第3章

TheFrenchJewswereusing“tusche“(typicalofthe“Indian“ink)，whiletheGermanswereemploying“pomegranate“and“gall“inks。RepresentativesfrominterestedreligiousJewishcenterscametogetherandresolvedtosubmittheirdifferencesforfinaladjustmenttoMaimonides，borninSpain，A。D。

1130，anddiedA。D。1204——thethengreatestlivingHebrewtheologianandauthorityonbiblicalandrabbinicallaws。Discardingallsideissues，theirdifferenceswereseeminglyincorporatedintothreequestionsandthuspropoundedtohim：

1。IstheTalmudicdeyoidenticalwithalchiber？

2。OfwhatingredientshouldtheTalmudicdeyoconsist，ifitisnotthesameasalchiber？

3。Isalchibertobeunderstoodasrelatingtothegall-appleandchalkanthum(bluevitriol)？

TothefirstandthirdquestionsMaimonidesdeclaredthatdeyoandalchiberwerenotidentical；

andforthereasonsthattheTalmuddeclaresdeyotobeawritingmaterialwhichdoesnotremainonthesurfaceonwhichitisplacedandtobeeasilyeffaced。

Ontheotherhandalchibercontainsgumandotherthingswhichcausesittoadheretothewritingsurface。

TothesecondquestionheaffirmedthattheTalmuddistinguishesadoublekindofdeyo，onecontaininglittleornogumandbeingafluid，andtheotherreferringto“pulverizedcoalofthevine，sootfromburningoliveoil，tar，rosinandhoney，pressedintoplatestobedissolvedinwaterwhenwantedforuse。”

Furthermore，whiletheTalmudexcludestheuseofcertaininksofwhichironvitriolwasone，itdoesnotexcludeatramentum，(chalkanthum，coppervitriol)，becausetheTalmudneverspeaksofit。HeinsistedthattheTalmudrequiresadryink(deyo)。

AsoneofthelastentriesmadeintheTalmud(agreatcollectionoflegaldecisionsbytheancientRabbis，Hebrewtraditions，etc。，andbelievedtohavebeencommencedinthesecondcenturyoftheChristianera)isclaimedtobelongtothesixthcentury，mentionsgall-applesandiron(copper)vitriol，itmusthavereferredto“gall“ink。FurtherinvestigationdisclosesthefactthatsuchgallswereofChineseoriginandasweknowtheydonotcontainthenecessaryfermentwhichthealeppoandothergallspossessforinducingatransformationofthetanninintogallicacid，nocompleteunioncouldthereforeobtain。

Hencethevalueofthiscompositionwaslimiteduntilthetimewhenyeastandothermaterialswereintroducedtoovercomeitsdeficiencies。

Hotz-OsterwaldofZurich，antiquarianandscholar，hasassertedthatwiththeexceptionofthecarboninksemployedonpapyrus，thewritingpigmentsofantiquityandtheMiddleAgeshavescarcelybeeninvestigated。Thedarktolight-brownpigment，hithertoaproblem，universallyusedonparchment，hecontendsuponhistorical，chemicalandmicroscopicevidenceisidenticalwithoeno-cyaninandwaspreparedforthemostpartfromyeast，andwasfirstemployedasapigment。Contrarytothegeneralopinionitcontainsnoiron，exceptfrequentlyaccidentaltraces，andafteritsappearanceinGreeceinthethirdcentury，itformedalmostexclusivelytheinkoftheancientmanuscripts，untildisplacedbythegallateinks，saidtohavebeenintroducedbytheArabians。Theseaccidentaltracesofironwereduetotheemploymentofironvesselsinthemakingoftheink。

MyownobservationsinthisdirectionconfirmandestablishthefactthatitwasthecustomintheearlycenturiesoftheChristianeratoutilizeyeastorananalogouscompoundaspartofthecompositionofink，towhichwasaddedsepia，ortherindofthepomegranateapplepreviouslydissolvedbyheatinalkalinesolutions。

Thisanalogouscompoundwasprobablythematerialprocuredfromwinelees(dregs)，depositedafterfermentationhascommenced，andwhichafterconsiderableapplicationofheatyieldsnotonlymostofthetannincontainedinthestonesandfruitstalks，butaviscidcompoundcharacteristicofgelatineandofared-purplecolorwhichincourseoftimechangestobrown。

Bloxamsaysthatthecoloringmatterofgrapesandofredwineappearstobe“cyanin。”

Oneofthemethodsoftreatingwinelees，astranslatedintheeighteenthcenturyfromanoldItaliansecreta，issufficientlycurioustopartlyquote：

“DrytheLees(dregs)ofwinewithagentlefireandfillwiththemtwothirdofalargeearthenRetort，placethisretortinareverberatoryfurnace，andfittingittoalargereceiver，giveasmallfiretoittoheattheRetortbydegrees，anddriveforthaninsipidphlegm；whenvapoursbegintorise，youmusttakeoutthephlegmandlutingcarefullythejuncturesofyourvessels，quickenthefirelittlebylittleuntilyoufindthereceiverfilledwithwhiteclouds；

continueitinthiscondition，andyouperceivethereceivertocool，raisethefiretotheutmostextremity，andcontinueitso，untiltherearisenomorevapours。Whenthevesselsarecoldunlutethereceiver，andshakingittomaketheVolatilesalt，whichstickstoit，falltothebottom，pouritallintoabolt-head；fitittoaHeadwithasmallreceiver；

lutewellthejuncturesandplacingitinsand，givealittlefireunderit，andthevolatilesaltwillriseandsticktothehead，andthetopoftheBolt-head；takeoffyourheadandsetonanotherinitsplace；gatheryoursaltandstopittipquickly，foriteasilydissolvesintoaliquor；continuethefire，andtakecaretogathertheSaltaccordingasyouseeitappear；butwhenthererisesnomoresalt，aliquorwilldistill，ofwhichyoumustdrawaboutthreeounces，andputoutthefire。”&c。

The“leesofwine。”inconnectionwiththeancientmethodsofink-makingisalsoreferredtobytheyoungerPlinyinhistwenty-fifthbook，whichtheEdinburghReviewhascarefullytranslatedandprinted：

“INK(orliterally)BLACKING——Inkalsomaybesetdownamongtheartificial(orcompound)

drugs，althoughitisamineralderivedfromtwosources。For，itissometimesdevelopedintheformofasalineefflorescence，——orisarealmineralofsulphureouscolor——chosenforthispurpose。

Therehavebeenpainterswhodugupfromgravescoloredcoals(CARBON)。Butalltheseareuselessandnew-fanglednotions。Foritismadefromsootinvariousforms，as(forinstance)ofburntrosinorpitch。Forthispurpose，theyhavebuiltmanufactoriesnotemittingthatsmoke。Theinkoftheverybestqualityismadefromthesmokeoftorches。Aninferiorarticleismadefromthesootoffurnacesandbath-housechimneys。Therearesome(manufacturers)also，whoemploythedriedleesofwine；andtheydosaythatiftheleessoemployedwerefromgoodwine，thequalityoftheinkistherebymuchimproved。PolygnotusandMicon，celebratedpaintersatAthens，madetheirblackpaintfromburntgrape-vines；theygaveitthenameofTRYGYNON。APELLES，wearetold，madeHISfromburntivory，andcalleditelephantina’ivory-black。’Indigohasbeenrecentlyimported，——

asubstancewhosecompositionIhavenotyetinvestigated。Thedyersmaketheirsfromthedarkcrustthatgraduallyaccumulatesonbrass-kettles。

Inkismadealsofromtorches(pine-knots)，andfromcharcoalpoundedfineinmortars。’Thecuttlefish’hasaremarkablequalifyinthisrespect；

butthecoloring-matterwhichitproducesisnotusedinthemanufactureofink。Allinkisimprovedbyexposuretothesun’srays。Book-writers’

inkhasgummixedwithit，——weavers’inkismadeupwithglue。Inkwhosematerialshavebeenliquifiedbytheagencyofanacidiserasedwithgreatdifficulty。”

Therearebutfewexceptionsrespectingthegeneralsamenessofinkreceiptsofthesucceedingcenturies，oneofwhichisthe“Pomegranate。”creditedtotheseventhcenturybutreallybelongingtoanearlierperiod：

“OfthedriedPommegranite(apple)rindtakeanounce，boilitinapintofwateruntil3/4begone；add1/2pintofsmallbeerwortandoncemoreboilitawaysothatonlya1/4pintremain。

Afteryoushallhavestrainedit，boilinghotthroughalinnenclothanditcomescold，beingthenofaglutinousconsistence，dropina’bit’ofSalAlkaliandaddasmuchwarmwateraswillbringittoaduefluidityandagoldbrowncolorforwritingwithapen。”

Followingthisformulaandwithoutanymodifications，Iobtainedanexcellentinkofdurablequality，butofpoorcolor，fromastandpointofblackness。

Alessancient“Secreta。”signedbytheItalianmonk“Theophilus。”wholivedaboutthecommencementoftheeleventhcentury，ismostinteresting：

“Tomakeink，cutforyourselfwoodofthethorn-treesinAprilorMay，beforetheyproduceflowersorleaves，andcollectingtheminsmallbundles，allowthemtolieintheshadefortwo，three，orfourweeks，untiltheyaresomewhatdry。Thenhavewoodenmallets，withwhichyoubeatthesethornsuponanotherpieceofhardwood，untilyoupeeloffthebarkeverywhere，putwhichimmediatelyintoabarrelfulofwater。Whenyouhavefilledtwo，orthree，orfour，orfivebarrelswithbarkandwater，allowthemsotostandforeightdays，untilthewatersimbibeallthesapofthebark。

Afterwardsputthiswaterintoaverycleanpan，orintoacauldron，andfirebeingplacedunderit，boilit；fromtimetotime，also，throwintothepansomeofthisbark，sothatwhateversapmayremaininitmaybeboiledout。Whenyouhavecookeditalittle，throwitout，andagainputinmore；whichdone，boildowntheremainingwateruntoathirdpart，andthenpouringitoutofthispan，putitintoonesmaller，andcookituntilitgrowsblackandbeginstothicken；addonethirdpartofpurewine，andputtingitintotwoorthreenewpots，cookituntilyouseeasortofskinshowitselfonthesurface；thentakingthesepotsfromthefire，placetheminthesununtiltheblackinkpurifiesitselffromthereddregs。Afterwardstakesmallbagsofparchmentcarefullysewn，andbladders，andpouringinthepureink，suspendtheminthesununtilallisquitedry；Andwhendry，takefromitasmuchasyouwish，andtemperitwithwineoverthefire，and，addingalittlevitriol，write。

But，ifitshouldhappenthroughnegligencethatyourinkbenotblackenough，takeafragmentofthethicknessofafingerandputtingitintothefire，allowittoglow，andthrowitdirectlyintotheink。”

Afterrecitingmanyreceiptswhichpertaintootherarts，thisgoodoldmonkconcludes：

“Whenyoushallhavere-readthisoften，andhavecommittedittoyourtenaciousmemory，youshallthusrecompensemeforthiscareofinstruction，that，asoftenasyoushallsuccessfullyhavemadeuseofmywork，youprayformeforthepityofomnipotentGod，whoknowsthatIhavewrittenthesethingswhichareherearranged，neitherthroughloveofhumanapprobation，northroughdesireoftemporalreward，norhaveIstolenanythingpreciousorrarethroughenviousjealousy，norhaveIkeptbackanythingreservedformyselfalone；but，inaugmentationofthehonourandgloryofHisname，Ihaveconsultedtheprogressandhastenedtoaidthenecessitiesofmanymen。”

The“thorn“treeswhichTheophilusmentionsareassertedbysomewriters(withwhomIdonotagree)tobethosecommonlyknownasthe“Norwayspruce。”aspeciesofpineofloftyproportionssometimesrisingtotheheightof150feetwithatrunkfromfourtofivefeetindiameter。Itlivestoagreatagebelievedtoexceedinmanyinstances450years。

Theleaves(needles，thorns)areshortbutstandthicklyuponthebranchesandareofaduskygreencolorshiningontheuppersurface；thefruitisnearlycylindricalinformandofapurplecolorcoveredwithscalesraggedattheedges。ItisanativeofEuropeandNorthernAsia。ItfurnishesthematerialknownasBurgundypitchwhichisobtainedbyremovingthejuicewhichissecretedinthebarkofthetree；itispurifiedbyameltingprocessandstrainingeitherthroughaclothoralayerofstraw。Itgivesforthapeculiarodornotunpleasant，resemblingturpentine。

TheBurgundypitchorrosinissolubleinhotalcohol(spiritsofwine)。

Aninkpreparedafterthemethodlaiddownbythismonk，assumingthathereferredtothespruce-pine，whiletroublesometowritewith，wouldbealmostaslastingas“Indian“inkandwouldbemostdifficulttoerasefromparchmentintowhichitwouldbeabsorbedduetoitsalcoholicqualities。

“Theink。”remarksMontfaucon，“whichweseeinthemostancientGreekmanuscripts，hasevidentlylostmuchofitspristineblackness；yetneitherhasitbecomealtogetheryelloworfaint，butisrathertawnyordeepred，andoftennotfarfromavermillion。”

Whiletherearesomemonumentsofthiskindofinkinfairconditionofthefourthandsucceedingcenturies，theyaggregatebutaverysmallproportionofthevastnumberofprincipallyIndianinkspecimenswhichremaintousofthoseepochs。Asexemplars，however，ofaforgottenclassofinksbelongingtoastillmoreremoteantiquity，carefulresearchadducescertainproofoftheirexistencemorethanninehundredyearsbeforetheChristianeracommenced。

ReferencehasearlierbeenmadetotheancientMyrobolamink，whichwascharacteristicallythesameincolorphenomenaasthosewhichMontfauconmentions。

These“tawny“coloredinksIestimatewereproductsobtainedfromthe“thorn“treesspokenofbythemonkTheophilus。Thethorntreeswereoftwospecies。Thepomegranate，ancientlycalledthe“Punicapple。”becauseitwaslargelyemployedbytheCarthageniansforthepurposesofdyeingandtanning；andtheacacia，knowninEgyptiantimesasthelotus。TheformerwasheldinsuchhighesteemthattheArabiansandEgyptiansmadeitanemblemtodesignateoneoftheirdietiesandtermeditraman。

Theproductsofthesethorn，treeswerecollectivelyusedtogetherasink，mostofthetanninbeingobtainedfromthepomegranate，andthegumfromtheacacia。

CHAPTERVIII。

MEDIAEVALINK。

INKSECRETASOFTHETWELFTHCENTURYCOMPAREDWITH

EARLIERONES——APPEARANCEOFTANNO-GALLATEOF

IRONINKINTHETWELFTHCENTURY——ITSINTRODUCTION

LOCATESTHEEPOCHWHENTHEMODERNINKOF

TO-DAYFIRSTCAMEINTOVOGUE——ITSAPPROVALAND

ADOPTIONBYTHEFATHERSOFTHECHURCH——THE

INVENTIONNOTITALIANBUTASIATIC——ITSARRIVAL

FROMASIAFROMTHEWESTANDNOTTHEEAST——APPEARANCE

ABOUTTHESAMETIMEOFLINENORMODERN

PAPER——SETTLEMENTOFOLDCONTROVERSIESABOUT

ANCIENTSO-CALLEDCOTTONPAPER-DEVINNE’SCOMMENT

ABOUTPAPERANDPAPER-MAKING——CURIOUS

CONTRACTOFTHEFOURTEENTHCENTURY。

THE“Secretas“ofthetwelfthcentury，insofarastheyrelatetomethodsofmakingink，indicatemanydeparturesfromthosecontainedinthemoreancientones。Frequentmentionismadeofsourgalls，aleppogalls，greenandbluevitriol，theleesofwine，blackamber，sugar，fish-glueandahostofunimportantmaterialsasbeingemployedintheadmixtureofblackinks。Combinationsofsomeofthesematerialsareexpressedinformulas，themostimportantoneofwhichdetailswithgreatparticularitythecomminglingtogetherofaninfusionofnut-galls，greenvitriol(sulphateofiron)andfish-glue(isinglass)；thetwofirst(tanno-gallateofiron)whenusedalone，formsthesolebaseofallunadulterated“gall“inks。

Datesareappendedtosomeoftheseinkandotherformulas。The“tanno-gallateofiron“onehas，however，nodate。ButasitappearscloselyfollowingadateofA。D。1126，itmusthavebeenwrittenaboutthattime。

Documents，publicandprivate，bearingdatesnearlycontemporarywiththatera，writtenininkofliketype，arestillextant，confirminginaremarkabledegreethe“Secreta“formula，andestablishingthefactthatthefirsthalfofthetwelfthcenturymarkstheepochinwhichthe“gall“ormoderninkoftodaycameintovogue。

ItsadoptionbythepriestsstampeditwiththesealoftheChurchandthearrivalfromtheWestaboutthesameperiodofflaxorlinenpaperwiththeaddedfactthattheseassimilatedsowelltogether，laterplacedthembothonthepopularbasiswhichhascontinuedtothepresenttime。

WhiletheSecretawhichcontainsthe“gall“inkformulaisofItalianorigin，theinventionofthisinkbelongssolelytoanAsiaticcountry，fromwhenceingradualstagesbywayofArabia，SpainandFrance，itfinallyreachedRome。Thence，throughtheChurch，informationaboutitwasconveyedtowherevercivilizationexisted。

WearenotconfinedinourinvestigationsofancientMSS。toanyparticularlocalityordate，asthetwelfth，thirteenth，fourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesareprolificof“gall“inkmonumentscoveringanimmenseterritory。Suchinkswhenusedunadulterated，remaininanalmostpristinecolorcondition；whiletheotherinkstowhichsomepigmentorcolorhadbeenadded，probablytomakethemmoreagreeableinappearanceandmorefree-flowing，withamistakenideaofimprovingthem，aremuchdiscoloredandineveryinstancepresentbutslightindicationsoftheiroriginalcondition。

Thequestionofthecharacterofthepaperemployedduringtheseeras，composedofdifferentkindsoffibrousvegetablesubstances，possessessomeimportancewhendiscussingitsrelationshiptoinks。Manyauthorscertifytothemanufactureanduseof“cotton“

intheeleventh，twelfthandlatercenturies。

Madan，however，intreatingthissubject，makesthefollowingcommentswhichareinlinewithmyownobservations：

“Paperhasforlongbeenthecommonsubstanceformiscellaneouspurposesofordinarywriting，andhasatalltimesbeenformedexclusivelyfromrags(chieflyoflinen)reducedtopull)，pouredoutonaframeinathinwaterysheet，andgraduallydriedandgivenconsistencebytheactionofheat。Ithasbeenapopularbelief，foundineverybooktill1886(nowentirelydisproved，butprobablydestinedtodiehard)，thatthecommonyellowishthickpaper，withroughfibrousedge，foundespeciallyinGreekMSS。tillthefifteenthcentury，waspaperofquiteanothersort，andmadeofcotton(chartabombycna，bombyxbeingusuallysilk，butalsousedofanyfinefibresuchascotton)。Themicroscopehasatlastconclusivelyshownthatthesetwopapersaresimplytwodifferentkindsofordinarylinen-ragpaper。”

DeVinnespeaking，ofpaperandpaper-makingsays：

“Thegradualdevelopmentofpaper-makinginEuropeisbutimperfectlypresentedthroughthesefragmentaryfacts。Papermayhavebeenmadeformanyyearsbeforeitfoundchroniclerswhothoughtthemanufactureworthyofnotice。TheSpanishpaper-millsofToledowhichwereatworkintheyear1085，andanancientfamilyofpaper-makerswhichwashonoredwithmarkedfavorbythekingofSicilyintheyear1102，arecarelesslymentionedbycontemporarywritersasifpaper-makingwasanoldandestablishedbusiness。Itdoesnotappearthatpaperwasanoveltyatamuchearlierperiod。

Thebullsofthepopesoftheeighthandninthcenturieswerewrittenoncottoncardorcottonpaper，butnowritercalledattentiontothiscard，ordescribeditasanewmaterial。IthasbeensupposedthatthispaperwasmadeinAsia，butitcouldhavebeenmadeinEurope。Apaper-likefabric，madefromthebarksoftrees，wasusedforwritingbytheLongobardsintheseventhcentury，andacoarseimitationoftheEgyptianpapyrus，intheformofastrongbrownpaper，hadbeenmadebytheRomansasearlyasthethirdcentury。TheartofcompactinginawebthemaceratedfibresofplantsseemstohavebeenknownandpractisedtosomeextentinSouthernEuropelongbeforetheestablishmentofMoorishpaper-mills。

“TheMoorsbroughttoSpainandSicilynotanentirelynewinvention，butanimprovedmethodofmakingpaper，andwhatwasmoreimportant，acultureandcivilizationthatkeptthismethodinconstantexercise。ItwaschieflyforthelackofabilityandlackofdispositiontoputpapertoproperusethattheearlierEuropeanknowledgeofpaper-

makingwassobarrenofresults。Theartofbook-

makingasitwasthenpractisedwasmadesubservienttothespiritofluxurymorethantothedesireforknowledge。Vellumwasregardedbythecopyistastheonlysubstancefitforwritingon，evenwhenitwassoscarcethatitcouldbeusedonlyforthemostexpensivebooks。Thecard-likecottonpaperoncemadebytheSaracenswascertainlyknowninEuropeformanyyearsbeforeitsutilitywasrecognized。Hallamsaysthattheuseofthiscottonpaperwasbynomeansgeneralorfrequent，exceptinSpainorItaly，andperhapsinthesouthofFrance，untiltheendofthefourteenthcentury。

NorwasitmuchusedinItalyforbooks。

“Papercamebeforeitstimeandhadtowaitforrecognition。Itwassorelyneeded。TheEgyptianmanufactureofpapyrus，whichwasinastateofdecayintheseventhcentury，ceasedentirelyintheninthortenth。Notmanybookswerewrittenduringthisperiod，buttherewasthen，andforatleastthreecenturiesafterwards，anunsatisfieddemandforsomethingtowriteupon。Parchmentwassoscarcethatrecklesscopyistsfrequentlyresortedtothedesperateexpedientofeffacingthewritingonoldandlightlyesteemedmanuscripts。Itwasnotadifficulttask。Thewritinginkthenusedwasusuallymadeoflamp-black，gumandvinegar；itithadbutafeebleencausticproperty，anditdidnotbiteinorpenetratetheparchment。Theworkofeffacingthisinkwasaccomplishedbymoisteningtheparchmentwithaweakalkalinesolutionandbyrubbingitwithpumicestone。Thistreatmentdidnotentirelyobliteratethewriting，butmadeitsoindistinctthattheparchmentcouldbewrittenoverthesecondtime。Manuscriptssotreatedarenowknownaspalimpsests。AllthelargeEuropeanpubliclibrarieshavecopiesofpalimpsests，whicharemelancholyillustrationsoftheliterarytastesofmanywritersorbookmakersduringtheMiddleAges。Moreconvincinglythanbyargumenttheyshowtheutilityofpaper。ManuscriptsoftheGospels，oftheIliad，andofworksofthehighestmerit，oftenofgreatbeautyandaccuracy，aredimlyseenunderneathstupidsermons，andtheologicalwritingsofanaturesopaltrythatnomanlivingcarestoreadthem。InSomeinstancesthefirstwritinghasbeensothoroughlyscrubbedoutthatitsmeaningisirretrievablylost。

“Muchaspaperwasneeded，itwasnotatallpopularwithcopyists；theirprejudicewasnotaltogetherunreasonable，foritwasthick，coarse，knotty，andineverywayunfittedforthedisplayorornamentalpenmanshiporillumination。Thecheaperquality，thenknownascottonpaper，wasespeciallyobjectionable。

Itseemstohavebeensobadlymadeastoneedgovernmentalinterference。FrederickII，ofGermany，intheyear1221，foreseeingevilsthatmightarisefrombadpaper，madeadecreebywhichhemadeinvalidallpublicdocumentsthatshouldbeputoncottonpaper，andorderedthemwithintwoyearstobetranscribeduponparchment。

PeterII，ofSpain，intheyear1338，publiclycommandedthepaper-makersofValenciaandXativatomaketheirpaperofabetterqualityandequaltothatofanearlierperiod。

“Thebetterqualityofpaper，nowknownaslinenpaper，hadthemeritsofstrength，flexibility，anddurabilityinahighdegree，butitwassetasidebythecopyistsbecausethefabricwastoothickandthesurfacewastoorough。Theartofcalenderingorpolishingpapersuntiltheywereofasmooth，glossysurface，whichwasthenpractisedbythePersians，wasunknownto，oratleastunpractisedby，theearlyEuropeanmakers。Thechangesorfashionintheselectionofwritingpapersareworthyofpassingnotice。Theroughhand-madepaperssoheartilydespisedbythecopyistsofthethirteenthcenturyarenowpreferredbyneatpenmenandskilleddraughtsmen。

Theimitationsofmediaevalpaper，thick，harsh，anddingy，andshowingthemarksofthewiresuponwhichthefabricwascouched，arepreferredbymenoflettersforbooksandforcorrespondence，whilehighlypolishedmodernplatepapers，withsurfacesmuchmoreglossythananypreparationofvellum，arenowrejectedbythemasfinicalandeffeminate。

“Thereisapopularnotionthattheso-calledinventionsofpaperandxylographicprintingweregladlywelcomedbymenofletters，andthatthenewfabricandthenewartwereimmediatelypressedintoservice。Thefactsabouttobepresentedinsucceedingchapterswillleadtoadifferentconclusion。Weshallseethatthemakersofplayingcardsandofimageprintswerethemenwhofirstmadeextendeduseofprinting，andthatself-taughtandunprofessionalcopyistswerethemenwhogaveencouragementtothemanufactureofpaper。Themoreliberaluseofpaperatthebeginningofthefifteenthcenturybythisnewly-

createdclassofreadersandbook-buyersmarkstheperiodoftransitionandofmentalandmechanicaldevelopmentforwhichthecrudeartsofpaper-

makingandofblackprintinghadbeenwaitingforcenturies。WeshallalsoseethatifpaperhadbeeneversocheapandcommonduringtheMiddleAges，itwouldhaveworkednochangesineducationorliterature；itcouldnothavebeenusedbythepeople，fortheyweretooilliterate；itwouldnothavebeenusedbytheprofessionalcopyists，fortheypreferredvellumanddespisedthesubstitute。

“Thescarcityofvelluminonecentury，anditsabundanceinanother，areindicatedbythesizeofwrittenpapersduringthesameperiods。Beforethesixthcentury，legaldocumentsweregenerallywrittenupononesideonly；inthetenthcenturythepracticeofwritinguponbothsidesofthevellumbecamecommon。Duringthethirteenthcenturyvaluabledocumentswereoftenwrittenuponstripstwoincheswideandbutthreeandahalfincheslong。Attheendofthefourteenthcenturythesestripswentoutoffashion。Themoregeneraluseofpaperhaddiminishedthedemandforvellumandincreasedthesupply。Inthefifteenthcentury，legaldocumentsonrollsofsewedvellumtwentyfeetinlengthwerenotuncommon。Allthevaluablebooksofthefourteenthcenturywerewrittenonvellum。InthelibraryoftheLouvrethemanuscriptsonpaper，comparedtothoseonvellum，wereasonetotwenty-eight；inthelibraryoftheDukesofBurgundy，one-fifthofthebookswereofpaper。

Theincreaseintheproportionofpaperbooksisafairindicationoftheincreasingpopularityofpaper；

butitisobviousthatvellumwaseventhenconsideredasthemoresuitablesubstanceforabookofvalue。”

Thecuriouscontractbelongingtothefourteenthcenturywhichfollows，isaliteralcopyoftheoriginal。

Itdoesnotseemtospecifywhetherthebookistobemadeofvellumorpaper。Inotherrespectstheminutedetailsnodoubtpreventedanymisunderstandingbetweenthecontractingparties。

“August26th，1346——ThereappearedRobertBrekeling，scribe，andsworethathewouldobservethecontractmadebetweenhimandSirJohnForber，viz。，thatthesaidRobertwouldwriteonePsalterwiththeKalenderfortheworkofthesaidSirJohnfor5s。and6d。；andinthesamePsalter，inthesamecharacter，aPlaceboandaDirige，withaHymnalandCollectary，for4s。and3d。AndthesaidRobertwillilluminate(’luminabet’)allthePsalmswithgreatgildedletterslaidinwithcolours；andallthelargelettersoftheHymnalandCollectarywillheilluminatewithgoldandvermillion，exceptthegreatlettersofdoublefeasts，whichshallbeasthelargegiltlettersareinthePsalter。

Andallthelettersatthecommencementoftheversesshallbeilluminatedwithgoodazureandvermillion；

andallthelettersatthebeginningoftheNocturnsshallbegreatuncial(unciales)letters，containingV。lines，buttheBeatusVirandDixitDominusshallcontainVI。orVII。lines；andfortheaforesaidilluminationandforcolourshe[John]

willgive5s。6d。，andforgoldhewillgive18d。，and2s。foracloakandfurtrimming。Itemonerobe——onecoverlet，onesheet，andonepillow。”

CHAPTERIX。

ENDOFMEDIAEVALINK。

THESECRETASPRECEDEALCHEMYANDCHEMISTRY——EFFORT

TOIMPROVEGALLINKS——VARIATIONSININK

COLORS——THEUSEOFREDINKINTHENINTHAND

TENTHCENTURIES——COLORCOMPARISONSBETWEENINK

WRITINGSOFITALY，GERMANY，FRANCE，ENGLANDAND

SPAIN——HOWTODETERMINETHEANTIQUITYOF

MSS——PRACTICESWHICHOBTAINEDINMONASTICLIBRARIES

OFVARIOUSCOUNTRIES——KINDSOFINKEMPLOYED

INLITURGICALWRITINGS——THEPUBLICSCRIBES

ANDTHEIREMPLOYMENTS——EFFORTSTOCOUNTERFEIT

OLDSCRIPTINEARLYPRINTEDBOOKS——WHENTHEY

WEREABANDONED。

ITiswellknownthatalchemyprecededchemistryandhencetheSecretacamefirst。Whentheformulaformakingareal“gall“inkhadceasedtobeasecret，chemistrywasthenbutlittleunderstood。Itisnotamatterforwonder，therefore，tolearnthat“gall“inkofthefirsthalfofthetwelfthcenturywaslowingradeandpoorinquality。Itwasamuddyfluideasilyprecipitatedanditdeterioratedquickly。A

centuryormoreofexperimentingwasneededtomodifyorovercomedefects，aswellastogaininformationaboutthechemicalvalueofthedifferenttannins，therelativeproportionsofeachconstituentandthecorrectmethodsinitsadmixture。

Thereisnowrittenaccountofthisinkbeingmanufacturedasanindustryuntiloverthreehundredyearslater。Hence，asitappearssofrequentlyofvaryingdegreesofcolorondocumentsoftheinterveningcenturies，wearecompelledtoassumethatitwascompoundedbyindividualswhohadneitherchemicalknowledge，norwhohadmadeastudyorabusinessofink-making。Notwithstandingwhich，itsprogressseemstohavebeencomparativelyrapidandlikethesameinkofthepresentdaywastobeobtainedofanyqualityorkind，whetherunadulteratedorcontainingsomeaddedcolor。

Intenseblackorablacktingedwithred-browncharacterizesthecoloroftheinksfoundontheveryearliestMSS。Theirlastingcolorphenomena，duetotheemploymentoflampblackandkindredsubstancesevenafteralapseofsomanyages，isatthislatedayofnoparticularmomentastheybutprovethevirtuesofthedifferenttypesof“Indian“inks。

Adifferentsetoffactsareevidentintheinksofmediaevaltimeswhicharefoundtogreatlyvaryaccordingtotheiragesandlocality。Butfewblackinksoftheninthandtenthcenturiesremaintous。

IntheMSS。ofthosecenturiesaredinkwastheprevailingoneeventotheextentofentirevolumesbeingwrittenwithit。InItalyandmanyotherportionsofSouthernEuropespecimensnowextant，whencomparedwiththosebelongingtoGermanyandothermorenortherncountries，areseentobeblackerandthisisalsotruewhenthoseofFranceandEnglandarecompared，theblackerinksbelongingtoFrance。

Withthegradualdisappearanceoftheso-called“DarkAges。”theinkfoundonSpanishwrittenMSS。

ofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies，arenotedlyofintenseblacknesswhilethoseofsomeoftheothercountriesappearofaratherfadedgraycolor，andinthesixteenthcentury，thisgraycoloreffectprevailedallovertheChristianworld。

TorevertagaintotheinkphenomenaofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturieswhichareofItalianorigin。InnosectionofthatcountryorofEuropeduringthosecenturiesdoinkcreationspossess，insomarkedadegree，thevarietyofcolorqualitiesthatareseenonthoseofthecityofFlorence。IndeeditmaybetrulysaidthatduringthoseperiodsmoreinkwrittenMSS。wereproducedinthatplacethanalltherestofEurope。TheseproductionsofMSS。werenotconfinedtosimpleinkwritings。Theheadsofreligiousordersandrulersofthecountrylikedtohaveartistsnearthemtoilluminatetheirmissalsandsacredbooks，besidesthedecoratingofwallsintheirchurchesandpalaces。

ThroughthisartofilluminatingandthepaintingofminiaturesinMSS。books，“oil“paintingtookrootandthedayformeresymbolsandhieroglyphicswasover。

InthatcityofscholarsandwealthitwasafashionandlaterthecustomtoacquireGreek，LatinandOrientalMSS。andcopythemforcirculationandsale。

Thepricesofferedweresufficienttostimulatethesearchandzealforthem。Welearnthatintheyear1400“onthesquareoftheDuomaaspacciatorewasestablishedwhosebusinesswastosellmanuscriptsoftenfullofmistakesandblunders。”NicholasV，beforehebecamePope，wasnicknamed“TommasotheCopyist。”HeissaidtohavepresentedtotheVaticanlibraryasagiftfivethousandvolumesofhisowncreation。

TheinformationoftheseincreasingdemandsforancientdocumentsofanykindspreadoverEuropeandportionsofAsia，bringingintoFlorenceagreatquantityofthem，aswellasmanyscholarsandcopyists。

ShiploadsoftheworksoftheByzantinehistoriansarrivedfromtheGoldenHorn，andthecitybecameavastmanufactoryforduplicatingorforgingancientMSS。Parchmentandvellumweretoocostlytoemployverymuch，somostofthemwereofpaper。

Vespaciano，oneofthemanyengagedinthisbusinessandwholivedin1464，founditnecessaryinordertoreducethecostofproduction，tobecomeapapermerchant。

Inwritingtoafriendhesays：

“Iengagedforty-fivecopyistsandintwenty-

twomonthshadcompletedtwohundredvolumes，whichincludedsomeGreekandLatinaswellasmanyOrientalwritings。”

Thereadingandjudgingofmanuscriptsarenowknownasthescienceofdiplomatics。Todeterminetheirantiquityorgenuinenessrequiresthenicestdistinctionsandcare，irrespectiveofallegeddates(whetherexhibitedbyRomannumbersortheArabiconewhichwecontinuetoemploy，andwhichfirstmadetheirappearancenearthecommencementofthetwelfthcentury)。Theinksasalreadymentionedandusedonthem，asweshallsee，servefullyasmuchinestimatingauthenticityorgenuinenessasdoescombinedtogether，——thestyleofthewriting，theminiatures，vignettesandarabesques(ifany)，thecolors，covers，materials，ornamentationandthecharacteroftheircontents。

Withthere-establishmentoflearninginthefifteenthcenturyandthecreationofallegedstablegovernments，whomayperhapshaverealizedthenecessityforaninkofenduringgoodcommercialandrecordqualities，so-called“gall“inkswerechosenasbestpossessingthem，andweremadeandemployedwithvaryingresultsevenmorethantheancient“Indian“

inks。

MediaevalpracticesinrelationtoinkandotherwritingmaterialsaswellasthemonasticlibrariesofwhichEngland，France，GermanyandItalypossessedmanyduringthethirteenth，fourteenth，andmoreparticularlythefifteenthcenturies，weregovernedbyestablishedrules。

Thelibrariesofsuchinstitutionswereplacedbytheabbotunderthesolechargeofthe“armarian。”anofficerwhowasmaderesponsibleforthepreservationofthevolumesunderhiscare；bewasexpectedfrequentlytoexaminethem，lestdamporinsectsshouldinjurethem；hewastocoverthemwithwoodencoverstopreservethemandcarefullytomendandrestoreanydamagewhichtimeoraccidentmightcause；hewastomakeanoteofanybookborrowedfromthelibrary，withthenameoftheborrower；

butthislastruleappliedonlytothelessvaluableportionofit，asthe“greatandpreciousbooks“

couldonlybelentbythepermissionoftheabbothimself。Itwasalsothedutyofthearmariantohaveallthebooksinhischargemarkedwiththeircorrecttitles，andtokeepaperfectlistofthewhole。

SomeofthesecataloguesarestillinexistenceandarecuriousandinterestingintheirexemplificationofthekindsofinkemployedandasindicativeofthestateofliteratureintheMiddleAges，besidespresentingthenamesofmanyauthorswhoseworkshaveneverreachedus。Itwasalsothedutyofthearmarian，undertheordersofhissuperior，toprovidethetranscribersofmanuscriptswiththewritingswhichtheyweretocopy，aswellasallthematerialsnecessaryfortheirlabors，tomakebargainsastopayment，andtosuperintendtheworkduringtheirprogress。

Thesetranscribers，Mr。Maitlandinhis“DarkAges“tellsus，weremonksandtheirclerks，someofwhomweresoskilledthattheycouldperformallthedifferentbranches。Theywereexhortedbytherulesoftheirordertolearnwriting，andtopersevereintheworkofcopyingmanuscriptsasbeingonemostacceptabletoGod；thosewhocouldnotwritewererecommendedtobindbooks。ThiswasinlinewiththebehestofthefamousmonkAlciunwholivedintheeighthcenturyandwhoentreatedalltoemploythemselvesincopyingbooks，saying：

“Itisamostmeritoriouswork，moreusefultothehealththanworkinginthefields，whichprofitsonlyaman’sbody，whilethelabourofacopyistprofitshissoul。”

Whenblackinkwasusedinliturgicalwritings，thetitlepageandheadsofchapterswerewritteninredink；whencecomesthetermrubric。Green，purple，blueandyellowinksweresometimesusedforwords，butchieflyforornamentingcapitalletters。

Alargeroomwasinmostmonasteriessetapartforsuchlaborsandherethegeneraltranscriberspursuedtheiravocations；inaddition，smallroomsorcells，knownalsoasscriptoria，occupiedbysuchmonksaswereconsidered，fromtheirpietyandlearning，tobeentitledtotheindulgence，andusedbythemfortheirprivatedevotions，aswellasforthepurposeoftranscribingworksfortheuseofthechurchorlibrary。

Thescriptoriawerefrequentlyenrichedbydonationsandbequestsfromthosewhoknewthevalueoftheworkscarriedoninthem，andlargeestateswereoftendevotedtotheirsupport。

“Meanwhilealongthecloister’spaintedside，Themonks——eachbendinglowuponhisbookWithheadonhandreclined——theirstudiesplied；

Forbidtoparley，orinfronttolook，Lengthwaystheirregulatedseatstheytook：

Thestruttingpriorgazedwithpompousmien，Andwakefultongue，preparedwithpromptrebuke，Ifmonkasleepinshelteringhoodwasseen；

Hewaryoftenpeepedbeneaththatrussetscreen。

“Hardby，againstthewindow’sadverselight，Wheredeskswerewontinlengthofrowtostand，Thegownedartificersinclinedtowrite；

ThepenofsilverglistenedinthehandSomeoftheirfingersrhymingLatinscanned；

Sometextilegoldfromhallsunwindingdrew，Andonstrainedvelvetstatelyportraitsplanned；

Herearms，therefacesshowninembryoview，Atlasttoglitteringlifethetotalfiguresgrew。”——

FOSBROOKE。

Thepublicscribesofthosedayswereemployedmostlybysecularindividuals，althoughsubjecttobecalleduponatanymomentbythefathersofthechurch。Theyworkedintheirhomesexceptwhenanyvaluableworkwastobecopied，theninthatoftheiremployer，whoboardedandlodgedthemduringthetimeoftheirengagement。

Todifferentiatethecharacteroftheclassofpigmentsormaterialsthenemployedinmakingcoloredinks，fromthoseofthemoreancienttimesisdifficult；

becausewenotonlyfindmanyoflikecharacterbutoflargervariety。Thesewereusedmoreforpurposesofilluminatingandembellishingthanforregularwriting。

Evenwhenprintinghadbeeninventedspaceswerefrequentlyleft，bothintheblockbooksandintheearliestmovabletype，fortheilluminationbyhand，ofinitialletterssoastodeceivepurchasersintothebeliefthattheprintedtypewhichwaspatternedcloselyaftertheformsoflettersemployedinMSS。

writingswastherealthing。Thelearnedsoondiscoveredsuchfraudsandthereafterthesepracticeswereabandoned。

CHAPTERX。

RENAISSANCEINK。

INKOFGRAYCOLORBELONGINGTOTHESIXTEENTHCENTURY

ANDITSCAUSES——INFLUENCEOFTHEFATHERSOF

THECHURCHRESPECTINGINKDURINGTHEDARK

AGES——THEREFORMATIONANDHOWITAFFECTEDMEDIAEVAL

MSS——REMARKSOFBALEABOUTTHEIRDESTRUCTION——

QUAINTINKRECEIPTOF1602——SELECTION

FROMTHETWELFTHNIGHTRELATINGTOPENAND

INK——GENERALCONDITIONSWHICHOBTAINEDUNTIL

1626——THEFRENCHGOVERNMENTAWARDSANINK

CONTRACTINTHATYEAR——OTHERGOVERNMENTSADOPT

THEFRENCHFORMULA——INKSOFTHESEVENTEENTH

CENTURYALMOSTPERFECTINTHEIRCOLORPHENOMENA——

NOADDEDCOLOREMPLOYEDINTHEIRMANUFACTURE。

THEgraycolorofmostoftheinksfoundondocumentswritteninthesixteenthcenturyisanoteworthyfact。Whenceitscauseisamatterforconsiderablespeculation。Themajorityoftheseinksunquestionablybelongtothe“gall“classandifpreparedaftertheformulasutilizedinprecedingcenturiesshouldindicatelikecolorphenomena。Asthesesamepeculiaritiesexistonbothpaper，vellumandparchment，itcannotbeattributedtotheiruse。

Investigationsinmanyinstancesofthewritingsindicatetheexerciseofamorerapidpenmovementandaconsequentemploymentofinksofgreaterfluiditythanthoseofanearlierhistory。Suchfluiditycouldonlybeobtainedbyareductionofthequantityofgummyvehiclestogetherwithanincreaseofinkacidity。Theacidswhichhadtheretoforebeenmoreorlessintroducedintoinks，exceptoxalicacid，couldnoteffectsuchresults。Consequently，asthemonumentsofthisgrayinkphenomenaaretobefoundbelongingtoalltheportionsoftheChristianworld，withauniformitythatiscertainlyremarkable，itbecomesafairdeductiontoassumethatthemakingofinksbadpassedintothehandsofregularmanufacturerswhoadulteratedthemwith“added“color。

WecanwellbelievethattheinfluenceswhichthefathersoftheChurchexertedduringthethousandyearsknownasthe“DarkAges。”inrespecttoinkandkindredsubjects，musthavebeenverygreat。

Thattheyendeavoredtoperpetuateforthebenefitofsucceedinggenerationsinbookandotherforms，thiskindofinformation，whichtheydistributedthroughouttheworldweknowtobetrue。Mostofthesesourcesofinkinformation，however，graduallydisappearedasconstitutingaseriesofsadeventsintheunhappywarwhichfollowedtheirpreparation。

TheReformationbeganinGermanyinthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcentury，andwithittheeightyyearsofcontinualreligiouswarfarewhichfollowed。DuringthisperiodthepricelessMSS。booksofinformation，historical，literaryandotherwise，containedinthemonasticlibrariesoutsideofItalywereburnt。

Wearetold：

“InEnglandcupidityandintolerancedestroyedrecklessly。Thus，afterthedissolutionofmonasticestablishments，personswereappointedtosearchoutallmissals，booksoflegends，andsuch’superstitiousbooks’andtodestroyorsellthemforwastepaper；reservingonlytheirbindings，when，aswasfrequentlythecase，theywereornamentedwithmassivegoldandsilver，curiouslychased，andoftenfurtherenrichedwithpreciousstones；andsoindustriouslyhadthesemendonetheirwork，destroyingallbooksinwhichtheyconsideredpopishtendenciestobeshownbyillumination，theuseofredletters，oroftheCross，orevenbythe——tothem——mysteriousdiagramsofmathematicalproblems——

thatwhen，someyearslater，Lelandwasappointedtoexaminethemonasticlibraries，withaviewtothepreservationofwhatwasvaluableinthem，hefoundthatthosewhohadprecededhimhadleftlittletorewardhissearch。”

Bale，himselfanadvocateforthedissolutionofmonasteries，says：

“Neverhadwebeneoffendedforthelosseofourlybraryesbeyngsomanyinnombreandinsodesoluteplacesforthemosteparte，yfthechiefmonumentsandmostenotableworkesofourexcellentwrytershadbenereserved，yftherehadbeneineveryshyreofEnglandebutonesolemynelybraryforthepreservacyonofthosenobleworkes，andpreferrmentsofgoodlearnyugesinourposteryteithadbeneyetsomewhat。ButtodestroyeallwithoutconsyderacyonisandwyllbeuntoEnglandeforeveramosthorrybleinfamyamongethegravesenyoursofothernatyons。Agretenombreofthemwychpurchasedofthosesuperstycyosemansyonsreservedofthoselybraryebokes，sometoservetheyrjaks，sometoscouretheyrcandelstyckes，andsometorubbtheyrbootes。sometheysoldetothegrossersandsopesellers，andsometheysentoverseetothebokebynders，notinsmallnombre，butattymeswholeshippesful。Iknowamerchantman，whycheshallatthystymebenamelesse，thatboughtethecontent-，oftwonoblelybraryesforxlshyllyngspryce，ashameitistobespoken。Thysstuffehatheheoccupyedinthestideofgrevepaperforthespaceofmorethanthesetenyears，andyethathestoreynoughforasmanyyearstocome。A

prodyguousexampleisthys，andtobeabhorredofallmenwholovetheyrnatyonastheyshouldedo。”

Passingtolaterepochs，A。D。1602，thefollowingquaintreceiptprovesinterestingasshowingthatthe“gall“inkswerewellknownatthattime：

“TomakecommonInk，ofWinetakeaquart，TwoouncesofGumme，letthatbeapart；

FiveouncesofGalls，ofCop’restakethree，Longstandingdothmakeitthebettertobe；

IfWineyedowant，rainewaterisbest，Andthenasmuchstuffeasaboveattheleast，IftheInkbetoothick，putVinegarin，Forwaterdothmakethecolourmoredimme。”

ShakespeareinhisTwelfthNightIII，2，hasalsoreferredtotheminthefollowingamusingstrain：

“Gowriteitinamartialhand；becurstandbrief；

itisnomatterhowwitty，soitbeeloquent，andfullofinvention；taunthimwiththelicenseofink；ifthouthou’sthimthrice，itshallnorbeamiss；andasmanyliesaswilllieonasheetofpaper，althoughthesheetwerebigenoughforthebedofWareinEngland，set’emdown；go，aboutit。Lettherebegallenoughinthyink，thoughthouwritewithagoosepen，nomatter：

aboutit。”

Thegeneralblackinkconditionsforaperiodofatleastthreehundredyears，ifweexcludethesixteenthcentury，hadbeenbutrepetitionsofeachother。

Theysoremaineduntiltheyear1626，whentheFrenchgovernmentconcludedanarrangementwithachemistbythenameofGuyot，forthemanufactureofa“gall“inkWITHOUTaddedcolorandwhichtherebyguaranteedandinsuredmoresamenessinrespecttodesirableinkqualities。Thatgovernmentwithafewmodificationsrelativetotheproportionsofingredientscontinueditsemployment，whichwasfollowedbythecontemporaneouswriters。OthergovernmentslaterpartiallyadoptedtheFrenchformulaswhilesomeofthemgavethematternoattention，althoughtheirrecordsandthoseofthecitiesortownsnotonlyofEuropebutearlyAmerica，theUnitedStatesandCanadaarefoundinmostinstancestohavebeenwrittenwithaninkofthischaracter。

Wherepriorto1850，inkscontainingadifferentbase(withthesingleexceptionofindigo)wereused，theyhaveeitherdisappearedornearlysoanditisnotaninfrequentoccurrenceamongthosewhoareaccustomedtoexamineoldrecordstofindthatsignaturesordatestovaluableinstruments，pagesofwritingsandindeedsometimesthewritingsinanentirebookaremoreorlessobliterated。

Theblackinksofalargeportionoftheseventeenthcentury，ondocumentsofeverykind，arefoundtobenearlyperfectastocolorconditions，whichisevidenceoftheextremecareusedintheirpreparationandtheexclusionof“added“colorininkmanufacture。

CHAPTERXI。

ANCIENTINKTREATISES。

INKTREATISESOFTHEFIFTEENTH，SIXTEENTHAND

SEVENTEENTHCENTURIES——JOHNBAPTISTAPORTA

AUTHOROFTHEFIRST——SECRETINKS——NERI，CANEPARIUS，BOREL，MERRET，KUNCKELANDOTHERAUTHORS

WHOREFERTOINKMANUFACTURE——PROGRESSOFTHE

ARTOFHANDWRITINGILLUSTRATEDINTHENAMESOF

OVERAHUNDREDCALLIGRAPHERSCHRONOLOGICALLY

ARRANGED。

THEliteratureofthefifteenth，sixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesonthesubjectofblackandcoloredinkformulas，secretinks，etc。，isbothdiversifiedandofconsiderableimportance。Thefollowingauthorsandcitationsaredeemedthemostnoteworthy：

JohnBaptistaPorta，ofNaples，bornA。D。1445

anddiedA。D。1515，isbestknownastheinventorofthe“cameraobscuro；“wasalsotheauthorofmanyMSS。bookscompiled；hesays，“AstheresultsofdiscussionsoflongyearsheldatmyownhousewhichisknownasdeSecreti，andintowhichnonecanenterunlessheclaimtobeaninventorofnewdiscoveries。”

Twoofthesetreatiseswhichwereextantinthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury，datedrespectively1481and1483，dwellatgreatlengthonSECRET

inksandspecificallymentionastranslatedintotheEnglishofthetime“sowregallsinwhitewine。”and“vitriol；“repeatingItalianformulaspertainingtothe“Secreta“ofthetwelfthcentury。

Aboutsecretinkhetellsus：

“Therearemanyandalmostinfinitewaystowritethingsofnecessity，thattheCharactersshallnotbeseen，unlessyoudipthemintowaters，orputthemnearthefire，orrubthemwithdust，orsmeerthemover。

********

“LetVitriolsoakinBoylingwater：whenitisdissolved，strainitsolongtillthewatergrowclear：

withthatliquorwriteuponpaper：whentheyaredrytheyarenotseen。Moreover，grindeburntstrawandVinegar：andwhatyouwillwriteinthespacesbetweentheformerlines，describeatlarge。

ThenboylsowreGallsinwhiteWine，wetaspungeintheliquor：andwhenyouhaveneed，wipeituponthepapergently，andwettheletterssolonguntilthenativeblackcolourdisappear，buttheformercolour，thatwasnotseen，willbemadeapparent。NowIwillshowinwhatliquorspapermustbesoakedtomakeletterstobeseen。AsI

said，DissolveVitriolinwater：thenpowderGallsfinely，andsoaktheminwater：letthemstaytheretwenty-fourhours：filtrethemthroughalinencloth，orsomethingelse，thatmaymakethewaterclear，andmakelettersuponthepaperthatyoudesiretohaveconcealed：sendittoyourFriendabsent：whenyouwouldhavethemappear，diptheminthefirstliquor，andtheletterswillpresentlybeseen。

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IfyouwritewiththejuiceofCitrons，Oranges，Onyons，oralmostanysharpthings，ifyoumakeithotatthefire，theiracrimonyispresentlydiscovered：

fortheyareundigestedjuices，whereastheyaredetectedbytheheatofthefire，andthentheyshowforththosecoloursthattheywouldshowiftheywereripe。IfyouwritewithasowreGrapethatwouldbeblack，orwithCervices；whenyouholdthemtothefiretheyareconcocted，andwillgivethesamecolourtheywouldinduetimegiveuponthetree，whentheywereripe。JuiceofCherries，addedtoCalamus，willmakeagreen：tosow-

breadared：sodiversjuicesofFruitswillshowdiverscoloursbythefire。BythesemeansMaidssendingandreceivinglove-letters，escapefromthosethathavechargeofthem。ThereisalsoakindofSaltcalledAmmoniac：thispowderedandmingledwithwater，willwritewhiteletters，andcanhardlybedistinguishedfromthepaper，butholdthemtothefire，andtheywillshewblack。”

Withrespecttothepreparationofblackandcoloredinksandalsocolors：AntonioNeri，anItalianauthorandchemistwholivedinthesixteenthcentury，inhistreatiseseemsnotonlytohavelaidthefoundationformostofthereceiptscalledattentiontobylaterwritersduringthetwohundredyearswhichfollowed，buttohavebeentheveryfirsttospecifyaproper“gall“inkanditsformula，asthemostworthyofnotice。

PietroCaneparius，aphysicianandwriterofVenice，A。D。1612，inhisworkDeAtrametis，givesamoreextensiveviewaboutthepreparationandcompositionofinksandadoptsallthatNerihadgiven，thoughheneverquoteshisname，andadds——“hithertopublishedbynoone。”HedoeshowevermentionmanyvaluableparticularswhichwereomittedbyNeri。Mostofhisreceiptsareaboutgold，silverandnondescriptinks，withdirectionsformakingagreatvarietyforsecretwritinganddefacing。ThisbookrevisedandenlargedwasrepublishedinLondon，1660。

In1653PeterBorel，whowasphysiciantoLouisXIV，King，ofFrancepublishedhis“BibliothecaChemica。”whichcontainsalargenumberofinkreceipts，twoofwhichmaybecharacterizedas“ironandgall“ones。Theypossessvalueonaccountoftherelativeproportionsindicatedbetweenthetwochemicals。Thecoloredones，includinggold，silverandsympatheticinksaremostlyrepetitionsofthoseofNeriandCaneparius。TheFrenchwriters，though，speakofhisresearchesinchemistryas“somewhatcredulous。”

ChristopherMerret，anEnglishphysicianandnaturalist，bornA。D。1614，translatedNeriintoourlanguagein1654，withmanynotesofhisownabouthim；hisobservationshaveaddednothingofvaluetothechemistryofinks。

JohannKunckel，anotedGermanchemistandwriterin1657，republishedintheGermanlanguageNeri’sworkwithMerret’snotes，andhisownobservationsonboth。Healsoinsertedmanyotherprocessesastheresultofconsiderableresearchandseemstohavebeenthoroughlyconversantwiththechemistryofinks，advocatingespeciallythevalueandemploymentofatanno-gallateofironinkforrecordpurposes。

Salmon，A。D。1665，inhisPolygraphics，proceedstogiveinstructionsrelativetoinkswhichnotwithstandingtheirmeritareconfoundedwithsomanyabsurditiesastolessentheirvalueforthosewhowereunabletoseparatetruthfromfalsehood；butheneverthelessdwellsonthevirtuesofthe“gall“inks。

JacquesLemort，aDutchchemistofsomenote，issuedatreatise，A。D。1669，on“InkFormulasandColors。”seeminglyselectedfromthebooksofthosewhohadprecededhim。Heexpressestheopinionthatthe“gall“inksifproperlycompoundedwouldgivebeneficialresults。

Formulasformakinginksarefoundtuckedawayinsomeoftheveryoldliteraturetreatingof“curious“

things。Oneofthemwhichappearedin1669directs：

“tostrainoutthebestqualityofironemployoldandrustynails；“anotheronesays，thattheinkwhenmadeistoremaininanopenvessel“forthirtydaysandthirtynights，beforeputtingitinaparchmentbag。”

AnEnglishcompendiumofinkformulas，publishedin1693，callsattentiontomanyformulasforblackinksaswellasgold，silver，andthecoloredones；nocomment，however，ismadeinrespecttoanyparticularonebeingbetterthananotherastopermanency，andtheseconditionswouldseemtohavecontinuedfornearlyacenturylater，thoughtheartofhandwritingwasmakinggiantstrides。

Itisaremarkablefactthatnotwithstandingthenumerousdevoteestothatartwhichincludedmanyofthegentlersex，reproductionsofwhoseskillin“Indian“

inkaretobefoundengravedinmagnificentpublications，bothinbookandotherforms，thereisnomentioninthemorinanyothersincludedwithinthisperiodaboutthenecessityofusinganyotherDURABLE

inkforrecordorcommercialpurposes。

Asindicativeinsomedegreeoftheprogressoftheartofhandwritingandhandwritingmaterials，commencingA。D。1525andendingA。D。1814，Ipresentherewithacompilationofthenamesofoveronehundredofthebestknowncalligraphersandauthorsoftheworld，andnottobefoundasawholeinanypublicorprivatelibrary。Itisarrangedinchronologicalorder。

1525。

ThefirstEnglishessayonthesubjectof“CuriousCalligraphy“wasbyawomanwhofromallaccountspossessedmostremarkablefacilityintheuseofthepenaswellasaknowledgeoflanguages。HernamewasElizabethLucar；asshewasborninLondonin1510anddied1537，herworkmusthavebeenaccomplishedwhenonlyfifteenyearsofage。

1540。

RogerAscham，bestknownasthetutorofQueenElizabeth。

1570。

PeterBales，authorofmanyworks，“TheWritingSchoolmaster。”whichhepublishedinthreeparts，beingthebestknown。Hewasalsoamicroscopicwriter。Hisroomswereatthesignof“TheHandandGoldenPen。”

London。

1571。

JohndeBeauchesne，teacherofthePrincessElizabeth，daughterofKingJamesI。Authorofmanycopybooks。

1588。

JohnMellis，“MerchantsAccounts。”etc。

1600。

ElizabethJaneWeston，ofLondonandPrague，wrotemanypoemsinoldLatin。

1600。

HesterInglis，“ThePsalmsofDavid。”

1601。

JohnDavies，“TheWritingSchoolmaster，orAnatomyofFairWriting。”

1616。

RichardGething，“TheHandandPen；

1645，“Chirographia“andmanyothers。

1618。

MartinBillingsley，“TheWritingSchoolmaster，ortheAnatomieofFairWriting。”ThisauthorwaswritingmastertoKingCharlesI。

1622。

DavidBrown，whowasscribetoKingJamesI。

“Calligraphia。”

1622。

WilliamComley，“Copy-BookofallthemostusualEnglishHands。”etc。

1646。

JosiahRicrafte，“ThePeculiarCharacteroftheOrientalLanguages。”

1650。

LouisHughes，“PlainandEasyDirectionstoFairWriting。”

1650。

JohnJohnson，“TheUsualPracticesofFairandSpeedyWriting。”

1651。

JohnClithers，“ThePensParadise。”dedicatedtoPrinceCharles。

1652。

JamesSeamer，“ACompendiumofAlltheUsualHandsWritteninEngland。”

1657。

EdwardCocker，penmanandengraver，famousinhistimeforthenumberandvarietyofhisproductions。Authorof“ThePen’sTriumph。”

“TheArtist’sGlory。”“England’sPenman。”

andmanymore。

1659。

JamesHodder，“ThePenman’sRecreation。”

etc。

1660。

JohnFisher，“ThePen’sTreasury。”

1663。

RichardDaniel，“ACompendiumofmanyhandsofVariousCountries。”

1669。

PeterStoryorStent，“FairWritingofSeveralHandsinUse。”

1678。

WilliamRaven，“AnExactCopyoftheCourtHand。”

1680。

PeterIvers，famousforhisengrossinganddrawings。

1680。

ThomasWatson，“Copy-BookofAlphabets。”

1681。

JohnPardie，“AnEssayontheGermanTextandOldPrintAlphabets。”

1681。

ThomasWeston，“AncillaCalligraphiae。”

1681。

PeterGery，“CopybookofalltheHandsinuse，PerformedaccordingtotheNaturalFreenessofthePen。”

1681。

WilliamElder，“Copy-bookofthemostusefulandnecessaryHandsnowusedinEngland。”

1683。

JohnAyers，“TutortoPenmanship。”andmanyothers。

1684。

CalebWilliams，“NunciusOris。”writtenandengravedbyhimself。

1693。

CharlesSnell，“ThePenman’sTreasuryOpened；“1712，“ArtofWritinginTheoryandPractice；“1714，“StandardRules。”etc。

1695。

RichardAlleine，writingmaster。

1695。

EleazerWigin，“TheHandandPen。”

1695。

JohnSedden，“ThePenman’sParadise。”

1696。

JohnEade，writingmaster。

1699。

JosephAlleine，publishedseveralbooksaboutwritingandaccounts。

1699。

RobertMore，“TheWritingMastersAssistant。”

1725。“TheGeneralPenman。”

1700。

JohnBeckham，fatherofthecelebratedGeorgeBeckham，wroteandengravedseveralpiecesfor“TheUniversalPenman。”

1700。

EdwardSmith，“TheMysteriesofthePeninfifteenHands，Unfolded。”etc。

1700。

HenryLegg，“WritingandArithmetic。”

1702。

WilliamBanson，“TheMerchantsPenman。”

1703。

JohnDundas，microscopicwriter。

1705。

GeorgeShelley，“ThePenmansMagazine。”

In1730hewroteseveralpagesfor“Bickman’sUniversalPenman。”

1708。

JohnClark，“ThePenmansDiversion。”

1709。

JamesHeacock，writingmaster。

1709。

GeorgeShelley，“Naturalwritinginallhands。”

1711。

GeorgeBickham，oneofthemostfamousofwritersofhistime，born1684，died1758，authorof“TheUniversalPenman。”Hepublishedmanyworks。1711，“TheBritishPenman；“

1731，“PenmanshipinitsutmostBeautyandExtent“and“TheUniversalPenman“

arethebestknown。

1709。

JohnRayner，“Paul’sScholarsCopy-Book。”

1711。

HumphreyJohnson，“Youth’sRecreation：aCopy-BookofWritingdonebyCommandofHand。”

1712。

WilliamWebster，writingandmathematics。

1730，wroteseveralpagesfor“TheUniversalPenman。”

1713。

ThomasOllyffe，“TheHandandPen。”1714，“ThePracticalPenman。”

1717。

WilliamBrooks，“DelightfulRecreationfortheIndustrious。”Contributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1717。

AbrahamNicholas，“VariousExamplesofPenmanship。”

1722，“TheCompleatWritingMaster。”Wrotealsofor“TheUniversalPenman。”

1719。

RalphSnow，“YouthsIntroductiontoHandwriting。”

1720。

WilliamRichards，“TheCompletePenman。”

1723。

JohnJarman，“ASystemofCourtHands。”

1724。

HenryLune，“RoundHandComplete。”

1725。

JohnShortland，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1725。

EdwardDawson，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1726。

MosesGratwick，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1727。

JohnLangton，“TheItalienHand。”

1728。

JohnDay，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1729。

GabrielBrooks，writingmasterandcontributorto，“TheUniversalPenman。”

1730。

WilliamKeppax，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1730。

JohnBland，“EssayinWriting。”Alsocontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1730。

SolomonCook，“TheModishRoundHand。”

1730。

WilliamLeckey，“ADiscourseontheUseofthePen。”Contributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1730。

PeterNorman，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1730。

WellingtonClark，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1730。

ZacharyChambers，“VivelaPlume。”Contributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1733。

BrightWhilton，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1734。

TimothyTreadway，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1738。

GeorgeJ。Bickham，writingmaster；alsowrotefor“Bickham’sUniversalPenman。”

1739。

EmanuelAustin，writingmaster；hewrote22

pagesin“TheUniversalPenman。”

1739。

SamuelVaux，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1740。

JeremiahAndrews，writingmasterandtutortoKingGeorgeIII。

1740。

NathanielDove，“TheProgressofTime。”andcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1741。

JohnBlande，“EssayinWriting；1730，contributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1741。

RichardMorris，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”

1747。

MaryJohns，microscopicwriterandauthor。

1749。

CharlesWoodham，“ASpecimenofWriting，inthemostUsefulHandsnowPractisedinEngland。”

1750。

JohnOldfield，“Honesty。”Hewroteonepiecein“TheUniversalPenman。”

1750。

JosephChampion，“TheParallelorComparativePenmanship。”1762，“TheLivingHands。”

1751。

EdwardLloyd，“YoungMerchantsAssistant。”

1758。

RichardClark，“PracticalandOrnamentalPenmanship。”

1760。

BenjaminWebb，writerofcopybooks，etc。

1762。

WilliamChinnery，“TheCompendiousEmblematist。”

1763。

WilliamMassey，“TheOriginandProgressofLetters。”containingvaluableinformationabouttheart。

1769。

JohnGardner，“IntroductiontotheCountingHouse。”

1780。

EdwardPowell，writingmasteranddesigner。

1784。

E。Butterworth，“TheUniversalPenman“intwoparts，publishedinEdinburgh。

1795。

WilliamMilns，“ThePenman’sRepository。”

1799。

WilliamG。Wheatcroft，“TheModernPenman。”

1814。

JohnCarstairs，“Tachygraphy，ortheFlyingPen。”2。“Writingmadeeasy，etc。”

IllustratedworksonthesubjectofpenmanshipofcontemporaneoustimesandnotofEnglishoriginarebutfew。Thebestknownare：

1543。

LuduvicoVicentino，“ACopybook“publishedinRome，seemstohavebeenthefirst。

1570。

IlperfettoScrittore(ThePerfectWriter)byFrancescoCresci，publishedinRome。

1605。

SpieghelderSchrijkfkonste(orMirrorofPenmanship)writtenbyVandenVelde，publishedinAmsterdam。

1612。

“WritingandInkRecipes。”byPeterCaniparius，VeniceandLondon。

1700。

DerGetreueSchreibemeister(orTrueWritingMaster)，byJohannFriedrVicum，publishedinDresden。

From1602to1709many“Indian“inkspecimenswereextantandarestillofthedifferentschoolsofpenmanship。TheproductionsofPhrysius，MaterotandBarbedorillustratingtheFrenchstyle，Vignon，Selleryandothers，fortheItalianhand，andOverbiqueandSmythersfortheGermantext，andAmbrosiusPerlenghandHugo，withafewmore，completethelist。

CHAPTERXII。

STUDYOFINK。

LACKOFINTERESTASTOTHECOMPOSITIONOFINKDURING

PARTOFTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY——THECONDITIONS

WHICHTHENPREVAILEDNEARLYTHESAMEAS

THEPRESENTTIME——CHEMISTRYOFINKNOTUNDERSTOOD——

THISLACKOFINFORMATIONNOTCONFINEDTO

ANYPARTICULARCOUNTRY——LEWIS，IN1765，BEGINS

ASCIENTIFICINVESTIGATIONONTHESUBJECTOFINKS——

THERESULTSANDHISCONCLUSIONSPUBLISHEDIN

1797——THEROYALSOCIETYOFENGLANDIN1787RECEIVES

COMPLAINTSABOUTTHEINFERIORITYOFINKS——

ITSSECRETARYREADSAPAPERTHESAMEYEAR——THE

PAPERCITEDINFULL——DR。BOSTOCKIN1830COMMUNICATES

TOTHESOCIETYOFARTSWHATHEESTIMATES

TOBETHECAUSESOFIMPERFECTIONSININK——

ACTIONOFTHEFRENCHACADEMYOFSCIENCES——

COMPLICATIONSSURROUNDINGTHEMANUFACTUREOFINK

ONLYTHIRTY-FIVEYEARSAGO。