第9章

CountEustace(tonameafew)had12，GeoffreydeMandeville2，theAbbotofWestminster4，theAbbessofBarking3，andseeminglytothesehousesnostripsinthearablefieldswereattached。(79*)Thus，thoughmanyoftheburgessesmaytillthesoil，theboroughcommunityisnotanagrariancommunity。Wecannottreatitasavillagecommunitythathasprosperedandslowlychangeditshabits。Anewprinciplehasbeenintroduced，anelementofheterogeneity。Themenwhomeeteachotherincourtandmarket，themenwhowillhereafterfarmthecourtandmarket，arenottheshareholdersinanagriculturalconcern。

Thattenurialheterogeneityofwhichwehavebeenspeakinghadanotherimportanteffect。Wheninlaterdaysaruralmanorisbeingraisedtotherankofaliberburgus，theintroductionof\'burgagetenure\'seemstoberegardedastheveryessenceoftheenfranchisement。(80*)Probablythisfeaturehadappearedinmanyboroughsatanearlydate。ThelordwithlandsinOxfordshiremayhavebeenboundtokeepafewhousesandretainersinOxford。If，however，thecommercialelementinthetownbegantogetthebetterofthemilitaryelement，ifOxfordbecameacentreoftrade，thenahouseinOxfordcouldbeletforamoneyrent。InDomesdayBookthebaronsaredrawingrentsfromtheirboroughhouses。Ifanyreturnistobemadebytheoccupiertotheowneritwilltaketheformofamoneyrent；itcanhardlytakeanotherform。Thustenureatamoneyrentwouldbecomethetypicaltenureofaburgagetenement。Itwillbeasecurelyheritabletenure，becausethelandlordisanabsenteeandhastoofewtenantsinthetowntorequirethecareofaresidentreeve。Buttheremayhavebeenmanydwellersinsomeoftheboroughswhowereboundtohelpinthecultivationofastretchofroyalorepiscopaldemesnethatlayclosetothewalls。Inthewestsomeoftheking\'sburgessesseemtohavebeenholdingunderonerousterms。

AtShrewsbury，whichliesneartheborderofWaleswhereeverygirl\'smarriagegaverisetoanamobyr，amaidhadtopayten，awidowtwentyshillingswhenshetookahusband，andareliefoftenshillingswasduewhenaburgessdied。(81*)AtHerefordthereeve\'sconsentwasnecessarywhenaburgagewastobesold，andhetookathirdoftheprice。Whenaburgessdiedthekinggothishorseandarms(theseHerefordburgesseswerefightingmen)；

ifhehadnohorse，thentenshillings\'orhislandwiththehouses。\'Anyonewhowastoopoortodohisservicemightabandonhistenementtothereevewithouthavingtopayforit。Suchanentryasthisseemstotellusthattheserviceswerenotrivialreturnforthetenement。(82*)

Ontheotherhand，wemayseeatStamfordwhatseemtobetheremainsofaveryfreegroupofsettlers，presumablyDanes。Thetowncontainsamongotherhouses77housesofsokemen\'whoholdtheirlandsindemesneandseeklordswherevertheyplease，andoverwhomthekinghasnothingbutwiteandheriotandtoll。\'

Thesemaybethesamepersonswhohold272acresoflandandpaynorentforit。(83*)AtNorwich，again，weseemtohearofatimewhentheburgesseswerefreetocommendthemselvestowhomevertheywould，andwerethereforelivinginhouseswhichwerealltheirown，andforwhichtheypaidnorent。(84*)Itisverypossiblethat，sofaraslandlordlyrightsareconcerned，therewasasmuchdifferencebetweentheeasternandthewesterntownsastherewasbetweentheeasternandthewesternvillages。Stillifwelookatboroughafterborough，tenureatamoneyrentisthetenureoftheburgagehousesthatweexpecttofind，andsuchatenure，evenifinitsoriginithasbeenprecarious，islikelytobecomeheritableandsecure。Astotheshirethegns，theyhaveinsomecasespaidtothekingsmallrentsfortheirhaws；butinothers，forexampleatOxford，tenurebywall-workhasbeentheirtenure，andwheninothertownswefindthempayingrenttothekingwemayperhapsseecommutedwall-work。

TracesarefewinDomesdayBookofanypropertythatcanberegardedasthepropertyofanascentmunicipalcorporation，andevenofanythatcanbecalledthejointorcommonpropertyoftheburgesses。Ingeneraleachburgessholdshishouseinthetownofthekingorofsomeotherlordbyaseveraltitle，and，ifhehaslaodintheneighbouringfields，thisalsoheholdsbyaseveraltitle。\'IntheboroughofNottinghamtherewereinKingEdward\'sday183burgessesand19villani。Tothisboroughbelong6carucatesoflandfortheking\'sgeldandonemeadowandcertainsmallwoods……Thislandwasdividedbetween38burgessesand[theking]received75s。7d。fromtherentofthelandandtheworksoftheburgesses。\'\'IntheboroughofDerbytherewereinKingEdward\'sday243residentburgesses……Tothisboroughbelong12carucatesoflandforthegeld，buttheymightbeploughedby8teams。Thislandwasdividedamong41burgesseswhohad12teams。(85*)Inthesecasesweseeplainlyenoughthatsucharablelandasisinanywayconnectedwiththeboroughhasbeenheldbybutafewoutofthetotalnumberoftheburgesses。

Thereforewemustdealcautiouslywithentriesthatarelessexplicit。When，forexample，inthedescriptionofStamfordweread“Lagemannietburgenseshabentcclxxiiacrassineomniconsuetudine，\'(86*)wemustnotatoncedecidethatthereisanyownershipbytheburgessesasacorporation，oranyjointownership，oreventhatalltheburgesseshavestripsinthesefields，thoughapparentlytheburgesseswhohavestripspaynorentforthem。Thisisthefactandtheonlyfactthatthecommissionersdesiretorecord。Theydonotcarewhethereveryburgesshasapiece，orwhether(aswascertainlythecaseelsewhere)onlysomeofthemheldlandoutsidethewalls。WhenofNorwichweread\'etinburgotenentburgensesxliiicapellas，\'(87*)wedonotsupposethatalltheNorwichburghershavechapels，stilllessthattheyholdtheforty-threechapelsasco-owners，stilllessthatthesechapelsbelongtoacorporation。WerememberthattheLatinlanguagehasneitheradefinitenoranindefinitearticle。Thereforewhenof80acresatCanterbury，whicharenowheldbyRalphdeColombiers，weread\'quastenebantburgensesinalodiaderege，\'weneednotsupposethattheseacreshadbelongedtothe(i。e。toallthe)burgessesofCanterbury。(88*)SoofExeteritiswritten：\'BurgensesExoniaeurbishabentextracivitatemterramxiicaruc[arum]quaenullamconsuetudinemredduntnisiadipsamcivitatem。\'This，thoughanotherinterpretationispossible，mayonlymeanthatthereareoutsidethecitytwelveplough-landswhichareheldbyburgesseswhoserentsgotomakeupthatsumof？8whichispaidtotheking，orratherinparttothesheriffandinparttothequeendowager，asthefermofthecity。(89*)ConcerningColchesterthereisanentrywhichperhapsascribestothecommunityofburgessestheownershiporthetenancyoffourscoreacresoflandandofastripeightperchesinwidthsurroundingthetownwall；butthisentryisexceedinglyobscure。(90*)

AnotherdarkcaseoccursatCanterbury。Wearetoldthattheburgessesorcertainburgessesusedtoholdlandoftheking\'intheirgild。\'(91*)AlongwiththiswemustreadanotherpassagewhichstateshowinthesamecitytheArchbishophastwelveburgessesandthirty-twohouseswhich\'theclerksofthevillholdintheirgild。\'Apparentlyinthislastcasewehaveaclericalcluborfraternityholdingland，andtheburgher\'sgildmaybeofmuchthesamenature，avoluntaryassociation。NotverylongafterthedateofDomesday，forAnselmwasstillalive，anexchangeoflandswasmadebetweentheconvent(hired，familia)

ofChristChurchandthe\'cnihts\'ofthechapmangildofCanterbury。Thetransactiontakesplacebetweenthe\'hired\'ontheonehand，the\'heap\'(forsuchisthewordemployed)ontheother。ThewitnessestothistransactionareArchbishopAnselmandthe\'hired\'ontheonehand，Calvealtheportreeveand\'theeldestmenoftheheap\'ontheother。(92*)Buttoseeamunicipalcorporationintheburghers\'gildofDomesdayBookwouldbeveryrash。Wedonotknowthatalltheburghersbelongedtoitorthatithadanygovernmentalfunctions。(93*)

Wemayofcoursefindthatagroupofburgesseshas\'rightsofcommon；\'butrightsofcommon，thoughtheyarerightswhicharetobeenjoyedincommon，areapttobecommonrightsinnoothersense，foreachcommonerhasaseveraltitletosendhisbeastsontothepasture。Thus\'alltheburgessesofOxfordhavepastureincommonoutsidethewallwhichbringsin[totheking]

6s。8d。\'(94*)Thesoilistheking\'s；theburgessespayfortherightofgrazingit。Theroundnessofthesumthattheypayseemsindeedtohintatsomearrangementbetweenthekingandtheburgessestakeninmass；butprobablyeachburgess，andthelordofeachburgess，regardarightofpastureasappurtenanttoaburgagetenement。Thecaseisstriking，forwehaveseenhowheterogeneousagrouptheseOxfordburgesseswere。(95*)Nolessthannineprelates，tosaynothingofearlsandbarons，hadburgessesinthecity。WemustgreatlydoubtwhetherthereisanypowerinanyassemblyoftheburgessestotakefromtheBishopofWinchesterortheCountofMortainthecustomaryrightsofpasturethathavebeenenjoyedbythetenantsofhistenements。

Wemightperhapshaveguessedthattheboroughswouldbetheplacesofallothersinwhichsuchcommunalismastherewasintheancientvillagecommunitywouldmaintainanddevelopitself，untilincourseoftimetheboroughcorporation，theidealborough，wouldstandoutastheowneroflandswhichlaywithinandwithoutthewall。But，ifwehavenotbeengoingastray，wemayseewhythisdidnothappen，atleastinwhatwemaycalltheoldnationalboroughs。Theburgensicgroupwasnothomogeneousenough。Wemaysupposethatsomemembersofithadinheritedarablestripsandpasturerightsfromtheoriginalsettlers；butotherswere\'knights\'whohadbeenplacedinthehawsoftheshire-thegns，orweremerchantsandcraftsmenwhohadbeenattractedbythemarket，andforthemtherewouldbenoroominanoldagrarianscheme。Indeeditisnotimprobablethat，evenasregardsrightsofpasture，therewasmoredifferencebetweenburgessandburgessthentherewasbetweenvillagerandvillager。

Inmoderntimesitisnotunknownthatsomeoftheburgesseswillhavepasturerights，whileotherswillhavenone，andinthosewhoarethusfavouredwemayfancythatweseethesuccessorsintitleoftheking\'stenantswhoturnedouttheirbeastsontheking\'sland。(96*)

Wehaveseenthatintheboroughsagroupofmenisformedwhoseprincipleofcohesionisnottobefoundinlandtenure。

Thedefinitionofaburgessmayinvolvethepossessionofahousewithinorhardbythewalls；buttheburgessesdonotcoalesceasbeingthetenantsorthemenofonelord；andyetcoalescetheywill。Theyareunitedinandbythemootandthemarket-place，unitedunderthekinginwhosepeacetheytraffic；andthentheyaresoonunitedoveragainsttheking，whoexactstollfromthemandhasfavourstograntthem。Theyaspiretofarmtheirowntolls，tomanagetheirownmarketandtheirowncourt。Theking\'srightsarepecuniaryrights；heisentitledtocollectnumeroussmallsums。insteadofthesehemaybewillingtotakeafixedsumeveryyear，or，inotherwords，tolethisrightstofarm。

ThisstepseemstohavebeenverygenerallytakenbeforetheConquest。Alreadytheboroughswerefarmed。Nowthesumswhichthekingwoulddrawfromaboroughwouldbeofseveraldifferentkinds。Inthefirstplace，therewouldbetheprofitsofthemarketandoftheboroughcourt。Inthesecondplace，therewouldbethegafol，the\'haw-gavel\'and\'land-gavel\'arisingfromtenementsbelongingtothekingandoccupiedbyburgesses。Inthethirdplace，theremightbethedanegeld；butthedanegeldwasatax，anoccasionaltax，andforthemomentwemayleaveitoutofourconsideration。Nowtheprofitsofthemarketandcourtseemtohavebeenfarmed。Thesumsthattheybringintothekingareroundsums。Thefarmerseemstohavebeenthesherifforinsomecasestheking\'sportreeve。Wecanfindnocaseinwhichitisabsolutelycleartoourmindsthattheborough。itself，thecommunitasburgi，isreckonedtobetheking\'sfarmer。Again，theking\'sgafol，thatishisburgagerents，maybefarmed：theyarecomputedataroundsum。ThusatHuntingdontenpoundsarepaidbywayofland-gafol，andwemaybefairlycertainthatthesumoftherentsoftheindividualburgesseswhoheldtheirtenementsimmediatelyoftheking(therewereotherburgesseswhobelongedtotheAbbotofRamsey)didnotexactlymakeupthisneatsum。(97*)Inthiscase，however，thesumduetothekingfromhisfarmer，probablythesheriff，inrespectoftheland-gafolisexpresslydistinguishedfromthesumthathehastopayforthefarmoftheborough(firmaburgi)：——atleastinitsnarrowestsense，theburguswhichisfarmedisnotamassoflandsandhouses，itisamarketandacourt。(98*)But，thoughwefindnocaseinwhichthecommunityoftheboroughisunambiguouslytreatedastheking\'sfarmer，therearecasesinwhichitseemstocomebeforeusasthesheriff\'sfarmer。\'Theburgesses\'ofNorthamptonpaytothesheriff？010s。perannum：——\'thisbelongstohisfarm。\'(99*)ThesheriffofNorthamptonshireisliabletothekingforaroundsumasthefarmoftheshire，but\'theburgesses\'ofNorthamptonareliabletothesheriffforaroundsum。Thismaymeanthatforthisroundsumtheyarejointlyandseverallyliable，while，ontheotherhand，theycollectthetollsandfines，perhapsalsotheking\'sburgagerents，andhaveanopportunityofmakingprofitbythetransaction。

Wemustnotbeinhastetoexpelthesherifffromtheboroughsoftheshire，ortobringtheburgessesintoimmediatecontactwiththeking\'streasury。WemustrememberthatatthebeginningofHenryII\'sreignthereisscarcelyanexceptiontotherulethattheboroughsoftheshireareintheeyesofauditorsattheExchequersimplypartsofthatcountywhichthesherifffarms。Sofarasthefarmisconcerned，theroyaltreasuryknowsnothingofanyboroughs。(100*)ThesheriffofGloucestershire，forexample，accountsforaroundsumwhichisthefarmofhiscounty；neitherhenoranyoneelseaccountstothekingforanyfarmoftheboroughofGloucester。If，asismostprobable，theboroughisbeingfarmed，itisbeingfarmedbysomepersonorpersonstowhom，nottheking，butthesheriffhasletitforalongerorshorterperiodatafixedrent。Here，again，weseethelikenessbetweenaboroughandahundred。Thekingletstheshiretofarm；theshireincludeshundredsandboroughs；thesheriff\'letsthehundredstofarm；thesheriffletstheboroughstofarm。\'Afewyearslateranewarrangementismade。ThekingbeginstolettheboroughofGloucestertofarm。Asumof？0(blanch)isnowdeductedfromtherentthatthesheriffhasbeenpayingforhisshire，and，ontheotherhand，Osmundthereeveaccountsfor？5，whichistherentoftheborough。Wemustnotantedateachangewhichistakingplaceverygraduallyinthemiddleofthetwelfthcentury。Normustweatoncerejecttheinferencethat，asthebailiffstowhomthesheriffletsthehundredsarechosenbyhim，soalsothebailiffsorport-reevestowhomheletstheboroughsareorhavebeenchosenbyhim。Itseemsverypossiblethatoneofthefirststepstowardsindependencethataboroughtakesisthatitsburgessesinducethesherifftoaccepttheirnomineeashisfarmerofthetowniftheyinmasswillmakethemselvesjointlyandseverallyliablefortherent。Thesemovementstakeplaceinthedarkandwecannotdatethem；buttoantedatethemwouldbeeasy。

Wealsoseethatthe\'geld\'thattheboroughhastopayisaroundsumthatremainsconstantfromyeartoyear。Cambridge，forexample，isassessedatahundredhides，Bedfordathalfahundred。(101*)Nowwehavegoodreasontobelievethatintheopencountryalso，aroundsumofgeldor(andthisisthesamething)aroundnumberofhideshadbeenthrownuponthehundreds，thatthesumthrownuponahundredwasthenpartitionedamongthevills，andthatthesumthrownuponavillwaspartitionedamongthepersonswhoheldlandinthevill。Intheopencountry，however，whenoncethepartitionhad-beenmade，thenumberofhidesthatwascastuponthelandofanyoneproprietorseemstohavebeenfixedforgoodandall。(102*)Ifwesuppose，forexample，thatavillhadbeenassessedattenhidesandthatfiveofthoseunitshadbeenassignedtoacertainEdward，thenEdwardorhissuccessorsintitlewouldalwayshavetopayforfivehides，andwouldhavetopayfornomorealthoughtheotherproprietorsinthevillobtainedanexemptionfromthetaxorwereinsolvent。Inshort，thetaxthoughoriginallydistributedbyapartitionarymethodwasnotrepartitionable。Ontheotherhand，intheboroughsamorecommunalarrangementseemstohaveprevailed。Insomesenseoranother，thewholeborough，nomatterwhatitsfortunesmightbe，remainedanswerableforthetwenty，fiftyorahundredhidesthathadbeenimposeduponit。Suchadifferencewouldnaturallyarise。Intheopencountrythetaxationalhidationwassupposedtorepresentanddidrepresent，albeitrudely，astateoffactsthathadonceexisted。Themanwhowaschargedwithahideoughtintruthtohavehadoneofthoseagrarianunitsthatwerecommonlyknownashides。Butwhenaboroughwaschargedwithhides，amethodoftaxationthatwasadaptedtoandsuggestedbyruralarrangementswasbeinginappropriatelyappliedtowhathadbecomeorwouldsoonbecomeanurbandistrict。Thusthegrosssumthatiscastupontheboroughdoesnotsplititselfonceandforallintomanysmallsumseachofwhichtakesrootinaparticulartenement。Thewholesumiseligiblefromthewholeborougheverytimeageldisimposed。Itisrepartionable。

Forallthis，however，wemustbecarefulnottoseemorecommunalismormorelocalself-governmentthanreallyexists。Atfirstsightwemaythinkthatwedetectacommunalorajointliabilityofalltheburgessesforthewholesumthatisduefromtheboroughinanyoneyear。\'TheEnglishborn\'burgessesofShrewsburysendupapiteouswail。(103*)TheystillhavetopaythewholegeldastheypaiditintheConfessor\'sday，althoughtheearlhastakenforhiscastlethesitesoffifty-onehouses，andotherfiftyhousesarewaste，andforty-threeFrenchburgessesholdhouseswhichusedtopaygeld，andtheearlhasgiventotheabbey，whichhehasfounded，thirty-nineburgesseswhousedtopaygeldalongwiththeothers。Butwhenweexaminethemattermoreclosely，wemaydoubtwhetherthereishereanyjointandseveral(tosaynothingofanycorporate)liability。

Veryvariousarethemodesinwhichaland-taxorhouse-taxmaybeassessedandlevied。Supposeataxof？00imposeduponacertaindistrictinwhichthereareahundredhouses。Supposeitalsotobelawthat，thoughsomeofthesehousescometothehandsofeleemosynarycorporations(whichwewillimaginetoenjoyanimmunityfromtaxation)stillthewhole？00mustberaisedannuallyfromthehouseholdersofthedistrict。Forallthis，wehavenotasyetdecidedthatanyhouseholderwilleverbeliable，eveninthefirstinstance，formorethanhisownparticularshareofthe？00。Areadjustmentoftaxationtheremustbe。Itmaytakeoneofmanyforms。Theremaybearevaluationofthedistrict，andthe？00maybenewlyapportionedbysomemeetingofhouseholdersorsomegovernmentofficer。But，againthereadjustmentmaybeautomatic。Formerlytherewere100housestopay？00。Nowthereare90housestopay？00。Thateachofthe90mustpayten-ninthsofapoundisaconclusionthattheruleofthreedrawsforus。Inthemiddleagesanautomaticreadjustmentwasalltheeasierbecauseofthecommonassumptionthatthevalueoflandsandhouseswasknowntoeveryoneandthatonevirgateinamanorwasasgoodasanother，one\'haw\'inaboroughasgoodasanother。(104*)WedonotsaythatthecomplaintoftheburgessesatShrewsburypointstonomorethananautomaticreadjustmentoftaxationwhichallalonghasbeenataxationofindividuals；stillthewarningisneedfulthattheexactionatregularorirregularintervalsofafixedamountfromadistrict，orfromthehouseholdersorinhabitantsofadistrict，anamountwhichremainsconstantthoughcertainportionsofthedistrictobtainimmunityfromtheimpost，doesnotofnecessitypointtoanykindofliabilitythatisnottheliabilityofonesingleindividualforspecificsumswhichheandheonlyhastopay；nordoesitofnecessitypointtoanyself-governingorself-assessingassemblyofinhabitants。(105*)

Returning，however，tothecaseofNorthampton，itcertainlyseemstotellusofacomposition，notindeedbetweentheburgessesandtheking，butbetweentheburgessesandthesheriff。\'TheburgessesofNorthamptonpaytothesheriff？0

10s。\'Wemaybelievethat\'theburgesses\'whopaythissumhaveachanceofmakingaprofit。Ifso，\'theburgesses\'arealreadybeginningtofarm\'theborough。\'Fromthis，nevertheless，wemustnotleaptocorporateliabilityorcorporateproperty。VerylikelythesheriffregardseveryburgessofNorthamptonasliabletohimforthewhole？010s。；verycertainly，aswethink，hedoesnotlookforpaymentmerelytopropertywhichbelongs，nottoanyindividualburgessnortoanysumofindividualburgesses，butto\'theborough\'ofNorthampton。Noriftheburgessesmakeprofitoutoftollsandfines，doesitfollowthattheyhaveapermanentcommonpurse；theymaydividethesurpluseveryyear，(106*)orwemaysuspectthemofdrinkingtheprofitsassoonastheyaremade。

Entrieswhichdescribethelimitsthataresettothedutyofmilitaryorofnavalservicemayseemmoreeloquent。ThusofDoverwearetoldthattheburgessesusedtosupplytwentyshipsforfifteendaysintheyearwithtwenty-onemenineachship，andthattheydidthisbecausethekinghadreleasedtothemhissakeandsoke。(107*)Hereweseemtoreadofadefinitetransactionbetweenthekingoftheonepartandtheboroughoftheotherpart，andonewhichimpliesagooddealofgovernmentalorganizationintheborough。Wewouldsaynothingtolessenthejustforceofsuchapassage，whichdoesnotstandalone；(108*)

butstillthereneedbebutlittlemoreorganizationintheboroughofDoverthanthereisinBerkshire。Itwasthecustomofthatcountythat，whenthekingsummonedhishost，onlyonesoldierwentfromeveryfivehides，whileeachhideprovidedhimwithfourshillingsforhisequipmentandwages。(109*)Wemayguessthatinacountysuchaschemeveryrapidly\'realized\'

itselfandtookrootinthesoil，thatinaboroughtherewasless\'realism，\'thatthereweremorefrequentreadjustmentsoftheburden；butthedifferenceisadifferenceofdegree。

Ofanythingthatcouldbecalledtheconstitutionoftheboroughs，nexttonothingcanwelearn。Wemaytakeitthatinmostcasestheking\'sfarmerwasthesheriffoftheshire；insomefewcases，asforexampleatHereford，thereeveoftheboroughmayhavebeendirectlyaccountabletotheking。(110*)Weknownoproofthatinanycasethereevewasanelectedofficer。

Probablyineachboroughacourtwasheldwhichwasacourtfortheborough；probablyitwas，atleastasageneralrule，co-ordinatewithahundredcourt，andindeedatstartingtheboroughseemstoberegardedasavillwhichisalsoahundred。(111*)Theactionofthiscourt，however，liketheactionofotherhundredcourts，mustastimewentonhavebeenhamperedbythegrowthofseignorialjustice。Thesakeandsokewhichalordmighthaveoverhismenandoverhislandswerecertainlynotexcludedbytheboroughwalls。Hehadsometimesbeenexpresslytoldthathemightenjoytheserights\'withinboroughandwithoutborough。\'Itisdifficultforustorealizetheexactmeaningthat\'sakeandsoke\'wouldbearwhenascribedtoaprelateorthegnwhohadbuttwoorthreehouseswithinthetown。

Perhapsinsuchcasesthetownhouseswereforjurisdictionalpurposesdeemedtobesituatewithinsomeruralmanoroftheirlord。Butinaboroughalordmighthaveacompactgroupoftenantsquitelargeenoughtoformapettycourt。Insuchacasetheboroughcourtwouldhavetheseignorialcourtsasrivals，andmanyadisputewouldtherebe。AtLincolnoneTochihadahallwhichundoubtedlywasfree\'fromallcustom\'；buthehadalsothirtyhousesoverwhichthekingbadtollandforfeiture。Sotheburgessesswore；butacertainpriestwasreadytoprovebyordealthattheysworefalsely。(112*)Inthesecasesthelord\'sterritorywouldappearinlatertimesasalittle\'liberty\'lyingwithintheboroughwalls。Themiddleageswerefarspentbeforesuchlibertieshadbecomemorepettynuisances。(113*)Intheoldcathedraltowns，suchasCanterburyandWinchester，thebishop\'sjurisdictionalpowersandimmunitieswereseriousaffairs，forthebishop\'stenantswerenumerous。(114*)Nevertheless，inthegreatandancientboroughs，theboroughswhichstandoutastypesandmodels，therewasfromaveryremotetimeacourt，aborough-mootorportman-moot，whichwasnotseignorial，acourtwhichwasaunitinanationalsystemofcourts。

Oftheformthattheboroughcourttookwecansaylittle。

Perhapsatfirstitwouldbeanassemblyofallthefreeburgmenorport-men。Asitsbusinessincreasedinthelargeboroughs，asitbegantositonceaweekinsteadofthriceayear，asetofpersonsboundtoserveasdoomsmenmayhavebeenformed，asetofaldermenorlawmenwhoseofficesmightormightnotbehereditary，mightormightnot\'runwith\'thepossessionofcertainspecifictenements。A\'husting\'mightbeformed，thatis，ahouse-thingasdistinctfroma\'thing\'orcourtheldintheopenair。Lawrequiredthatthereshouldbestandingwitnessesinaborough，beforewhombargainsandsalesshouldtakeplace。Suchademandmighthastentheformationofasmallbodyofdoomsmen。

InCambridgetherewerelawmenofthegnlyrank；(115*)inLincolnthereweretwelvelawmen；(116*)inStamfordtherehadbeentwelve，thoughatthedateofDomesdayBooktherewerebutnine；(117*)wereadoffouriudicesinYork，(118*)andoftwelveiudicesinChester。(119*)Solateas1275thetwelvelawmenofStamfordlivedoninthepersonsoftheirheirsorsuccessors。

Thereare，saidajury，twelvemeninStamfordwhoarecalledlawmenbecausetheirancestorswereinoldtimethejudgesofthelaws(iudiceslegum)inthesaidtown；theyholdofthekinginchief；bywhatservicewedonotknow。butyoucanfindoutfromDomesdayBook。(120*)Overthebodiesofthese，presumably，Danish，lawmentherehasbeenmuchdisputation。WeknowthattakenindividuallythelawmenofLincolnwereholdersofheritablefranchises，ofsakeandsoke。WeknowthatamongthetwelveiudicesofChesterweremenoftheking，menoftheearl，menofthebishop；theyhadtoattendthe\'hundred\'，thatis，wetakeit，theboroughcourt。Weknownomore；butitseemslikelythatwehavetodealwithpersonswhocollectivelyformagroupofdoomsmen，whileindividuallyeachofthemisagreatman，ofthegnlyrank，withsakeandsokeoverhismenandhislands；hisofficepassestohisheir。(121*)Onthewhole，however，wemustdoubtwhetherthegeneralityofEnglishboroughshadarrivedateventhissomewhatrudimentarystageoforganization。In1200themenofIpswich，havingreceivedacharterfromKingJohn，decidedthatthereshouldbeintheirboroughtwelvechiefportmen，\'astherewereintheotherfreeboroughsinEngland，\'whoshouldhavefullpowertogovernandmaintainthetownandtorenderthejudgmentsofitscourt。(122*)NowIpswichhasarighttobeplacedintheclassofancientboroughs，ofcountytowns，andyettoallappearanceithadnodefiniteclassofchiefmenordoomsmenuntiltheyear1200。Stillweoughtnottoinferfromthisthatthetownmoothadbeeninpracticeademocraticinstitution。Theremaybeagreatdealofoligarchy，andoligarchyofanoppressivekind，thoughtherulingclasshasneverbeendefinedbylaw。DomesdayBookallowsustoseeinvarioustownsalargenumberofpoorfolkwhocannotpaytaxesorcanonlypayapolltax。Wemustbecharyofconcedingtothiscrowdanyshareinthedoomsofthecourt。(123*)

Butwhatconcernsthegovernmentoftheboroughshasforthetimebeensufficientlysaidbyothers。Inourfewlastwordswewillreturntoourfirsttheme，thedifferencebetweentheboroughandthemeretownship。

WehaveseenthatinDomesdayBookaprominentpositionisconcededtocertaintowns。Theyarenotbroughtunderanyrubricwhichwouldplacethemupontheking\'soranyotherperson\'sland。Itmustnowbeconfessedthattherearesomeothertownsthatarenotthustreatedandthatnonethelessarecalledboroughs。If，however，werememberthatburgessesoftenareinlawwheretheyarenotinfact，thelistthatweshallmakeoftheseboroughswillnotbelong。Stillsuchboroughsexistandafewwordsshouldbesaidaboutthem。Theyseemtofallintotwoclasses，fortheyaredescribedasbeingontheking\'slandoronthelandofsomenobleorprelate。Ofthelatterclasswewillspeakfirst。ItdoesnotcontainmanymembersandinsomecaseswecanbecertainthatintheConfessor\'sdaytheboroughinquestionhadnootherlordthantheking。Totnessisacaseinpoint。ItnowfallsunderthetitleTerraJudheldeTottenais；

butwearetoldthatKingEdwardhelditindemesne。(124*)InSussexweseethatSteyning，PevenseyandLewesarecalledburgi，(125*)SteyningisplacedonthelandoftheAbbotofF閏amp，PevenseyonthatoftheCountofMortainandLewesonthatofWilliamofWarenne；butatLewestherehavebeenmanyhawsappurtenanttotheruralmanorsoftheshirethegns。(126*)

InKenttheboroughofHytheseemstobecompletelyunderthearchbishop。(127*)HehasburgessesatRomneyoverwhomhehasjusticiaryrights，buttheyservetheking。(128*)The\'littleboroughcalledFordwich\'belongedtotheAbbotofStAugustin。

Butofthisweknowthehistory。TheConfessorgavehimtheroyaltwo-thirds，whilethebishopofBayeuxasthesuccessorofEarlGodwingavehimthecomitalone-third。(129*)Furthernorth，LouthinLincolnshireandNewarkinNottinghamshireseemtobeaccountedboroughs；theybothbelongtothebishopofLincoln；

butinthecaseofNewark(whichwasprobablyanoldburh)wemaydoubtwhetherhistitleisveryancient。(130*)WearetoldthatatTattershall，thePontefractoflaterdays，(131*)therearesixty\'minuteburgesses，\'thatis，wetakeit，burgessesinasmallway。IlbertdeLacyisnowtheirlord；buthereagainwemaysuspectarecentactofmediatization。(132*)GranthaminLincolnshireisplacedontheTerraRegis；ithadbelongedtoQueenEdith；therewere，however，seventy-seventoftsinitwhichbelongedto\'thesokemenofthethegns，\'thatis，tothesokemenofthethegnsoftheshire。(133*)TheninSuffolkweseethatIpswichisdescribedattheendofthesectionwhichdealswiththeroyalestates；asimilarplaceisfoundforNorwich，YarmouthandThetfordinthesurveyofNorfolk。(134*)ButforDunwichwemustlookelsewhere。TherewereburgessesatDunwich；buttoallseemingtheroyalrightsoverthetownhadpassedintothehandsofEadricofLaxfield。(135*)ThesuccessorofthesameEadrichasburgessesamonghistenantsatEye。(136*)ThereareburgessesatClare，thoughClarebelongsaltogethertotheprogenitorofthelordlyracewhichwilltakeitsnamefromthislittletown。(137*)

Butatleastinthislastcase，theburgessesmaybenew-comers，orratherperhapswemayseethatanoldideaisgivingwaytoanewerideaofaborough，andthatifmenengagedintradeorhandicraftsettleroundamarket-placeandpaymoney-rentstoalordtheywillbecalledburgesses，thoughthetownisnonationalfortress。AtBerkhampstead52burgessesarecollectedinaburbium，buttheymaybeasnewasthetwoarpentsofvineyard。(138*)WemustnotsaydogmaticallythatneverinthedaysbeforetheConquesthadavillagebecomeaboroughwhileithadforitsoneandonlylandlordsomepersonotherthantheking，somebishop，orsomethegn。ThismayhavehappenedatTaunton。In1086，therewereburgessesatTauntonanditenjoyed\'burh-riht，\'andyetfromaveryremotetimeithadbelongedtothebishopsofWinchester。ButthecasesinwhichwemaysupposethatavillageinprivatehandsbecameaburgusandthatthischangetookplacebeforetheNormaninvasionseemtobeextremelyfew。Inthesefewthecauseofthechangemayhavebeenthatthekingbywayofspecialfavourimposedhisburhgriduponthetownandtherebyaugmentedtherevenueofitslord。(139*)

Astotheboroughsthatareregardedasstandingontheking\'sland，thesealsoseemtobefewandforthemoreparttheyaresmall。ThereareburgessesatMaldon；(140*)butMaldonisnotplacedbythesideofColchester；(141*)itisdescribedamong，butBristoltheroyalestates。ThereareburgessesatBristol；(142*)isnotplacedbesideGloucesterandWinchcombe。

Perhapsweshouldhaveheardmoreofit，ifithadnot，likeTamworth，stoodontheborderoftwocounties。Inthesouth-westtheking\'sofficialsseemtobegrapplingwithdifficultiesasbesttheymay。InDorsettheyplaceDorchester，Bridport，WarehamandShaftesburyabovetherubricTerraRegis，(143*)andwecannotfindthattheyreckonanyotherplaceasaborough。InDevonshireweseeExeterabovetheline；LidfordandBarnstaple，however，arecalledboroughsthoughtheyareassignedtotheking\'sland，and(asalreadysaid)Totnessisaborough，thoughitismediatizedandisdescribedamongtheestatesofitsBretonlord。(144*)NoboroughinSomersetisplacedabovetheline，thoughwelearnthatthekinghas107burgessesinIlchesterwhopayhim20shillings，(145*)andthatheandothershaveburgessesatBath。(146*)Perhapsthespacethatstandsvacantbeforethelistofthetenantsinchiefshouldhavebeenfilledwithsomewordsaboutthesetwotowns。Axbridge，LangportandMilborneseemtobeboroughs；AxbridgeandLangportoccurinthatlistofancientfortresseswhichwehavecalledTheBurghalHidage。(147*)

Wellswasanepiscopal，Somertonaroyalmanor；wehavenoreasonforcallingeitherofthemaborough。InHampshireanotheroftheancientfortresses，Twyneham(themodernChristChurch)isstillcalledburgus，butseemstobefindingitslevelamongtheroyalmanors。(148*)InWiltshireMalmesburyandMarlboroughareplacedabovetheline。Welearnthatthekingreceives？0fromtheburgusofWilton，(149*)andwealsolearnincidentallythatvariouslordshaveburgessesinthattown；forexample，thebishopofSalisburyhasburgessesinWiltonwhobelongtohismanorofSalisbury。(150*)OldSalisbury(\'oldSarum\'aswefoolishlycallit)seemstobeameremanorbelongingtothebishop；butthekingreceivesitsthirdpenny。HereceivesalsothethirdpennyofCricklade，whichwehavenamedbeforenowasoneoftheoldWessexstrongholds，andseveralofthecountymagnateshadburgessesthere。OntheotherhandCalne，BedwindandWarminsterarereckonedtobemanorsontheking\'sland。

Burgessesbelongtothem；butwhetherthoseburgessesarereallyresidentinthemmaynotbequitecertain。(151*)Devizeswecannotfind。Thatpuzzlesshouldoccurinthisquarteriswhatourgeneraltheorymightleadustoexpect。IntheoldhomeoftheWest-Saxonkingstheremaywellhavebeentownswhichhadlongagosecuredthenameandthepeaceofroyalburgs，thoughtheymanifestednoneofthattenurialheterogeneitywhichisthecommonmarkofaborough。Atown，avillage，whichnotonlybelongedtothekingbutcontainedapalaceorhouseinwhichheoftendwelt，wouldenjoyhisspecialpeace，andmightmaintainitsburghaldignitylongaftertherewaslittle，ifany，realdifferencebetweenitandothermanorsorvillagesofwhichthekingwastheimmediatelandlord。Alreadyin1086theremayhavebeen\'rottenboroughs，\'boroughsthatwererottenbeforetheywereripe。(152*)

Aboroughbelongstothegenusvilla(t鷑)。Inageafterageourtaskistodiscoveritsdifferentia，andthetaskishardbecause，asagesucceedsage，changesinlawandchangesinfactaremakingtheolddistinctionsobsoletewhileothersarebecomingimportant。Letusobserve，then，thatalreadywhenDomesdayBookwasinthemakingthoseancientattributesofwhichwehavebeenspeakingweredisappearingorwerefatedsoontodisappear。Wehavethoughtofthetypicalboroughasafortifiedtownmaintainedbyadistrictformilitarypurposes。Butalreadytheshirethegnshavebeenlettingtheirhawsatarentandprobablyhavebeenlettingthemtocraftsmenandtraders。Alsothetimehascomeforknight-serviceandcastlesandcastle-guard。Wehavethoughtofthetypicalboroughasthesphereofaspecialpeace。Butthedayisathandwhenarevolutioninthecriminallawwilldestroytheoldsystemofwerandw韙eandb髏，andtheking\'speacewillreignalwaysandeverywhere。(153*)Wehavethoughtofthetypicalboroughasatownwhichhasacourt。Butthedayisathandwhenalmosteveryvillagewillhaveitscourt，itsmanorialcourt。Newcontrasts，however，areemergingastheoldcontrastsfadeaway。Againstabackgroundofvilleinageandweek-work，theboroughbeginstostandoutasthesceneorburgagetenure。Theservicebywhichtheburgessholdshistenementisamoneyrent。Thismayleadtoalargeincreaseinthenumberofboroughs。Ifalordenfranchisesamanor，abolishesvilleincustoms，takesmoneyrents，allowshistenantstofarmthecourtandperhapsalsotofarmamarketthathehasacquiredfromtheking，hewillbesaidtocreatealiberburgus。(154*)Merchantgilds，electedbailiffs，electedmayorsandcommonsealswillappearandwillcomplicatethequestion。Therewillfollowatimeofuncertaintyandconfusionwhenthesheriffswilldecideassuitsthembestwhichofthesmallertownsareboroughsandwhicharenot。

Ifthetheorythatwehavebeensuggestingistrue，allorverynearlyallourancientboroughs(andwewilldrawthelineofancientryattheConquest)areintheirinceptionroyalboroughs。Thegroupofburgesseswhentakenasawholehadnosuperiorotherthantheking。Hiswasthepeacethatprevailedinthestreets；theprofitsofthecourtandofthemarketwerehis，thoughtheywerefarmedbyareeve。Rarely，however，washethelandlordofalltheburgesses。Ingeneralnotafewofthemlivedinhousesthatbelongedtothethegnsoftheshire。Wemustbecarefulthereforebeforewespeakofthesetownsas\'boroughsontheroyaldemesne。\'Forthemorepart，thecompilersofDomesdayBookhaverefusedtoplacethemontheTerraRegis。Incourseoftimesomeofthemwillbecurrentlyspokenofasboroughsonoroftheroyaldemesne。Therightsofthosewhorepresentthethegnsoftheshirewillhavebecomemererightstorent，and，theiroriginbeingforgotten，theywillevenbetreatedasmererent-charges。(155*)Thegreatmajorityoftheburgesseswillinmanyinstancesbetheking\'simmediatetenantsandhewillbetheonlylordofthatincorporealthing，\'theborough，\'theonlymanwhocangrantitacharterorletittofarm。ButwemustdistinguishbetweenthesetownsandthosewhichattheConquestweremanorsontheking\'sland。Theselatter，ifheenfranchisesthem，willbeboroughsontheroyaldemesneinanexactersense。

So，again，wemustdistinguishbetweenthoseancientboroughswhichthekinghasmediatizedandthosemanorsofmesnelordswhichareraisedtotherankofboroughs。Wehaveseenthatfromtheancientboroughthekingreceivedarevenueoftollsandfines。Thereforehehadsomethingtogiveaway。Hecouldmediatizetheborough。DomesdayBookshowsusthatthishadalreadybeendoneinafewinstances。(156*)Atalatertimesomeevenofthecountytownspassedoutoftheking\'shandsintothehandsofearls。ThishappenedatLeicesterandatWarwick。Theearlsucceededtotheking\'srights，andtheburgesseshadtogototheearlfortheirlibertiesandtheircharters。Butsuchcasesareverydistinctfromthoseinwhichamesnelordgrantsanenfranchisingchartertothemenofaplacewhichhashithertobeenoneofhismanors，andbyspeakingofboroughswhichare\'onthelandofmesnelords\'wemustnotconfusetwoclassesoftownswhichhavelonghaddifferenthistories。Intheancientboroughsthereisfromthefirstanelementthatwemustcallbothartificialandnational。Theboroughdoesnotgrowupspontaneously；itismade；itis\'wrought\'；itis\'timbered。\'Ithasanationalpurpose；itismaintained\'atthecostofthenation\'bythedutythattheshireowestoit。Thistraitmaysoonhavedisappeared，maysoonhavebeenforgotten，butagreatworkhadbeendone。Inthesenationallysupportedandheterogeneouslypeopledtownsanewkindofcommunitymightwaxandthrive。

NOTES：

1。AsketchoftheprincipalargumentofthissectionwaspublishedinEng。Hist。Rev。，xi。13，asareviewofKeutgen\'sUntersuchungen黚erdenUrsprungderdeutschenStadtverfassung。

TheoriginoftheFrenchandGermantownsbasbecomethethemeofalargeandveryinterestingliterature。AgoodintroductiontothiswillbefoundinanarticlebyM。Pirenne，L\'originedesconstitutionsurbaines，Revuehistorique，liii。52，lvii。293，andanarticlebyMrAshley，QuarterlyJournalofEconomics，vol。

x。July，1896。ThecontinuoussurvivalofRomanmunicipalinstitutionseveninGaulseemstobedeniedbyalmostallmodernstudents。

2。Hist。Eng。Law，i。625。

3。Stubbs，Const。Hist。iii。448。

4。Wemustexcludecasesinwhichthekingtakesanaidfromhiswholedemesne，e。g。forhisdaughter\'smarriage，forinsuchacasemanyroyalmanorswhichhavenorighttobecalledboroughsmustmakeagift。

5。Round，GeoffreydeMandeville，347，hasexcellentremarksonthispoint。

6。Nearly。

7。ThismaycomeonlyfromtheStaffordshirepartofTamworth。

8。Chichesterpaysinlateryears；butverylittle。

9。PipeRoll，31Hen。I。p。139。

10。WastheblankspaceinD。B。i。246leftfortheboroughofTamworth？ThisboroughisincidentallymentionedinD。B。i。238，246，246b。

11。Buttheaccountofthetwosisterboroughsherefallsbetweentheaccountsofthetwosistercounties。

12。D。B。i。337。ItisevencalledasuburbiumofLincoln，thoughitliesfull10milesfromthecity。

13。TheoneglimpsethatIhavehadofthemanuscriptsuggestedtome(1)thattheaccountsofsomeoftheboroughswerepostscripts，and(2)thatspacewasleftforaccountsofLondonandWinchester。Theanatomyofthebookdeservesexaminationbyanexpert。

14。D。B。i。154。

15。D。B。i。56。

16。D。B。i。58。

17。D。B。i。238。

18。D。B。i。143。

19。Ellis，Introduction，ii。446；WinchcombeLand-boc，ed。Royce，p。xiv；Stevenson，RentalofGloucester，p。ix。

20。D。B。i。128，128b；andabove，p。144。

21。K。855(iv。211)。

22。Stow，Survey，ed。Strype，Bk。iii。p。121。

23。D。B。i。135b。

24。Hist。Eng。Law，i。636。

25。Rot。Hund。ii。361。

26。D。B。i。189。

27。RentalofGloucester，ed。W。H。Stevenson：Gloucester，1890，p。x。

28。TherearemanyexamplesinKemble\'sCodex。

29。PipeRoll，31Hen。I。p。41：\'Vicecomesredditcompotumde？0deauxiliocivitatis……Etinperdonis……ComitideMellent25sol……ComitideLerecestria35sol……ComitideWarenna16

sol……Comiti。Gloecestriae116sol。et8den。SeealsotheLiberWintoniae，D。B。iv。531ff。

30。IntheA-S。land-booksthewordcivitasiscommonlyappliedtoWorcester，Winchester，Canterbury，andothersuchplaces，whicharebothbishops\'seesandtheheadplacesoflargedistricts。But(K。v。p。180)Gloucesterisacivitas，andforsometimeaftertheConquestitisratherthecountytownthanthecathedraltownthatbearsthistitle。DidanyoneeverspeakofSelseyorSherborneasacivitas？In803(K。v。p。65)thebishopsofCanterbury，Lichfield，Leicester，Sidnacester，Worcester，Winchester，Dunwich，LondonandRochesterstylethemselvesbishopsofcivitates，whilethoseofHereford，Sherborne，ElmhamandSelseydonotusethisword。Butaninferencefromthiswouldberash。

31。Aninterestingexampleisthis。In779OffaconveystoathegnlandatSulmonnesburg。TheboundariesmentionedinthecharterarethoseofthepresentofBourton-on-the-Water。

\'Sulmonnesburg……istheancientcampparishclosetoBourtonwhichgaveitsnametotheDomesdayHundredofSalmanesberie，andatagapintherampartofwhichaCourtLeetwasheldtillrecently。\'SeeC。S。Taylor，Pre-DomesdayHideofGloucestershire，Trans。BristolandGloucestershireArchaeol。

Soc。vol。xviii。pt。2。Asregardsthenanmesofhillsandofvillagesnamedfromhillstheremayoccasionallybesomedifficultyinmarkingoffthosewhichgobacktobeorh(berry，berrow，barrow)fromthosewhichgobacktoburh(burgh，borough，bury)。Mr。StevensontellsmethatintheWestofEnglandthetermination-boroughsometimesrepresents-beorh。

32。Alfred，40；Ine，45。

33。Aethelr。iv。4。TheQuadripartitusisouronlyauthorityfortheseInstituta；butDr。Liebermann(Quadrip。p。138)holdsthatthetranslatorhadinfrontofhimadocumentwrittenbeforetheConquest。Schmidwouldreadborh-bryce：seep。541；butthisemendationseemsneedless。HaslIotthesumbeenNormanized？Theking\'sburh-bryceusedtobe120(i。e。inEnglish\'ahundred\')

shillings，andahundredNormanshillingsmake？。SoaccordingtotheBerkshirecustom(D。B。i。56b)hewhobynightbreaksacivitaspays100shillingstothekingandnot(itisnoted)tothesheriff。

34。D。B。i。2：\'Concordatumestderectiscallibusquaehabentpercivitatemintroitumetexitum，quicunqueinillisforisfecerit，regiemendabit。\'SeetheimportantdocumentcontainedinaSt。Augustin\'sCartularyandprintedinLarking，DomesdayofKent，Appendix，35：\'Etomnesviecivitatisquehabentduasportas，hocestintroitumetexitum，illesuntdeconsuetudineRegis。\'

35。Schmid，App。XII；Leg。Henr。c。I6。

36。Fleta，p。66；seealso13Ric。II。stat。I。cap。3。

37。Edmund，II，2。

38。SeealsoSchmid，App。IVgrideandbemunde)，section15；\'Ifanymanfightsorstealsintheking\'sburhortheneighbourhood(the\'verge\')，heforfeitshislife，ifthekingwillnotconcedethatheberedeemedbyawergild。\'

39。AEthelstan，II。20。

40。K。1334(vi。p。195)：acontractmadeatExeterbeforeEarlGodwinandalltheshire。

41。Edgar，III。5；Cnut，II。I8。

42。MentionismadeofthewallsofRochesterandCanterburyinvariouschartersfromthemiddleofcent。viiionwards：K。vol。

i。pp。138，183，274；vol。ii。pp。I，26，36，57，86；vol。v。p。

68。

43。Green，ConquestofEngland，189-207。

44。Forinstance，K。iii。pp。5，50。

45。K。I154(v。302)：\'adiacentetiamagriquamplurimicircacastellumquodWelingafordvocitatur。\'K。152(i。183)：\'castelliquodnominaturHrofescester。\'——K。276(ii。57)：\'castelliHrobi。\'

46。AbeautifulexampleisgivenbyStaffordshireandWarwickshire。Eachhasitsboroughinitscentre，whileTamworthontheborderispartlyintheoneshire，partlyintheother。

SeePipeRoll，31Hen。I。75，76，107，108。AstotheseMercianshires，seeStubbs，Const。Hist。，i。123；Green，ConquestofEngland，237：\'Hertfordshire，BuckinghamshireandBedfordshireareotherinstancesofpurelymilitarycreation，districtsassignedtothefortresseswhichEadwardraisedatthesepoints。\'

47。SeeourindexunderBurghalHidage。MrW。H。Stevenson\'svaluableaidintheidentificationoftheseburgsisgratefullyacknowledged。

48。D。B。i。154。

49。D。B。i。262b。

50。Itwillbeunderstoodthatwearenotcontendingforanexactcorrespondencebetweencivilandmilitarygeography。OxfordandWallingfordarebordertowns。BerkshiremenhelptoOxford，andOxfordshiremenhelptomaintainWallinford。

51。Widukind，1。35。ForcommentsseeWaitz，HeinrichV。95；

Richter，Annalen，iii。8；Giesebrecht，Kaiserzeit(ed。5)，i。

222，811；Keutgen，UrsprungderdeutschenStadtverfassung，p。44。

GiesebrechtholdsthatEdward\'smeasuresmaywellhavebeenHenry\'smodel。

52。A-S。Chron。ann。894。

53。Acharterof899(K。v。p。141)professestotellhowKingAlfred，AbpPlegmundandAEthelredealdormanoftheMerciansheldamoot\'deinstaurationeurbisLondoniae。\'Oneresultofthismootwasthattwoplotsoflandinsidethewalls，withhythesoutsidethewalls，weregivenbytheking，theonetothechurchofCanterbury，theothertothechurchofWorcester。HowwilltheinstauratioofLondonbesecuredbysuchgrants？

54。K。1144(v。280)。Othercases：K。663(Chichester)，673

(Winchester)，705(Warwick)，724(Warwick)，746(Oxford)，1235

(Winchester)。

55。K。765-6，805。

56。Schmid，App。VThismightmeanaseat(ofjustice)inthegateofhisownburh。ButthisdOcumentwillhardlybeolderthan，ifsooldas，cent。x。，bywhichtimeweshouldsupposethatburhmoreoftenpointedtoaboroughthantoastronghouse。

WemayguessthatinthelattersenseitwassupplantedbythehallofwhichwereadagreatdealinDomesday。Seeabove，p。

109。However，itdoesnotseemcertainthatO。E。geatcanmeanstreet。

57。A-S。Chron。ann。994。

58。Thorpe，Diplomatarium，610。WhentheConfessorsendsawrittoLondonheaddressesittothebishop，portreeveandburh-thegns。SeeK。iv。pp。856，857，861，872。

59。Gross，GildMerchant，i。183，189。

60。Gross，op。cit。ii。37。

61。Hist。Eng。Law，i。257。

62。A-S。Chron。ann。1097：\'EacmanegesciranemidweorcetoLundennebelumpon……\'Thorpethoughtgoodtosubstitutescipanforsciran。

63。D。B。i。298。OutsideYorkweresomelandswhichgeldedwiththecity；\'etintribusoperibusRegiscumcivibuserant。\'Thisreferstothetrinodanecessitas。

64。Sohm，DieEntstehungdesdeutschenSt鋎tewesens：Leipzig，。

1890。

65。Ellis，Introduction，i。248-253。

66。D。B。i。56b。

67。D。B。i。1。BlackBookoftheAdmiralty，ii。158：\'theherringseason，thatisfronmSt。Michael\'sDaytoSt。Clement\'s(Nov。23)。\'St。Andrew\'sDayisDec。1。

68。Edward，I。1；AEthelstan，II。12，13；IV。2；VI。10；Edmund，III。5；Edgar，IV。7-11；Leg。Will。I。45；Leg。Will。III。10。

SeeSchmid，Glossar。s。v。Marktrecht。

69。Edgar，IV。3-6。Weshouldexpectrather36than33，andxxxvimighteasilybecomexxxiii。

70。3。K。280(ii。63)，316(ii。118)。

71。Kemble，Cod。Dip。1075(v。142)；Kemble，Saxons，ii。328；

Thorpe，136：\'gelandfeoh，gefihtwite，gestale，gowohceapung，geburhweallessceatinge。\'InD。B。i。173itissaidthattheBishopofWorcesterhadreceivedreceivedthethirdpennyoftheborough。ApparentlyintheConfessor\'sdayhereceived？，thethirdofasumof？8。Astotheearlyhistoryofmarkets，seethepapercontributedbyMrC。I。EltontotheReportoftheRoyalCommissiononMarketRights，1889。

72。AEthelstan，II。14。

73。ThegeneralequivalenceofportandburhwemayperhapsinferfromAEthelstan，II。14：Nooneistocoinmoneyoutsideaport，andthereistobeamoneyerineveryburh。

74。Stockport，Langport，Amport，Newport-Pagnell，MilbornePort，Littleportareinstances。Butaverysmallrivermightbesufficienttomakeaplaceahaven。

75。SeeminglyifthisO-E。portisnotLat。portus，itisLat。

porta，andthereissomefascinationsuggestionthattheburh-geat，orinmodernGermantheBurg-gasse，inwhichthemarketisheld，wasdescribedinLatinasportaburgi。InA。D。

762(K。i。p。133)wehaveahouse\'quaeiampositaest。\'adQuenegatumurbisDorouernisinforopositaest。\'InA。D。845(K。

ii。p。26)wefinda\'publicastrata\'inCanterbury\'ubiappellaturWeoweraget，\'thatis，thegateofthemenofWye。ButwhatwehavetoaccountforistheadoptionofportasanEnglishword，andifourancestorsmighthaveusedgeat，theyneednothaveborrowed。InA。D。857(K。ii。p。63)thekingbestowsonthechurchofWorcestercertainlibertiesataspotinthetownofLondon，\'hocest，quodhabeatintusliberalitermodiumetponderaetmensurasicutinportomosestadfruendum。\'Tohavepublicweightandmeasuresischaracteristicofaportus(=haven)。ThewordmayhavespreadoutwardsfromLondon。DrStubbs(Const。

Hist。i。439)givesaweightyvoteforporta；butthecontinentalusagedeservesattention。Pirenne，Revuehistorique，lvii。75：

\'Touteslesvillesanciennes[enFlandre]s\'yformentauborddeseauxetportentlenomcaract閞istiquedeportus，c\'est-？direded閎arcad鑢es。C\'estdecemotportusquevientlemotflamandpoorter，quid閟ignelebourgeois。\'SeeD。B。i，181b：\'inHerefordPort。\'

76。D。B。i。143，77。D。B。i。230。

78。Cutts，Colchester，65；RoundinTheAntiquary，vol。vi(1882)，p。5。

79。D。B。ii。106-7。SeeRound，op。cit。，p。252。

80。Hist。Eng。Law，i。629。

81。D。B。i。252。

82。D。B。i。179。SoatChester(i。262b)itisconsideredpossiblethattheheirwillnotbeabletopaythereliefoftenshillingsandwillforfeitthetenement。

83。D。B。i。336。

84。D。B。ii。116。SeealsothecaseofThetford(D。B。ii，119)，wheretherehadbeennumerousburgesseswhocouldchoosetheirlords。

85。D。B。i。280。

86。D。B。i。336b。

87。D。B。ii。117。

88。D。B。i。2。In923(K。v。p。186)wehearoflandoutsideCanterburyalledBurhuuarebocaceras，apparentlyacresbookedto[certain]burgesses。

89。D。B。i。100。

90。D。B。ii。107：\'Incommuneburgensumiiii。xx。acraeterrae；

etcircamurumviiipercae；dequototoperannumhabentburgenseslx。sol。adserviciumregissiopusfuerit，sinautem，incommunedividunt。\'Astothismostdifficultpassage，seeRound，Antiquary，vol。vi。(1882)p。97。Perhapsthemostnaturalinterpretationofitisthatthecommunityorcommuneoftheburgessesholdsthislandandreceivesbywayofrentfromtenants，towhomitislet，thesumof60shillingsayear，which，ifthisbenecessary，goestomakeupwhattheboroughhastopaytotheking，orotherwiseisdivisibleamongtheburgesses。But，asMrRoundrightlyremarks，60shillingsforthislandwouldbealargerent。

91。D。B。i。2：\'Ipsiquoqueburgenseshabebantderege33acrasterraeingildamsuam。\'Anotherversionsays，“33agrosterrequosburgensessemperhabueruntingildaeorumdedonisomniumregum。\'ThedocumentherecitedispreservedinacartularyofSt。Augustin，andisprintedinLarking，DomesdayofKent，App。

35。ItiscloselyconnectedwiththeDomesdaySurveyandisofthehighestinterest。

92。Gross，GildMerchant，ii。37。

93。Wedonotevenknowforcertainthatwhenourrecordsaysthattheburgessesandtheclerksheldland\'ingildanmsuam，\'

morewasmeantthanthatthelandwaspartoftheirgeldableproperty。SeeGross，GildMerchant，i。189。IntheExonDomesdaythegeldisgiidum。

94。D。B。i。154。

95。Seeabove，p。179。

96。InmodernYorkthefreemeninhabitingthedifferentwardshadrightsofpasturevaryingfronmwardtoward：AppendixtoReportofMunicipalCorporations\'Commissioners，1835，p。1745。Yorkisoneofthetownsinwhichwemayperhapssupposethattherehasbeenagradualunionofseveralcommunitieswhichwereatonetimeagrarianlydistinct。SeeD。B。i。298。DrStubbsseemstoregardthisasacommoncaseandspeaksof\'thetownshipswhichmadeuptheburh\'(Const。Hist。i。101)。Wecannotthinkthattheevidenceusuallypointsinthisdirection，andhavegravedoubtsastotheexistencewithinthewallsofvariouscommunitiesthatwerecalledtownships。Withinboroughwallswemustnotleapfromparishtotownship。

97。D。B。i。203。AstothewholeofthismatterseeMrRound\'spaperonDomesdayFinanceinDomesdayStudies。vol。i。

98。Hist。Eng。Law，i。635。

99。D。B。i。2I9。

100。ThecaseofLondonisanomalous；butnotsoanomalousasitisoftensupposedtobe。OnthispointseeRound，GeoffreydeMandeville，347ff。OnthePipeRollof2Hen。II(pp。24，28)

thecitizensofLincolnareaccountingforafarmof？80，whilethesheriffinconsequenceofthisarrangementiscreditedwith？40(blanch)whenheaccountsforthefarmoftheshire。Thisisasyetararephenomenon。

101。Astotheroundsumscastontheboroughs，seeRoundinDomesdayStudies，i。117ff。；alsoRound，FeudalEngland，156。

102。ThismaynothavebeenthecaseinEastAnglia。

103。D。B。i。252。

104。D。B。i。298。OfYorkweread：\'Inthegeldofthecityare84carucatesofland，eachofwhichgeldsasmuchasonehouseinthecity。\'Thisseemstopointtoanautomaticadjustment。Tofindouthowmuchgeldanyhousepays，dividethetotalsumthatisthrownuponYorkbythenumberofhouses+84。

105。MrRound(DomesdayStudies，i。129)whohasdonemorethananyoneelsefortheelucidationofthefinanceofDomesday，hasspokenof\'thegreatAnglo-Saxonprincipleofcollectiveliability。\'Thismaybeausefulterm，providedthatwedistinguish(a)liabilityofacorporationforthewholetaxwheneveritislevied；(b)jointandseveralliabilityofalltheburgessesforthewholetaxwheneveritislevied；(c)liabilityofeachburgessforashareofthewholetax，theamountthathemustpayinanyyearbeingaffectedbyanincreaseordecreaseinthenumberofcontributories。

106。SeetheentrytouchingColchester，above，p。244，note2。

107。D。B。i。1。

108。D。B。i。238。ThecustomofWarwickwasthatwhenthekingmadeanexpeditionbylandtenburgessesofWarwickshouldgoforalltherest。Hewhodidnotgowhensummoned[summonedbywhom？]

paid100shillingstotheking；[sohisoffencewasagainstthekingnotagainstthetown。]Andifthekingwentagainsthisenemiesbysea，theysenthimfourboat-swainsorfourpoundsinmoney。

109。D。B。i。56b。

110。D。B。i。179。

111。AtChester(D。B。i。262b)thetwelveciviciudicespaidafineiftheywereabsentwithoutexcusefromthe\'hundret。\'Thisseemstomeanthattheircourtwascalledahundredmoot。Itisverypossiblethat，atleastintheearliesttime，themootthatwasheldintheboroughhadjurisdictionoveraterritoryconsiderablylargerthanthewalledspace，andinthiscasetheurbanwouldhardlydifferfromtheruralhundred。Asomewhatnewkindof\'hundred\'mightbeformedwithouttheintroductionofanynewidea。

112。D。B。i。336。

113。Hist。Eng。Law，i。631。

114。Green，TownLife，vol。i。ch。xi。

115。D。B。i。189。

116。D。B。i。336b。

117。D。B。i。336b。

118。D。B。i。298。

119。D。B。i。262b。

120。R。H。i。354-6。

121。BesidesthewellknownEnglishbooks，seeapaperbyKonradMaurer，SitzungsberichtederAkademiederWissenschaftenzuM黱chen，Philosoph-philolog。Classe，1887，vol。ii。p。363。IntheLegesEdw。Conf。38section2，the\'lagemannietmelioreshominesdeburgo\'seemtoserveasinquestmen，ratherthandoomsmen；whilethelahmenofthedocumentconcerningtheDunsetan(Schmid，App。I。)seentobedoomsmen。

122。Gross，GildMerchant，ii。114ff。；Hist。Eng。Law，i。642。

123。D。B。ii。290，Ipswich：\'Modoverosunt110burgensesquiconsuetudinemredduntet100pauperesburgensesquinonpossuntreddereadgeltumRegisnisiunumdenariumdesuiscapitibus。\'D。

B。ii。116，Norwich：\'Modosuntinburgo665burgensesanglicietconsuetudinesreddunt，et480bordariiquipropterpauperiemnullamredduntconsuetudinem。\'

124。D。B。i。108b。

125。WhetherthenovumburgummentionedinD。B。i。17isWinchelseaorRyeoranewtownatHastingsseemstobedisputable。SeeRound，FeudalEngland，568。

126。D。B。i。26b，27。

127。D。B。i。4b。

128。D。B。i。4b。Seealso，10b。

129。D。B。i。12。

130。D。B。i。345，283b。IthasbeensaidthatLeofricgaveNewarktothesee。

131。Dodsworth\'sYorkshireNotes，ed。R。Holmes(reprintedfromYorkshireArchaeologicalJournal)，p。126。

132。D。B。i。316b。Theestateisingeldableandthereforelookslikeanancientpossessionoftheking。

133。D。B。337b：\'Toftessochemanorumteignorum。\'Somecommentatorshaveseenhere\'sokementhegns\'；buttheotherinterpretationseemsfarmoreprobable。

134。HadthesetownsbeendescribedinGreatDomesday，theywouldprobablyhavebeendefinitelyplacedoutsidetheTerraRegis。

135。D。B。ii。311，312，385。

136。D。B。ii。319b。

137。D。B。ii。389b：\'semperunummercatummodo43burgenses。\'

ForSudbury，seeD。B。ii。286；forBeccles，369b。

138。D。B。i。136b：\'Inburbiohuiusvillae52burgenses。\'Thewordburbiumlooksasifsomeonehadarguedthatassuburbiummeansanannextoatown，thereforeburbiummustmeanatown。Buttheinfluenceofburh，burg，bourgmaybesuspected。Afewpagesback(132)theburgumofHertfordseemstobespokenofasas\'hocsuburbium\'。ItisofcoursetoberememberedthatburgusorburgumwasawordwithwhichtheNormanswerefamiliar：itwasbecomingtheFrenchbourg。ItisdifficulttounravelanydistinctivelyFrenchthreadintheinstitutionalhistoryofourboroughsduringtheNormanage；butthelittleknotoftradersclusteredoutsidealord\'scastleatClareorBerkhampstead，atTutbury，WigmoreorRhuddlan，mayhaveforitstyperatheraFrenchbourgthananEnglishburh。IndeedatRhuddlan(i。269)

theburgesseshavereceivedthelawofBreteuil。

139。ForTaunton，seeD。B。i。87b：\'IstaeconsuetudinespertinentadTantone：burgeristh，latrones，pacisinfractio，hainfare，denariidehundred，denariiS。Petri，ciricieti。\'

ComparethedocumentwhichstandsasK。897(iv。233)：\'Daetisaerest……seomenreddenintoTantunecirhsceattasandburhgerihtu。\'SeealsoK。1084(v。157)：\'utepiscopihomines[apudTantun]tamnobilesquamignobiles……hocidemiusinomnihaberentdignitatequoregishominesperfruuntur，regalibusfisciscommorantes。\'

140。D。B。ii。5b。

141。D。B。ii。104。

142。D。B。i。163。

143。D。B。i。75。

144。D。B。i。100，108b。

145。D。B。i。86b。

146。D。B。i。87。

147。Seeabove，p。188。

148。D。B。38b，44。

149。D。B。64b。

150。D。B。66。

151。TheburgessesbelongingtoRamsburyarereallyatCricklade：

D。B。i。66。

152。ItseemsverypossiblethatalreadybeforetheConquestsomeboroughshadfallenoutofthelist。Incent。x。weread，forexample，ofaburhatTowcesterandofaburhatWithaminEssex。

Wemustnotindeedcontendthatashire-supportedtownwithtenurialheterogeneitycameintoexistencewheverEdwardtheElderoftheLadyoftheMercians\'wroughtaburh。\'Butstillduringatimeofpeacethewallsofapettyburhwouldbeneglected，and，ifthegreatmajorityoftheinhabitantsweretheking\'stenants，therewouldbelittletodistinguishthisplacefromaroyalvillageofthecommonkind。SeeforTowcester，D。B。

i。219b；forWitham，D。B。ii。1b。Inlaterdayswemayseeanoldborough，suchasBuckingham，fallingverylowandsendingnoburgessestoparliament。Itwillbeunderstoodthatwehavenotpledgedourselvestoanylistoftheplacesthatwereboroughsin1066。TherearedifficultcasessuchasthatofSt。Albans；seeabove，p。181。But，wearepersuadedthatfewplacesweredeemedburgi，excepttheshiretowns。

153。AlastrelicoftheoldboroughpeacemaybefoundinBritton\'sdefinitionofburglary(i。42)：\'Burglarsarethosewhofeloniouslyintimeofpeacebreakchurches，orthehousesofothers，orthewallsorgatesofourcitiesorboroughs(denoscitezoudenosburgs)。\'

154。Byacharterofenfranchisementalordmightintroduceburgagetenureandabolish\'servilecustoms\'；butitmustbe，tosaytheleast，doubtfulwhetherhecould，withouttheking\'slicence，conferuponavillagethepublicstatusofaboroughande。g。authorizeittobehavelikeahundredbeforethejusticesineyre。Thisisoneofthereasonswhysheriffscandrawthelinewheretheyplease，andwhysometownswhichhavebeenenfranchisedneverobtainasecureplaceinthelistofparliamentaryboroughs。

155。Hist。Eng。Law，i。630。Whenitisbeingsaidthatiflandintheboroughescheats，italwaysescheatstotheking，themesnetenuresarealreadyforgottenwithintheborough，justasinmoderntimeswehaveforgottentheminopencountry。Theburgher\'spowerofdevisinghislandmadeescheatarareevent，andsodestroyedtheevidenceofmesnetenure。

156。Seeabove，p。256。Alsothekingmightgiveawayanundividedshareoftheborough。ApparentlythechurchofWorcesterhadreceivedthethirdpennyofthecityeversincethedaywhentheburhwaswroughtbytheealdormanandladyoftheMercians。Seeabove，p。237。

TheEnd