinvisible，buthasthefurtheradvantagesovertheinfusionsofgalls，thatitproducesitseffectimmediately，andcanbeconfinedtotheselettersonlyforwhichsuchassistanceiswanted。”

TheSocietyofArtsin1830，receivedacommunicationfromDr。Bostock，inthecourseofwhichhestatedthatthe“tannin，mucilageandextractivematterarewithoutdoubttheprincipalcausesofthedifficultywhichisencounteredintheformationofaperfectanddurableinkandforagoodinktheessentialingredientsaregallicacidandasesquisaltofiron。”Owingtohisworkingwithgallshewasunabletomakedecisiveexperiments，butheconcludes，andthatrightly，thatinproportionasinkconsistsmerelyofgallateofiron，itislessliabletodecompositionandanykindofmetamorphosis。

In1831theAcademyofSciencesinFrancetookupthematteranddesignatedacommitteecomposedofchemistswithinstructionstostudythesubjectofapermanentink。Afterlongresearchitreportedthatitwasunabletorecommendanybetterinkthanthetanno-gallateofirononetheninuse，but“itshouldbeproperlycompounded。”

Peddingtoninvestigated，1841-48，theancientMSS。

collectedbytheAsiaticSocietyofBengal，Calcutta，andpublishedtheresultsin“ExaminationofSomeDecayedOrientalWorksintheLibraryoftheAsiaticSociety。”whichareofmuchinterestasrelatingto“mineral“inks，the“gall“inksbeingunknowninAsiaafterthetwelfthcentury。

Uptothirty-fiveyearsago，themanufactureof“gall“inksnecessitatedacomplicatedseriesofprocessesandlongperiodsoftimetoenabletheinktosettleproperly，etc。ItwasProfessorPennyoftheAndersonUniversitywhosuggestedthewaytoavoidoneoftheprocessespertainingtoink-makingbyutilizingtheknownfact，thattanninismoresolubleincoldthaninwarmorhotwater。Itwasadoptedallovertheworldandrevolutionizedthemanufactureofink，bydoingawaywithboilingprocessesandhotmacerationsofingredients。Withhardlyinexceptionthebesttanno-gallateofiron(“gall“)inksarenow“cold“made。

CHAPTERXIII。

STUDYOFINK。

INVESTIGATIONSBYSTARKOFINKQUALITIESCOVERING

APERIODOFTWENTY-THREEYEARS——ABSTRACTFROM

HISREPORTOF1855——DR。CHILTONEXPERIMENTSIN

NEWYORKCITY1856——ACTIONOFTHEPRUSSIAN

GOVERNMENTIN1859ANDEMPLOYMENTOFANOFFICIAL

INK——WATTENBACH’SGERMANTREATISEONTHE

ARCHIVESOFTHEMIDDLEAGES——WILLIAMINGLIS

CLARKATTEMPTSTOPLACETHEMANUFACTUREOFINK

ONASCIENTIFICBASIS——SUBMITSHISVALUABLE

RESEARCHESANDDEDUCTIONSTOTHEENINBURGH

UNIVERSITYIN1879——SCHLUTTIGANDNEUMANNIN

1890ESTABLISHASTANDARDFORMULAFORIRON

ANDGALLINK——NAMESOFSOMEINKINVESTIGATORS

OFTHENINETEENTHCENTURY。

DR。JAMESSTARK，afamouschemist，submittedtheresultsoftwenty-threeyearsofinvestigationsofwritinginksinapaperreadbyhimin1855beforetheSocietyofArts，inEdinburg，Scotland。ThefollowingistheabstractasprintedbytheLondonArtisanatthetime：

“Theauthorstatedthatin1842hecommencedaseriesofexperimentsonwritinginks，anduptothisdate(1855)，hadmanufactured229differentinks，andhadtestedthedurabilityofwritingsmadewiththeseonallkindsofpaper。Astheresultofhisexperimentsbeshowedthatthebrowningandfadingofinksresultedfrommanycauses，butinordinaryinkschieflyfromtheironbecomingperoxygenatedandseparatingasaheavyprecipitate。Manyinks，therefore，whenfreshmade，yieldeddurablewritings；butwhentheinkbecameold，thetanno-gallateofironseparated，andthedurabilityoftheinkwasdestroyed。Fromanumeroussetofexperimentstheauthorshowedthatnosaltofironandnoprecipitateofironequalledthecommonsulphateofiron——thatis，thecommercialcopperas——forthepurposeofink-

making；andthateventheadditionofanypersalt，suchasthenitrateorchlorideofiron，thoughitimprovedthepresentcoloroftheink，deteriorateditsdurability。Theauthorfailedtoprocureapersistentblackinkfrommanganese，orothermetalormetallicsalt。Theauthorexhibitedaseriesofeighteeninkswhichhadeitherbeenmadewithmetallicironorwithwhichmetallicironhadbeenimmersed，anddirectedattentiontothefactthatthoughthedepthandbodyofcolorseemedtobedeepened，yetineverycasethedurabilityofwritingsmadewithsuchinkswassoimpairedthattheybecamebrownandfadedinafewmonths。

Themostpermanentordinaryinkswereshowntobecomposedofthebestbluegallnutswithcopperasandgum，andtheproportionsfoundonexperimenttoyieldthemostpersistentblackweresixpartsofbestbluegallstofourpartsofcopperas。

Writingsmadewithsuchaninkstoodexposuretosunandairfortwelvemonthswithoutexhibitinganychangeofcolor，whilethosemadewithinksofeveryotherproportionorcompositionhadmoreorlessoftheircolordischargedwhensimilarlytested。Thisink，therefore，ifkeptfrommouldingandfromdepositingitstanno-gallateofiron，wouldaffordwritingsperfectlydurable。Itwasshownthatnogallandlogwoodinkwasequaltothepuregallinkinsofarasdurabilityinthewritingswasconcerned。Allsuchinkswereexhibitedwhich，thoughdurablebeforetheadditionoflogwood，fadedrapidlyafterlogwoodwasaddedtothem。Sugarwasshowntohaveanespeciallyhurtfulactiononthedurabilityofinkscontaininglogwood——indeed，onallinks。Manyotherplaininkswereexhibited，andtheirpropertiesdescribed——asgallo-sumachink，myrabolamsink，Runge’sink，——inksinwhichthetanno-gallateofironwaskeptinsolutionbynitric，muriatic，sulphuric，andotheracids，orbyoxalateofpotash，chlorideoflime，etc。Themyrabolamswasrecommendedasaninkofsomepromisefordurability，andasthecheapestinkitwaspossibletomanufacture。Allordinaryinks，however，wereshowntohavecertaindrawbacks，andtheauthorendeavoredtoascertainbyexperimentwhetherotherdarksubstancescouldbeaddedtoinkstoimpartgreaterdurabilitytowritingsmadewiththem，andatthesametimepreventthosechemicalchangeswhichwerethecauseofordinaryinksfading。Afterexperimentingwithvarioussubstances，andamongotherswithPrussianblueandindigodissolvedinvariousways，hefoundthesulphateofindigotofulfilalltherequiredconditionsand，whenaddedintheproperproportiontoatanno-gallateofironink，ityieldedaninkwhichisagreeabletowritewith，whichflowsfreelyfromthepenanddoesnotclogit；whichnevermoulds，which，whenitdriesonthepaper，becomesofanintensepureblack，andwhichdoesnotfadeorchangeitscolorhoweverlongkept。Theauthorpointedouttheproperproportionsforsecuringthoseproperties，andshowedthatthesmallestquantityofthesulphateofindigowhichcouldbeusedforthispurposewaseightouncesforeverygallonofink。Theauthorstatedthattheinkhepreferredforhisownusewascomposedoftwelveouncesofgall，eightouncesofsulphateofindigo，eightouncesofcopperas，afewcloves，andfourorsixouncesofgumarabic，foragallonofink。

Itwasshownthatimmersingironwireorfilingsintheseinksdestroyedordinaryinks。Hethereforerecommendedthatalllegaldeedsordocumentsshouldbewrittenwithquillpens，asthecontactofsteelinvariablydestroysmoreorlessthedurabilityofeveryink。Theauthorconcludedhispaperwithafewremarksoncopyinginksandindelibleinks，showingthatagoodcopyinginkhasyettobesoughtfor，andthatindelibleinks，whichwillresistthepencilingsandwashingsofthechemistandtheforger，needneverbelookedfor。”

ProfessorLeonhardi，ofDresden，whohadgivenmuchattentiontothesubjectofinks，introducedin1855

whathetermedaNEWink，andnamedit“alizarineink。”alizarinbeingaproductobtainedfromthemadderroot，whichheemployedfor“added“colorinatanno-gallateofironsolution。Itpossessedsomemeritduetoitsfluidity，andforatimewasquitepopular，butgraduallygaveplacetotheso-calledchemicalwritingfluids；itisnowobsolete。

ChampourandMalepeyre，Paris，1856，issuedajointmanual，“FabricationdesEncres。”devotedalmostexclusivelytothemanufactureofinksandcompilesmanyold“gall“andotherinkformulas。

In1856Dr。ChiltonofNewYorkCitypublishedtheresultsofinkexperimentswhichhehadmade。

TheaccompanyingextractsaretakenfromthelocalpressofthemonthofAprilofthatyear：

“SomeingeniousexperimentstotestthedurabilityofwritinginkshaverecentlybeenmadebyDr。Chilton，ofNewYorkCity。Heexposedamanuscriptwrittenwithfourdifferentinksoftheprincipalmakers，ofthisandothercountries，totheconstantactionoftheweatherupontheroofofhislaboratory。Afteranexposureofoverfivemonths，thepapershowsthedifferentkindofwritinginvariousshadesofcolor。TheEnglishsample，Blackwood’s，wellknownandpopularfromtheneatandconvenientwaythatitispreparedforthismarket，wasquiteindistinct。

“TheAmericansamples，David’s，Harrison’sandMaynard’sarebetter。Thefirstappearstoretainitsoriginalshadeveryneatly；thetwolastarepaler。Thistestshowsconclusivelythedurabilityofink；andwhile，formanypurposes，schoolandthelike，aninkthatwillstandundefacedayearorso，isallthatisnecessary，yetthereishardlyabottleofinksold，someofwhichmaynotbeusedinthesignatureorexecutionofpapersthatmaybeimportanttobelegiblefiftyoronehundredyearshence。

“Forstateandcountyoffices，probaterecords，etc。，itisofvitalimportancethattherecordsshouldbelegiblecenturieshence。WebelievethatsomeoftheearlymanuscriptsofNewEnglandarebrighterthansometownandchurchrecordsofthiscentury。

“InEuropeatthepresenttime，greatcareistakenbythedifferentgovernmentsinthepreparationofpermanentink——someofthemevencompoundingtheirown，accordingtothemostapprovedandexpensiveformulas。

“ManuscriptsoftheeleventhandtwelfthcenturiesnowinthestatepaperofficeofGreatBritain，areapparentlyasbrightaswhenfirstwritten；

whilethoseofthelasttwohundredyearsaremoreorlessillegible，andsomeofthementirelyobliterated。”

Whiletheinformationsoughttobeconveyedinthelaststatementmaybeinsomerespectscorrect，itmustberememberedthatmostoftheMSS。extantdatingbeforethethirteenthcenturywerewrittenin“Indian“

ink，whilethegreatmajorityofthoseofthelasttwohundredyearswerenot；andthisfactalonewouldaccounttosomeextentforthedifferencesmentioned。

TheGerman(Prussian)governmentin1859，astheresultofaninvestigation，employedwhattheytermed“OfficialInkoftheFirstClass。”i。e。，astraighttanno-

gallateofironinkwithoutaddedcolor；andifpermanencewererequiredasagainstremovalbychemicals，itwasaccomplishedbywritingonpapersaturatedwithchromatesandultramarine。

In1871ProfessorWattenbachofGermanypublishedatreatiseentitled“ArchivesduringtheMiddleAges。”whichhassomevaluablereferencestothecolorphenomenaofinks。

WilliamInglisClarkin1879submittedtotheEdinburghUniversityathesisentitled“AnAttempttoPlacetheManufactureofInkonaScientificBasis。”

andwhichveryjustlyreceivedthecommendationoftheUniversityauthorities。Hisresearchesandrationaldeductionsareofthegreatestpossiblevaluejudgedfromascientificstandpoint。Theintroductionofblue-blackinkisaphaseofthedevelopmenttowardsmodernmethodswhichhediscussesatmuchlength。

Theobjectofaddingadyeinmoderation，heasserts，istogivetemporarycolortotheinkandwhereindigo-pasteisused，ithasbeenassumedthatitkepttheirongallo-tannateinsolution，whereasanyvirtueofthiskindwhichindigo-pastepossessesismorelikelyduetothesulphuricacidwhichitcontainsthantotheindigoitself。Theessentialpartofthepasterequiredisthesulpho-indigodateofsodium，nowcommonlycalledindigo-carmine。Hefurtherremarksthatthestabilityofaninkprecipitatedependsupontheamountofironwhichitcontainsandwhichonnoaccountshouldbelessthaneightpercent；headdsrightly，ifgallicacidbepreferablyusedinsubstitutionfortannin，“noprecipitateisobtainedunderpreciselysimilarconditions。”Thispointfollowedupexplainsinameasurewhyagallinfusionpreparedwithhotwaterisnotsuitableforablue-black，whileacoldwaterinfusionis。Inthelattercaseacomparativelysmallpercentageoftanninisextractedfromthegalls，whilemuchisextractedwithhotwaterandtheconsequenceis，onaddingtheindigobluethecolorisnotbroughtoutasitshouldbe。Substantiallythesamethingoccurswithinkmadewiththerespectiveacids，althoughthebluecolorremainsforatimeunimpairedinthetanninink，apparentlyduetothefactthatferrous-tannatereducesindigobluetoindigowhite，achangewhichthelowreducingpowerofferrous-

gallatedoeslittletoeffect。Thevegetablematterincommoninksfacilitatesthedestruction，orratheralterationandprecipitationoftheindigo，forthedyeappearsintheironprecipitateandmaybeextractedfromitwithboilingwater。

Dr。Clark’sinvestigationsseektodemonstratethesuperiorityoftanninandgallicacidoverinfusionsofthenaturalgalls，andheundertakestodeterminethecorrectratiooftanninandsulphateofirontobeusedasink。Hisexperimentsinthislineshowthat：

1。Theamountofprecipitateincreasesastheproportionofirontotanninisincreased。

2。Thecompositionoftheprecipitateissovaluableastoprecludethepossibilityofitsbeingadefinitebody。Increaseofironinthesolutionhasnotatfirstanyeffectonthecompositionoftheprecipitate，butafterwardsironisfoundinitingreaterbutnotproportionalamount。

3。Atonepointtheproportionsofironintheprecipitateandinsolutionarethesame，andthisisatbetween6and10partsofironto100partsoftannin。

4。Theproportionofironintheprecipitatevariesgreatlywiththelengthoftimetheinkhasbeenexposed。

Atfirsttheprecipitatecontains10percentofiron，butbyandbyanewonehavingonly7。5

percentisformed，andinfromfortytoseventydayswefindoneof5。7percent。Simultaneouslyironincreasesintheink(proportionatetothetannin)。

5。Theresultsshow，andpracticeconfirms，that16partsofiron(80ferroussulphate)and100partsoftanninarebestforinkmanufacture。

Theresearchnowtravelledinadirectionwhichaccumulatingexperienceshowedtobeobligatory。

Blue-blacktannininklostcolor，andthereducingnatureofthetannintendedtotheformationofahighlyobjectionableprecipitateintheink，whichmadewritinganythingbutapleasure。Thesetwofaultsweredoubtlesslinkedtogetherinsomewayandseemednottoexistwhengallicacidwasused，forinksomadewasfoundtoprecipitateonlyafteralongexposure，itrequirednofreeacidtokeeptheprecipitateinsolution，andretainedtheindigobluecolorforalongtime；alkalisdidnotdecomposetheink，andprovidedblackerandmorepermanentwriting。

Determinationofthecorrectproportionsofgallicacidandferrous-sulphatewasthesubjectofprolongedexperimentsconductedonsimilarlinestothosealreadydetailed。Theconclusionsastoprecipitationwerealsosimilar。Thirtypartsofiron(150offerrous-

sulphate)and100partsofgallicacidwerefoundtobethemostsuitableproportionsforink-making。Itisadvisable，however，nottodiscardtanninaltogether，owingtotheslowblackeningofthegallicacidink，andalittletanningivesinitialblackeningandbody，whileitisabsolutelynecessaryforcopyingink。

Initialblacknesscanalsobeensuredbyoxidizing21percentoftheferrous-sulphatewithoutaddingtheextraacidnecessarytotheformationofaferricsalt。

Theconcludingportionofhisresearchisdevotedtotheinfluenceofsugaruponthepermanenceofink，andtheresultsoftheexperimentsaresummedupinthefollowingsentences：“Itwouldbeinjurioustoadd3percentofsugartoataninink，whilefrom4to10percentwouldbequiteallowable。Mostcopyinginkscontainabout3。5percentofsugar——

notfarfromthecriticalamount。Withgallicacidmorethan3percentofsugarhardlyvariestheprecipitate，buttheimportanceofthispointissomewhatdiminishedbythefactthatthepresenceofsugarisbynomeansnecessaryinawritingink。Dextrinisamuchsuperiorsubstancetouse。Curiouslythisbodyrapidlyprecipitatesatanninink；henceitisuselessforcopyingink，butforthegallicinkitisanexcellentthickener。”

Chen-Ki-Souen，“LencredeChina。”byMauriceJametel，appearedinParisin1882，butasthetitleindicates，itistheold“Indian“orChineseinkthatisdiscussed。

SchluttigandNeumannin1890issuedtheirEditionDresdenonthesubjectof“IronandGallinks。”Inthisvaluableworkistobefoundtheformulawhichhasbeengenerallyadoptedasthestandardwhereoneisusedfortanno-gallateofironink。

TheinvestigationsofotherscientificmenlikeLepowitz，Booth，Desormeaux，Chevreuse，Irvine，Traille，Bottger，Riffault，Precht，Nicholes，Runge，Gobert，Penny，Arnold，Thomson(LordKelvin)，Davids，Kindt，Ure，Wislarandmanymorewhohavedealtwiththechemistryofinks，presenttoussometestimonyduringaconsiderableportionofthenineteenthcenturyoftheeffortsmadetosecureagoodink。

CHAPTERXIV。

CLASSIFICATIONSOFINK。

INKUSEDBYUSHASNOTHINGINCOMMONWITHTHAT

OFTHEANCIENTS——MANUFACTURERSOFTHEPRESENT

TIMEHAVELARGELYUTILIZEDFORMULASEMPLOYED

INPASTCENTURIES——THECOMMONACCEPTATIONOF

THETERMINK——SEVENDIFFERENTCLASSESOFINKS

ANDTHEIRCOMPOSITIONBRIEFLYTOLD——FAILUREOF

EFFORTSTOSECUREAREALSAFETYINK。

THEinksusedbyushavenothingincommonwiththoseoftheancientsexceptthecolorandgum，andmightylittleofthat。

Thoseofthe“gall“classemployedinthefourteenth，fifteenth，sixteenth，seventeenthandeighteenthcenturies，someformulasofwhichareutilizedbythemanufacturersofinkinourowntime，consistedgenerallyincombination；infusionsofnut-galls，sulphateofcopperoriron，orboth，andfish-glueorgum，slightlyacidulated。Thefrequentintroductionoftheso-called“added“colorintotheseinks，timehasshowntohavebeenagravemistake。

Thecommonacceptationoftheterm“ink“maybesaidtocharacterizeanimmensenumberoffluidcompounds，thefunctionofwhichinconnectionwithamarkinginstrumentistodelineateconventionalsigns，charactersandlettersasputtogetherandcommonlycalledwriting，onpaperorlikesubstances。

Toclassifythemwouldbeimpossible；butblackwritingink，chemicalwritingfluid，coloredwritingink，copyingink，Indiaink，secretorsympatheticink，andindelibleinkmakesevenclasses；theothersmaybedenominatedundertheheadofmiscellaneousinks，andofthemall，thereisnosingleinkansweringeveryrequirementandfewansweratalltimesthesamerequirements。

Inkmaybeeitheraclearsolutionofanycoloringmatterorofcoloringmatterheldinsuspension。

Itisaremarkablefactthatalthoughmostinksarechemicalcompositionsandmanytimesmadeafterthesameformula，identicalresultscannotalwaysbecalculatedorobtained。Thisismoreparticularlytobenotedinthecaseofblackwritinginksotherwiseknownasthetanno-gallateofironinks[gallicandgallotanicacidobtainedfromnut-galls，sulphateofiron，(greencopperas)andsomegummyvehicle]。

Thevariationswouldappeartobelargelyduetothedifferenceinqualityofthegall-nuts，treatment，andtemperatureoftheatmosphere；perhaps，however，notsomuchto-dayasitwastenortwentyyearsago，whentomakeinkofthischaracterboilingprocesseswereemployed。Mostofthemasalreadystatedarenow“cold“made。

Inksofthisclassconsistofafinelydividedinsolubleprecipitatesuspendedinwaterbytheuseofgumandpossessingaslightacidity。

Therequisitesofagoodblackwritinginkorblackwritingfluidrequireittoflowreadilyfromthepen，toindicateinashorttimeablackcolorandtopenetratethepapertoanappreciabledegree，andmoreimportantthanalltherest，tobeofgreatdurability。Whenkeptinaclosedvesselnosedimentofanyaccountshouldbeprecipitated，althoughsuchwillbethecaseinopenink-wells，andthisthequickerthemoretheairispermittedtogettoit。Ifitistobeusedforrecordordocumentarypurposesitmustnotbealtogetherobliteratedifbroughtintocontactwithwateroralcohol，andshoulddependforpermanencyonitschemicalandnotonitspigmentaryqualities。

Thesecondclass，calledfordistinction“chemicalwritingfluids。”possessesthesameessentialingredientstobefoundinclassone，butmuchlessinquantityandwithsome“added“coloredsubstancewhichIshallterm“loading。”foritsrealpurposeistocheapenthecostofproductionandnotaltogetherassomemanufacturersstate“simplytogivethemanagreeablecolor。”

Previoustothediscoveryofthesolubleanilines，logwood，indigo，madder，orchilandotherdyeingmaterialswereusedforaperiodofsomeeightyyearsandvanadiumforsometwentyyears(verycostlyatthattime)，forthispurpose，butsince1874，andwithfrequentchangesastheneweranilinecompoundswereinvented，theseby-productsofcoal-tar，aswellaslogwood，etc。，havebeenandareto-dayemployedfor“loading。”orasthemanufacturerexpresses，it“addedcolor。”Thechemicalwritingfluidsasnowprepared，yieldwhenfirstwrittenablueorgreencolorwithatendencytochangetoblackafterwards。Theyarenotaspermanentasthoseofthefirstclass。

Anotherblackinknotdurable，however，is“logwood；“

itsextractiscombinedwithalittlechromateofpotassiumandboiledtogetherinwater。Itpossessesitsown“gum“andcontainssometannin。Incombinationwithalumandwater，itformsadarkpurpleink。

Thecoloredwritinginks，ofwhich“red“isthemoreimportant，areingreatnumberandwithhardlyanexceptionatthepresenttime，manufacturedbyaddingwaterandwater-glasstoasolubleanilineredcolor。Cochinealwhichwasusedforredinkformerlyisnowalmostobsolete。Nigrosine，oneofthebestknownofthem，ismuchusedasacheap“black“ink，butasitisblueblackandneverbecomesblack，itreallybelongstothefamilyof“colored“writinginks。Theypossessanundeservedpopularityfortheyflowfreelyfromthepenwhichtheydonotcorrode，nordotheythickenorspoilintheinkwell；theyarehoweververy“fugitive“incharacterandshouldnotbeemployedforrecord，legal，monetaryorotherdocumentarypurposes。Theindigoandprussianblueinksarewellknown，theformerundercertainconditionsaverypermanentink，thelattersoondisintegrating。

Copyinginksareoftwokinds，onedependentontheadditionofglycerine，sugar，glucoseorlikecompoundstotheblackwritinginksorchemicalwritingfluidsheretoforementioned，whicharetherebykeptinamoistoffsettingcondition；theotherduetothesolubilityofthepigmentarycolorwithwater，suchastheanilineinkswhicharegivenmorebodythanthoseforordinarypurposes——andthelogwoodsinwhichthepigmentisdevelopedandgivencopyingqualitiesbychemicals，andhencebecomesresponsivetotheapplicationofasheetofpaperdampenedwithwater。Copyinginkshouldneverbeusedfor“record“purposesasitisaffectedbychangesofthetemperature。

Indiaink，sometimescalledChinaink，orasformerlyknownbytheancientsandinclassicalandlatertimes“Indianink。”isnowusedmorefordrawingandengrossingthanitisforcommercialpurposes。Itbelongstothe“carbon“classandinsomeformwasthefirstoneusedintheveryearliesttimes。InChinaitisappliedwithabrushorpithofsomereedtothe“rice“paperalsotheremanufactured。Itiseasilywashedawayunlessbichromateofammoniumorpotassiuminminutequantitiesbeaddedtoit，andthenifthepaperonwhichitappearsbeexposedforashorttimetotheactionoftheactinicraysofsunlight，thisgummycompoundwillberenderedinsolubleandcannotberemovedwithanyfluid，chemicalorotherwise。

Itpossessesalsogreatadvantagesindrawing，sinceitactsasapaint，andwillgiveanydegreeofblacknessaccordingtothequantityofwatermixedwithit。

Secretorsympatheticinksareinvisibleuntilthewritingissubjectedtoasubsequentoperation，suchaswarmingorexposingtosunlight。Tofurtheraidtheobjectinview，thepapermaybefirststeepedinaliquidandthewritingonlymadevisiblebyusinganotherliquidwhichhassomechemicalaffinitywiththepreviousone。Thenumberofthiskindwerebutfewbuthavemultipliedaschemistryprogressed。

Theancientswereacquaintedwithseveralmodes。

OvidindiscreetlyadvisestheRomanwivesandmaidensiftheyintendtomaketheircorrespondenceunreadabletothewrongpersonstowritewithnewmilk，whichwhendriedmayberenderedvisiblebyrubbingashesuponitorahotiron。Plinysuggestsmilkyjuicesofcertainplantsofwhichthereareaconsiderablevariety。

Indelibleinkisnotusedforwritingpurposesonpaper，butisfoundbestadaptedformarkinglinenandcancellationorendorsingpurposes。Itischieflycomposedofnitrateofsilverpreparations，towhichheatmustbeappliedafterithasbeendried；orapigmentiscommingledwiththesamevehiclesusedinmakingcommonprintinginkandinitsusetreatedassuch。

Diamonds，gold，silver，platinumandahostofothermaterialsaremanufacturedintoinkandaretobeplacedundertheheadofmiscellaneousinks。Theyareingreatnumberandofnointerestinrespecttoinkwritingexceptforengrossingorilluminating。

Stillanotherinkonceheldinmuchesteemandnowalmostobsoleteistheso-called“safety“ink。

Manufacturers，chemistsandlaymeningreatnumberformanyyearswastedmoney，timeandenergyindiligentworshipatasecretshrinewhichcouldnotgivetheinformationtheysought。Asummaryofthemeagerandbarrenresultstheysecuredisoflittlevalueandunimportant。Hence，thereisnoREAL“safety“ink。

Itistruethatlampblack(carbon)asmadeintoink，resistsanychemicalorchemicals，butsimplewaterappliedonasoftspongewillsoonremovesuchinkmarks。Thereasonforthisisobvious，theinkdoesnotpenetratethepaper。

“Safety“inkwhichwillnotrespondtoacidsmaybeaffectedbyalkalis，orifresistingthemseparately，willyieldtothemincombination。

CHAPTERXV。

OFFICIALANDLEGALINK。

FIRSTCOMPLETEOFFICIALINVESTIGATIONOFINKIN

THISCOUNTRY——THEHONORDUETOROBERTT。SWAN

OFBOSTON——RESUMEOFHISREPORTSTOTHE

LEGISLATUREOFTHESTATEOFMASSACHUSETTS——THE

SWANLAWADOPTEDIN1894BYTHESTATEOF

MASSACHUSETTS——UNITEDSTATESTREASURYDEPARTMENT

ADOPTSANOFFICIALINKIN1901——UNSUCCESSFUL

ATTEMPTTOSECUREINKLEGISLATIONINTHESTATE

OFNEWYORK——COMMENTSOFTHEPUBLICPRESSOF

THATPERIOD——DIFFERENTWORKSWHICHMOREOR

LESSDWELLONTHESUBJECTOFINKFROM1890TO

1900——CITATIONSFROMALLEN’SCOMMERCIALORGANIC

ANALYSIS——REFERENCETOPAPERABOUTINK

READBEFORETHENEWYORKSTATEBARASSOCIATION。

ITwasnot，however，until1891thatthesubjectoftheconstitutionofanenduringrecordinkreceivedtheconsiderationitsimportancedeservedandinthistheyoungestofcountries。ToRobertT。SwanofBostonisallhonorduefortheveryuniqueandcomprehensivemethodsadoptedinhisinvestigations。

Appointed“commissionerofpublicrecords“ofthestateofMassachusetts，hehassetanexamplewhichmaywellbefollowedbyotherstates，ashasbeendoneinalesserdegreebyConnecticutandtenyearslaterbytheUnitedStatesTreasuryDepartment，whichinthisrespectissoablyrepresentedinpartbyDr。CharlesA。CramptonofWashington，D。C。

Mr。Swaninhisreportstothelegislatureofhisstateforthelasttwelveyears，dealswiththesubjectoftheconstitutionof“permanentinks“sothoroughly，andwithitaffordsinformationofsopracticalandusefulacharacter，thatthefullestreferencestothemprovebothinstructiveandinteresting。Inhisreportof1891heremarks：

“Uponcommencinganexaminationoftherecordsinvariousplaces，Iwasimpressedwiththegreatimportanceoftheuseofinkswhichshouldbepermanent，andthenecessityofaninvestigationwhichmightpreventthefurtheruseofinksthatforonereasonoranotherwereunfitforuseuponrecords。Ifoundthat，asarule，theinksuponthemostancientrecordshadpreservedtheircolor，manyundoubtedlybeingblackerthanwhenused，butthatthelaterrecordslostthejet-blackappearanceoftheolder。This，itistrue，isnotwhollyduetothechangeofinks，fortheuseofquills，thesoftsurfaceoftheoldpaper，theabsenceofblottingpaperandthegreatertimespentinwriting，wereallconducivetoaheavierdepositofink；

butevidenceisamplethatincomparativelyrecentyearsinksofpoorqualitycameinuse。Proofofthisisgivenbyanexaminationoftherecordsinthestatehouse。Uptoabout1850itwasthecustomintheofficeoftheSecretaryoftheCommonwealthtouseforengrossingtheacts，inksmadeofapowderwhichwasmixedintheoffice；anduntilthattimetheactswhichareengrosseduponparchmentshow，withbutfewexceptions，nosignsoffading。From1850forseveralyearsthewritinginmanycasesisbecomingindistinct，thatuponanactin1851，andupontwoin1855，havingnearlydisappeared。Since1860，actsshowingdifferentintensityofcolorarefound，butwhetherthisistheiroriginalcolorornotcannotbedetermined。

Thatthefadingcanbeattributedtotheparchment，assomeclaim，isdisprovedbythefactthatofthesignaturesuponthesameactafewhavefadedwhileothershavenot。UponanactapprovedJanuary4，1845，thesignatureofthePresidentoftheSenatehasnearlydisappeared，thatoftheSpeakeroftheHouseismorelegible，whilethatoftheGovernor，andthefigure4，whichheevidentlyinserted，arejetblack。

“Theindexesinthevolumesofarchivesintheofficeofthesecretary，whichwerewrittenabout1840，wereevidentlymadewithadifferentinkfromthatusedforengrossing，andfadedsobadlythattheimportantwordshadtoberewritten。

“IntheofficeoftheStateTreasurertherecordstoabout1867areveryblackanddistinct，buttheinkusedduringafewyearsfollowinghasfaded。

“Therecordsofbirths，marriagesanddeaths，intheregistrationvolumesinthesecretary’soffice，furnishanexcellentillustrationofthedifferentqualitiesoftheinksnowused。Theserecordsareoriginalreturnsmadebythecityandtownclerks，andfrom1842to1889showinstancesoftheuseofinkswhicharenowalmostillegible。Hereagainthefaultcannotbeattributedtothepaper，forendorsementsmadeinthesecretary’sofficeuponthemostfadedreturnsatthetimeoftheirreceiptareasblackaswhenmade。

“ThevolumesofcopiesoftheoldrecordsofLexington，madein1853，havefadeduntiltheyarequiteindistinct。

“Someoftheoldinks，thoughretainingtheirblackcolorhave，fromthepresenceofacidintheinkorpaper，eatenthroughthepaperasthoroughlyasifthewritinghadbeendonewithasharpinstrument。Inpartofoneoldvolumeofcourtrecords，theink，whilenotinjuringthepaperorbecomingillegibleuponthefaceoftheleaves，hasgraduallybecomelegibleuponthereverse，whiletheheavypaperhasbeenimpervioustotheotherinksused。

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Toascertainwhatkindofinkswereinusebythetownclerks，Iexaminedtheregistrationvolumesbeforereferredto，and，asbeforestated，foundmanypoorinksinuse。Inafewcasesblueinkswereused，andintwoviolet，whichis，asarule，ifnotalways，afugitivecolor。Anumberofthereturnsinthesevolumesofasrecentdateas1875werealmostillegible，andthreemadein1888

werenearlyasindistinct。

“ThemoreIlookedintothesubject，themoreIbecameconvincedthatthewholesubjectofinkwasoneuponwhichthepersonsusingitwerecomparativelyignorant。Consultationwithexpertssatisfiedmethatgoodinkswerebeinginjuredbyimpropertreatment；thatthecustomofmixinginksandofaddingwatertothemwasunsafe；andthatamongtheinksreportedasinuseupontherecordsthereweremanymanufacturedforcommercialuseswhichshouldnotbeuseduponrecords，andwhichthemanufacturerswouldsaywerenotintendedforrecordinks。Ithereforesenttothemanufacturersoftheinksreportedasinusebytherecordingofficers，andtosomeothers，thefollowingletterandinquiries：

“’Thefadingofmuchoftheinkusedinrecordsofcomparativelyrecentdate，whileasaruletherecordsoftwohundredyearsagoareaslegibleaswhenwritten，establishesthefactthatforpermanentqualitiesmuchofthemoderninkisinferiortotheancient，andthatinksareusedthatareunfitformakingarecordwhichshouldstandforalltime。

“’Iamledtobelievethatmostinkinmanufacturersmakeinkswhicharegoodforcommercialandotheruseswherethereisnodesireforapermanentrecord，butwhichtheywouldnotrecommendforusewheretheimportantobjectwasthepermanencyoftherecord。Oneofthedangerstowhichourrecordsareexposedcanbeobviatedbytheuseofproperinks；andIdesiretoobtaintheopinionoftheleadingmanufacturersonthesubject，thatI

mayadvisetherecordingofficersoftheStatewhatare，andwhatarenot，safeinkstouseforrecords。

“’Ishallesteemitafavor，therefore，ifyouwillanswertheenclosedquestions，andreturnthematyourconvenience。Yourreplywillbetreatedasconfidentialasfarasnamesareconcerned，exceptintheanswertoquestionNo。5，andthatwillnotbeprintedifyousorequest。Anygeneralopinionwhichwillaidtherecordingofficersintheirselectionofinkorpaperwillbewelcomed。

“’1。Doyouconsideritsafetouseforapermanentrecordanilineinks？

“’2。Doyouconsideritsafetouseforarecordlogwoodinks？

“’3。Doyourconsidernut-gallandironinksabsolutelysafeforapermanentrecord？

“’4。Doyouconsidercarboninktheonlypermanentink？

“’5。Whatinksofyourmanufacturewouldyouadviseagainstusingforapermanentrecord？

“’6。Doyouadvisegenerallyagainsttheinksknownaswritingfluids，whenpermanencyisthefirstrequisition？

“’7。Doyoumanufactureawritingfluid？

“’8。Doyouconsideritsafetoaddwatertoinkintendedforpermanentrecord，whichhasgrownthickbyexposuretotheair？

“’9。Doyoubelievethattheobliterationofinkiseverduetothechemicalsleftinthepaper？

(Thisquestionhasbeenaskedofthepapermanufacturersalso。)

“’10。Doyouconsideritsafetomixinkswithoutknowingtowhatchemicalgrouptheinkssomixedbelong？’

“Replieswerereceivedfromtwenty-twomanufacturers。Severaloftheinksinthemarket，thoughbearingthenameofcertainpersons，werefoundtobemanufacturedforthembymanufacturerswhohadalreadyansweredthequestions。

Theirreplieswere，therefore，notconsidered。

“Tothefirstquestion，’Doyouconsideritsafetouseforapermanentrecordanilineinks！’theunanimousanswerwasdecidedlyno。Anilineblackisabsolutelypermanent，butasitisnotyetknownhowtorenderitsolubleinwater，ithasnotbeenmuchusedinink。

“Totheinquiryinregardtologwoodinks，nearlyallansweredno，andmostofthosewhodidnotqualifiedtheiranswerstosuchanextentastoimplydistrust。

“Uponthequestionofthepermanencyofnut-gallandironinks，theanswersweremorevaried；oneansweringno，andfouransweringdirectlyyes，theremaininganswersbeinginbriefthatsuchinkswerepermanentifproperlymade。

“Tothequestion，’Doyouconsidercarboninktheonlypermanentink？’theanswerswerevariedandcontradictory。Mostofthemanufacturerssaidacarboninkcouldnotbepermanent，becausecarbonwasinsoluble；andsomesaidthatnochemicalunioncouldexistbetweencarbonandtheotheringredientsinink。Othersclaimedthatcarbonwastheonepermanentcolor，andcitedtheoldIndianandChineseinkswhichhavestoodforcenturiesasillustrationsofitspermanency。ThesestatementsweresowidelydifferentthatIpursuedtheinquiryfurther，andfounditwasconcededthat，ifaprocesscouldbediscoveredbywhichcarboncouldbedissolvedandmadetoretainitscolor，noknownsubstancewouldmakesopermanentanink；

butthattherewasnosuchprocess，andintheinksnowmadethecarbonwassimplyheldinsuspensionintheinkwithoutanychemicalunion；butI

foundalsothatimprovementhasbeenmade，andthatitispossibletocombinethecarbonwithchemicalswhichwillcausethecarbontoembodyitself。

Morethanordinarycareshould，however，beexercisedinthepurchaseofcarboninks，forthelackofchemicalunionwouldcauseatendencytoprecipitatethecarboniftheinkwereimproperlymade。

“Therepliestotheinquiry，’Doyouadvisegenerallyagainsttheinksknownaswritingfluids，whenpermanencyisthefirstrequisition？’wereinawaythemostunsatisfactory，andsavoredsomewhatofadvertising。Onemanufacturermadenofluid，andhadnoopiniontoexpress。Mostoftheothersmadefluids。Nineadvisedgenerallyagainsttheiruse；fourrecommendedtheminpreferencetoink；andtheotherseitheradvisedgenerallyagainstthem，butrecommendedtheirown，orqualifiedtheanswerinsuchawayastothrowdoubtonthem。

“Theargumentintheirfavorseemstobethattheirfluiditymakesthempermeatethepaper，and，inthechangeofcolorwhichusuallytakesplaceafterusing，adyeingofthepaperresults。Theobjectionsare，thattoobtainthefluiditybodymustbesacrificed，andthereisnotenoughsubstancedepositeduponthepaper。TheobjectionsmadebytwomanufacturersoffluidsIgiveintheirownwords。

“’Weadvisegenerallyagainsttheinksknownsimplyaswritingfluids——thosenotintendedtoyieldaletter-presscopy——becausetheyareuniversallymade，first，withaslittlesolidmatteraspossible，——i。e。weak；second，withanexcessofironbeyondthatrequiredtocombinewiththetannin，soastodevelopallthecolorpossibleandflowwiththegreatestfreedom。Thecombinedwritingandcopyingfluids，andthecopyingfluidsontheotherhandifproperlymade，maybejustlyrecommendedwherepermanencyisthefirstrequisition，particularlytheolderones，whichshouldbethemostdurableofallnut-gallandironinks，becauseinthemparticularlyconcentrationisaimedat，andtheironneednotnecessarily，andshouldnot，beinexcessofthatrequiredtocombinewiththetanninpresent。Asteelpenduringuseinjures，andoftengreatly，thedurabilityofawritinginkbygivingupirontoit。

“’Foryourpurpose，whereextremepermanencyisthefirstrequisition，Ishouldnotadvisetheuseofanordinarywritingfluid。Manymanufacturerscannotobtainsufficientfluidityintheirwritingfluidswithoutmakingtheirinksverydilute，andobservingaparticularmethodofmanufacturewhich，althoughprovidingmoreattainedcolorforatime，sacrificesthepermanentqualityoftheircolorinagreatmeasure。Ishouldadvisetheuseofaninkdecidedlystronger。’

“Theadditionofwaterwasalmostuniversallycondemned，forreasonsstatedlater。Asproofthatthiswasnotforthemercenarypurposeofindirectlyadvisingtheuseofmoreink，someofthemanufacturerssaidtheinkshouldbekeptinsmall-

mouthedink-stands，andwhennotinuseshouldbeastightlysealedaspossible，topreventevaporation。

“Inreplytotheinquiryastowhetherchemicalsleftinthepapereverobliteratedtheink，severalofthemanufacturerssaidtheyknewofsuchcases，andallwereagreedthat，ifthechloridesusedforbleachingthepaperwerenotwashedout，theywoulddangerouslyaffectanyink。Thepracticeofmixinginkswasuniversallycondemned。

“Permanencyagainsttheactionoftimeisthequalitysoughtforinthisinvestigation，anditisclaimedthatbetterevidenceastothatqualityisfurnishedbythetestoftimethanbyanyother；

andmanufacturershaveshownorreferredtospecimensofwritingmadewiththeirinkmanyyearsago，asproofofitsmeritinthisparticular。

Iftherewasanysuretythatthestandardofqualitywasalwayskeptupinalloftheoldestinksonthemarket，itwouldbesafetoacceptthattest，butthismaynotbeafact；and，ashasbeenstated，someoftherecordingofficersbelievethatitisnot。

Moreover，ifonlytheoldinksweretobeaccepted，itwouldbeagainstthespiritoftheage，whichistoadopttheimprovementswhichsciencemakespossible；andmanufacturerswhoatgreatcostoftimeandmoneyhavemadeimprovements，wouldbedeprivedofthecompensationwhichtheydeserve。Theoldinkswereasaruleheavy，andhadatendencytosettle；andtheendeavoronthepartofsomemanufacturershasbeentopreservethepermanency，andatthesametimeproducethinnerinkswhichwouldbemoreagreeabletouse。

“Improvementshavebeenmadeinthedirectionoffree-flowinginks，andthesearefastbecomingpopular；and，whileforcorrespondenceandcommercialusestheyareundoubtedlysufficientlypermanent，forrecordsmanyofthemarenot，anditwaswithaviewofpreventingtheuseoftheseuponrecordsthatthisinvestigationwasmade。

Noattentionhasbeengiventothepermanencyoftheinks，asagainsttheirremovalbyacids。

“TheuseofproperinkisconsideredsoimportantbytheBritishgovernmentthattheinksusedinthepublicdepartmentsareobtainedbypublictender，inaccordancewiththeconditionsdrawnupbythecontrollerofH。M。stationeryoffice，withtheassistanceofthechiefchemistoftheinlandrevenuedepartment，towhomtheinkssuppliedbythecontractorarefromtimetotimesubmittedforanalysis。Suitableinksforthevarioususesarethusobtained，andtheirstandardmaintained。Thelastformof’invitationtotender，’

or’proposal，’aswetermit，isappended，asbeinginstructive。

IcannotlearnthattheUnitedStatesgovernmentusesanysuchcareastheBritishgovernmentinthematterofink，althoughthequestionhasbeenatroublesomeoneinthedepartments。

“TheStatedepartmentissuesnospecialrulesfordeterminingsuitableinks，orrequiringthatparticularinksshallbeused。Proposalsareaskedforthelowestbidsforthearticlesofstationeryrequired，thelastformofproposalaskingforbidsuponsevenblackinks，onecrimson，andonewritingfluid，whicharenamed。

“Withthemarketfullofinksworthlessforrecords，theonlysafetyforourrecordsseemstobeintheestablishmentofasystemsimilartotheEnglish，whichshallfixuponproperinksforvarioususes，whichallrecordingofficersshallberequiredtouse。

“Ibelievethattherecordingofficerswillbegladtohavethequestionofpermanentinksdecidedforthem，andtoknowwhetherinkswhichwereinusemanyyearsago，andhavestoodthetestthusfar，aremaintainedattheiroldstandard。

Inthefaceofsharpcompetitionamongmanufacturers，theyfeartheyarenot。”

Mr。Swan，proceedingstillfurther，securedtheservicesoftwoofthemostdistinguishedprofessorsofchemistryinthiscountry，Messrs。MarkoeandBaird，andsubmittedtothemincamerasixty-sevensamplesofdifferentinks，knownonlybynumbers，forchemicalanalysis；inalongandexhaustivereportontheworktheyhadsetouttoaccomplish，andalsowithadissertationonthechemistryofinksingeneral，theycompletetheirreportasfollows：

“Asaconclusion，sincethegreatmassofinksonthemarketarenotsuitableforrecords，becauseoftheirlackofbodyandbecauseofthequantityofunstablecolorwhichtheycontain，andbecausethefewwhosecoloringmattersarenotobjectionablearedeficientingallsandiron，orboth，wewouldstronglyrecommendthattheStatesetitsownstandardforthecompositionofinkstobeusedinitsofficesandforitsrecords，havetheinksmanufacturedaccordingtospecificationssentout，andreceivethemanufacturedproductssubjecttochemicalassay。InthiswayonlycantherebeauniformityintheinksusedfortherecordsthroughouttheState，andinnootherwaycanaproperstandardbemaintained。”

Mr。Swancommentsonthereportofhischemists，andcallsattentiontoothertestsmadebyhimself：

“TheconclusionsatwhichIarrivedweredrawn，asstated，frommanufacturersorrecordingofficers，whollyindependentlyofthechemists，buttheywillbefoundtocoincideinmanyparticularswiththeirs。

IdidconsulttheminregardtothepracticabilityofmaintainingaStatestandardforrecordink，whichtheyhaveapproved。

“Thecommendationbythechemistsofsomeoftheso-calledwritingfluidsexplainsinadegreethevarietyofopinionsadvancedbythemanufacturersinregardtothedurabilityoffluids。Someofthemwillbeseentopossessthequalitiesofink，andthenamefluidisevidentlygiventomeetthecommercialdemandforfluids。

“Severalpersons，manufacturersamongthem，expressedgreaterconfidenceintestsofexposureofinkstothelightandweatherthantochemicalanalysis。I，therefore，asadrytest，placedontheinsideofawindowpanereceivingastronglight，writingmadeunderexactlythesameconditionswitheachofsixty-seveninks，whichremainedtherefromMarch13toDecember8。SimilarwritingwasexposedtolightandtheweatherfromSeptember25toDecember8，andtheresultoftheresistanceoftheinksinbothtestsisanalmostexactconfirmationofthereportofthechemists，inksofthesameclassvaryingintheirresistanceaccordingtotheirspecificgravityoramountofaddedcolor。

“Itmaybesafelysaid，therefore，thatofsixty-

seveninksofwhichIprocuredsamples，allbutseventeenareunsuitableforrecords，andamongthesethechemistssaybutoneisfullyuptotheestablishedscientificstandardofquantityofironsulphate。Thereasonisplain，——thedemandforcommercialinksislarge，forrecord，small，andthesupplyhasbeentomeetthedemand。”

TheBritishgovernmentadvertisesfortenderseachyear，therequirementsforblackwritinginkin1889

reads：

“TobemadeofBestGalls，SulphateofIron，andGum。TheSulphateofIronnottoexceedinquantityone-thirdoftheweightoftheGallsused，andthespecificgravityofthematuredInknottoexceed1045degrees(distilledwaterbeing1000degrees)。”

ThatofBlackCopyingInk“Tobemadeoftheabovematerials，butofastrengthonefourthgreaterthantheWritingInk，andwiththeadditionofSugarorGlycerine。ThespecificgravityofthematuredInknot。toexceed1085degrees。”AndthatofBlue-BlackWritingInk“TobemadeoffinestGalls，SulphateofIron，Gum，Indigo，andSulphuricAcid。ThespecificgravityoftheInkwhenmaturednottoexceed1035degrees。”

Mr。Swanagainremarksinhisreportof1892：

“Manyoftheinkswhichshouldnotbeuseduponrecordsarefreeflowingandmoreagreeabletousethanpermanentinks，containingmorebody。

Aslongasrecordingandcopyingispaidforbythepage，andtheobjectistoaccomplishthemostintheleasttime，theseinkswillbeinpopularuse，andused，andblottedoffthepaperbeforetheyhavemuchmorethancoloredit，onlytodisappeareventually。TheStateshouldsetastandardforarecordink；and，whileourpresentsystemofkeepingrecordsandfurnishingsupplieswillnotallowthatitsuseberequiredonallpublicrecords，asinEngland，itwouldseempracticableforthesecretaryoftheCommonwealthtoadvertiseforproposalsforinksofacertainstandard，whichthemanufacturersshouldbeboundtomaintain，andthattheseshouldbeusedinalltheStateoffices。

WithaStatestandardinkadopted，itsusebyrecordingofficerswouldsoonfollow。”

In1894Mr。Swan’sindefatigableeffortswerecrownedwithsuccess，thestateofMassachusettsadoptinghisrecommendationsincludedinthefollowingact：

“SECTION1。NopersonhavingthecareorcustodyofanybookofrecordorregistryinanyofthedepartmentsorofficesoftheCommonwealthshalluseorallowtobeuseduponsuchbooksanyinkexceptingsuchasisfurnishedbythesecretaryoftheCommonwealth。

“SECTION2。ThesecretaryoftheCommonwealthshallfromtimetotimeadvertiseforproposalstofurnishtheseveraldepartmentsandofficesoftheCommonwealthinwhichbooksofrecordorregistryarekeptwithinkofastandardanduponconditionstobeestablishedbythesecretaryatsuchperiodsandinsuchquantitiesasmayberequired，andmaycontractforthesame。

“SECTION3。TheinksofurnishedshallbeexaminedfromtimetotimebyachemisttobedesignatedbythesecretaryoftheCommonwealth，andifatanytimesaidinkshallbefoundtobeinferiortotheestablishedstandardthesecretaryshallhaveauthoritytocancelanycontractmadeforfurnishingsaidink，andthequantitysofoundinferiorshallnotbepaidfor。”

ProfessorMarkoe，referredtobefore，wasappointed“chemist“bytheSecretaryoftheCommonwealthandpreparedwhatheconsideredthebestformula，forastandardink，whichwascompetedforbyanumberofinkmanufacturersafterproperadvertisement，andacontractawarded。Mr。Swansaysthatthisdeparturewasreceivedwithfavorbyrecordingofficers。

NochangewasmadeintheformulauntilafterthedeathofProfessorMarkoein1900，whenDr。BennettF。DavenportofBostonwasselectedashissuccessor。

Hesubmittedamodifiedformulatobeemployedinthemanufactureofanofficialorstandardink。ItwasadoptedandsuchaninkiswithoutexceptionnowusedbyallrecordingofficersofbothMassachusettsandConnecticut。

In1901theUnitedStatestreasurydepartmentadoptedasimilarinkexceptthatitpermittedtheintroductionintoitofanunnamedbluecoloringmaterial。

Earlyin1894andduringthelegislativesessionofthestateofNewYork，afterconsultationwithGeneralPalmer，thethensecretaryofstate，IpreparedabillsomewhatonthelinesaslaiddownintheMassachusettsstatute。Thepressalloverthestateatoncetookupthematterandurgedthatsomesuchmeasureshouldbeenactedintolaw。ANewYorkCitynewspaperdiscusseditasfollows：

“Abillistobeintroducedinthelegislaturethisweek，probablyto-morrownight，providingforanofficialinktobeusedbyeverypublicofficerthroughouttheStateofNewYorkinthewritingofpublicdocumentsandinmakingentriesintherecords。

“Theofficialinkisforthepurposeofmakingpublicrecordspermanentandtoguardagainstfraudbythealterationoftherecords。Asthelawstandsatthepresenttimeinthestateeveryofficial，whethermunicipal，countyorstate，isallowedtopurchaseandusefortherecordsofhisofficewhateverinkhemaychoose。Theconsequenceisthatthereisnouniformityinpublicrecordsthroughoutthestate，andentries，transcriptsandcertificatesarewrittenwithhundredsofvariouskindsofinks。

“Theseriouspartofthebusiness，however，istheevanescentcharacterofsomeofthekindsnowused，especiallyofthecheapergrades。Thesearetheinksmadefromanilineandotherdyeswhichareheldinsolutioninwater。Suchinksaremadefromafine，cheappowder，ofwhichnigrosineisusedinmakingblackinks，eosineforred，andmethyleneforblueink，andtheycostonlyafewdimesagallontomanufacture。Thewritingmadewithsuchinksquicklydriesbytheevaporationofthewater，whenitmerelyrequirestheapplicationofalittlesoapandwatertowashthemout，leavingthepaperabsolutelyclean，besidesbeingfugitive。

“ItissaidthatasaresultofthepresentlackofsysteminthismattertherearenowpublicrecordsofthecityofNewYorkinwhichtheinkhasentirelyfaded。Theserecordshavebeenmadewithinthepastfortyyears，andarenowworthlessbecauseofthecharacteroftheinksoriginallyused。

“InthePolicedepartmentofthiscityablueinkisoftenusedwhichismadefromprussianblue。AlargeportionoftheentriesinthebooksofthePolicedepartmentaremadewithinkofthiskind，andthewarrantsandotherpublicdocumentswithwhichthepolicehavetodoaresimilarlywritten。

“Alittlesoapandwaterwillwipeoutthiswriting，sothattherecordcanbeeasilyalteredatanytime。TheuseofthisinkinthePolicedepartmentissaidtodatefromthetimeofTweed，whichissignificantoftheoriginalpurposeforwhichit。

wasadopted。

“Apermanentwritingfluidsuchasitisnowproposedtoadoptthroughoutthestatewouldnotonlysecureuniformityinthecharacteroftheinksused，butitwouldalsothrowmanyobstaclesinthewayofalteringtherecords。

“ThepresentSecretaryofStateisheartilyinaccordwiththeproposedlegislation。HewasseenlastweekbyMr。DavidN。Carvalho，whohasmadealifestudyofthesubjectandwhodrewthebillandispushingthereform。

“Mr。Carvalhosaidyesterday：’Thisink，whoseuseitisintendedtosecureinthemakingofpublicrecordsinthisstate，ismorecostlythanthosemadefromanilineandotherdyes，whichfadeandwash。Inittheblackparticlesaresuspendedinwaterbytheadditionofgum。Thiskindofinkhasanaffinityforoxygen，andhenceitoxidizesandturnsblack。Whenunadulterateditonlybecomesblackerwiththepassageoftime，andcannotbewashedfromthepaperbytheuseofwater。’

“’Icouldshowyou，’continuedMr。Carvalho，’publicrecordsofthiscitymadewithinfortyyearswhichareentirelyillegibleandconsequentlyworthless，becausecheapinkswereusedinthewriting。TheseincludenotonlyrecordsofwillsintheSurrogate’soffice，butentriesandtransfersofrealestatewhicharelikelytocomeupinthecourseoflitigationatanytime，therebyaffectingtherightsofmanycitizens。

“’Icantellyouatonceuponseeinganolddocumentthecharacteroftheinkthatwasusedinthewriting，andIhaveseenmanyoldpapersoverahundredyearsofageinwhichthewritingwasasclearasthedayitwasmade，simplybecauseagoodwritinginkwasused。Ontheotherhandwritingmadewithcheapanilineinkmayundercertaincircumstancesfadeoutwithinayear，andinabookwhichismuchhandledisalmostcertaintoberubbedoutintime。

“’Ithasfrequentlyhappenedthatinthecourseoflitigation，especiallyoverrealestate，thatoldrecordsmadewithpoorinkshavebeenproducedwhichthecourtrefusedtoacceptasevidence，therebydeprivingsomecitizenofhisrights。Atthepresenttimemanyofficialsinthisstate，infact，themajorityofthem，areusingthesecheapandworthlessinksandtherecordstheyaremakingwillbeoflittleornovalueinafewyears。

“’Itistoputastoptothisabusethatthepresentbillhasbeendrawnup，andthereisnoargumentwhichcanberaisedagainstit。’“

Itappearsthattherewasone，however，asthebillfailedtopassforthestatedreasonthatitcameundertheheadof“class“legislation。ThegreatstateandcityofNewYorkwithcostlyandmagnificentdepositoriescontinuetoplaceinthem，forsafe-keeping，valuablerecordsandotherink-writteninstrumentswhichwillbecomeillegiblebeforethepresentcenturycomestoanend。

ProfessorLehner，aGermanchemist，in1890publishedatreatise“DieTinten-Fabrikation。”whichhasbeentranslatedandaddedtobyDr。Brannt，ofPhiladelphia，editorof“TheTechno-ChemicalReceipt-Book。”whoremarks：

“ThelackofarecenttreatiseintheEnglishlanguagecontainingdetaileddescriptionsoftherawmaterialsandreceiptsforthepreparationofInks，andtheapparentnecessity，asshownbyfrequentinquiries，forsuchavolume，weretheconsiderationswhichledtothepreparationofTheManufactureofInk。”

Thisworkcompilesagreatnumberofformulas，andratherfavorstheviewsofthechemistDr。Bostockrespectingtheironandgallinks。Thebookpossessesvalueforreferencepurposestothemanufacturer。

AugustePeret，authorof“TheManufactureofInk。”

1891，hasputtogetheralotofexcellentmaterialrelativetoink-makingandvaluableforreferencepurposes。

ThelateDr。WilliamE。HaganofTroy，NewYork，in1894issuedhisbook，“DisputedHand-writing。”

Hedevotestwochapterstothediscussionofancientandmoderninksandtheirchemistry。Hehasbeenkindenoughtoquotethewriterasthefirsttoremoveinkinopencourtwithchemicalsinordertodeterminetheexistenceofpencilwritingbeneaththeink。

Thepencilbeingcarbonwasnotaffectedtherebyandwiththesubsequentrestorationofthebleachedinkbytheuseofthecorrectre-agent。

InthesameyearDr。PersiforFrazerofPhiladelphiapublishedhis“ManualoftheStudyofDocuments。”

Afewpagesaregiventothestudyofinks，andapartthereofisdevotedtotheresearchesofCarre，Hager，Baudrimont，Tarry，ChevallierandLassaigne，todeterminesuspectedforgeries。Thechapteron“thesequenceincrossedlines。”whereheindicateshismethodofdeterminingwhichoftwocrossedinklineswaswrittenfirst，isbothoriginalandarealcontributiontoscience。

AlfredH。Allen，F。C。S。，ofEngland，perhapsthehighestauthorityonthesubjectoftannins，dyesandcoloringmattersinhis“CommercialOrganicAnalysis。”

revisedandeditedbyProfessorJ。MerrittMathewsofPennsylvania，editionof1900，devoteseightpagestothesubjectofthe“ExaminationofInkMarks。”Hesays：

“Ordinarywritinginkwasformerlyalwaysmadefromadecoctionofgalls，towhichgreenvitriolwasadded。Oflate，thecompositionofwritinginkshasbecomefarlessconstant，anilineandotherdyesbeingfrequentlyemployed，andothermetallicsaltssubstitutedfortheferrous-

sulphateformerlyinvariablyused。Thebestblackinkisatanno-gallateofiron，obtainedbyaddinganinfusionofnut-gallstoasolutionofferrous-

sulphate(copperas)。”

In1897theauthorinapaperreadbeforetheNewYorkStateBarAssociationatAlbany，entitled“A

PleaforthePreservationofthePublicRecords。”discussedthequestionofthestabilityofinksandtheirphenomenaandtookoccasiontomakerecommendationsastotheirconstitutionandfuturemethodsofemployment。AvoteofthankswasadoptedandtheassociationreferredthepapertotheCommitteeonLawReform，wherenodoubtitstillslumbers。

CHAPTERXVI。

ENDURINGINK。

ASCERTAINMENTOFACORRECTINKFORMULATHEWORK

OFOVERACENTURY——CHARACTEROFTHEEVIDENCE

WHICHESTABLISHESIT——THEINVESTIGATIONSOF

THEAUTHORINTHISDIRECTIONANDCOMPARISON

WITHTHOSEOFCOMMISSIONERSWAN——ELIMINATION

OFTHE“ADDED“COLORSANDTHEIRORIGIN——

DISCUSSIONOFTHERELATIVEMERITSOFLAMPBLACK，MADDERANDINDIGO——THEDURABLEVIRTUESOF

INDIGOWHENEMPLOYEDALONE——CAUSEOFTHE

BROWNINGOFINKS——LONGEVITYOFINKDUETO

VEHICLEWHICHCARRIESIT——WHENPERFECTINK

WILLBEINVENTED。