第2章

NOTES：

1。D。B。ii。109b。：\'HundretdeGrenehou14letis。\'1b。212b。

\'HundretetDim。deClakelosade10leitis。\'Round，FeudalEngland，101。

2。SomeofthemarementionedbyEllis，Introduction，i。34-9。

3。D。B。i。184b：\'Haecterranongeldatnecconsuetudinemdatnecinaliquohundredoiacet\'：i。157\'Haecterranunquamgeldavitnecalicuihundredopertinetnecpertinuit\'：i。357b\'HaeduaecarucataenonsiuntinnumeroalicuiushundredinequehabentparesinLincolescyra。\'

4。D。B。i。207b：\'JacetinBedefordscirasetgeldumdatinHuntedonscire\'；i。61b\'JacetetappreciataestinGratentunquodestinOxenefordscireettamendatscotuminBerchescire\'；

i。132b，themanorofWeston\'liesin，HitchinwhichisinHertfordshirc，butitswara\'liesin\'Bedfordshire，i。e。itpaysgeld，it\'defendsitself\'inthelattercounty；i。189b，thewaraofacertainhide\'liesin\'HinxtonwhichisinCambridgeshire，butthelandbelongstothemanorofChesterfordandthereforeisvaluedinEssex。D。B。i。178：fivehides\'geldandplead\'inWorcestershire，butpaytheirfarminHerefordshire。

5。D。B。i。157b：\'Has[terrasinOxenefordscire]coniunxitterraesuaeinGlowecestrescire\'；i。209b\'forismisitdehundredoubisedefendebat，T。R。E。\'；i。50\'etmisitforascomitatumetmisitinWiltesire。\'SeealsoEllis，i。36。

6。SeeRound，FeudalEngland，p。118。MrRoundseemstothinkthatthecommissionersmadeacircuitthroughthehundreds。I

doubttheydidmorethantheirsuccessorsthejusticesineyrewerewonttodo，thatis，theyheldintheshire-townamootwhichwasattendedby(1)themagnatesoftheshirewhospokefortheshire，(2)ajuryfromeveryhundred，(3)adeputationofvillanifromeverytownship。SeetheYorkshireandLincolnshireClamores(i。375)wherewemayfindsuccessiveentriesbeginningwith(a)Scyratestatur，(b)Westredingtestatur，(c)Testaturwapentac。Strikinglysimilarentriesarefoundontheeyrerolls。

AsSirF。Pollock(Eng。Hist。Rev。xi。213)remarks，itismisleadingtospeakoftheDomesday\'survey\'；Domesdayinquestwouldbebetter。

7。SeeRound，FeudalEngland，p。44。

8。Inquis。Com。Cantab。60。

9。SeethetableinRound，FeudalEngland，p。50。IhadalreadyselectedthisbeautifulspecimenbeforeMrRound\'sbookappeared。

Hehasgivenseveralothersthatarequiteasneat。

10。Ofcoursewetakenoaccountofurbanparishes。

11。Eyton\'slaboriousstudieshavemadethisplainasregardssomecountieswidelyremovedfromeachother；still，e。g。inhisbookOnSomerset，hehasnowandagaintonotethatnameswhichappearinD。B。areobsolete。

12。Inq。Com。Cant。60-1。

13。D。B。i。31。

14。D。B。i。41。Weshallreturntothismatterhereafter。

15。AgoodmanycaseswillbefoundinEssexandSuffolk。

16。Inq。Com。Cantab。51，53。

17。Ibid。47。

18。Ibid。29。

19。Maitland，SurnamesofEnglishVillages，ArchaeologicalReview，iv。233。

20。Wedonotmeantoimplythattherewerenotwidestretchesofwastelandwhichwereregardedasbeing\'extra-villar，\'orcommontoseveralvills。

21。Hist。Eng。Law，i。547。

22。Thisofcoursewouldnotbetrueofcasesinwhichthelandsofvariousvillageswereintermixedinonelargetractofcommonfield。Astothese\'discretevills，\'seeHist。Eng。Law，i。549。

23。Thisname-givingclusterwillusuallycontaintheparishchurchandsowillenjoyacertainpre-eminence。Butwearetospeakofatimewhenparishchurcheswerenovelties。

24。SeeMeitzen，SiedelungundAgrarwesenderGermanen，especiallyii，119ff。

25。Whenthehamletsbearnameswithsuchancientsuffixesas-ton，-ham，-by，-worth，-wick，-thorpe，thisofcourseisinfavouroftheirantiquity。Ontheotherhand，iftheyareknownmerelybyfamilynamessuchasStyles\'s，Nokes\'s，Johnson\'sorthelike，this，thoughnotconclusiveevidenceof，iscompatiblewith，theirmodernity。MeitzenthinksthatinKentandalongthesouthernshoretheGermaninvadersfoundedbutfewvillages。Themapdoesnotconvincemethatthisinferenceiscorrect。

26。Whenmorethanfive-and-twentyteam-landsorthereaboutsareascribedtoasingleplace，weshallgenerallyfindreasontobelievethatwhatisbeingdescribedisnotasinglevill。Seeabove，p。36。

27。Inq。Com。Cant。51fol。Inafewcasesourfigureswillinvolveasmallelementofconjecture。

28。D。B。i。248。Wehavetriedtoavoidvillsinwhichitiscertainorprobablethatsomeothertenantinchiefhadanestate。

29。D。B。i。88。Wehavetriedtomakesurethatnotenantinchiefsavethebishophadlandinanyofthesevills，andthiswethinkfairlycertain，exceptasregardsHarptreeandNorton。

TherearenowtwoHarptrees，EastandWest，andfourormoreNortons。

30。WetakethefiguresfromEllis，Introduction，ii。417ff。

31。Verypossiblythisfigureistoolow。Thereisreasontothinkthatsomethefreemenandsokemenofthesecountiesgetcountedtwiceorthriceoverbecausetheyholdlandunderseveraldifferentlords。OntheotherhandEllis(Introduction，ii。491)

wouldarguethatthefigureistoohigh。ButthewordsAliiibitenentwhichoccurattheendofnumerousentriesmean，webelieve，notthatthereareinthisvillotherunenumeratedtillersofthesoil，butthatthevillisdividedbetweenseveraltenantsinchief。

32。D。B。i。162b。

33。Ellis\'sfiguresare：England283，242：thethreecounties，72，883。

34。WetakethesefiguresfromEllis。

35。LaySubsidy，25Edw。1。(YorkshireArchaeologicalSociety)，pp。xxxi-xxxv。Fractionsofapoundareneglected。

36。Powell，TheRisinginEastAnglia，120-3。Thegreatdecreasebetween1377and1381inthenumberofpersonstaxed，wemustnottrytoexplain。

37。SeetheserviceablemapsinSeebohm，VillageCommunity，86。

ButtheyseemtotreatYorkshireunfairly。Ithas5。5percentofsokemen。

38。ThisisfoundatthebeginningoftheInquisitioEliensis；D。

B。iv。497；Hamilton，Inquisitio，97。SeeRound，FeudalEngland，133ff。

39。Wemustnothastilydrawtheinferencethateverypartyofcommissionersreceivedthesamesetofinstructions。Perhaps，forexample，carucates，nothides，werementionedintheinstructionsgiventothosecommissionerswhoweretovisitthecarucatedcounties。Perhapsthenon-appearanceofserviinYorkshireandLincolnshiremaybeduetonodeepercause。

2。THESERFS

Theexistenceofsome25，000serfsisrecorded。Inthethirteenthcenturyservusandvillanusare，atleastamonglawyers，equivalentwords。Theonlyunfreemanisthe\'serf-villein\'andthelawyersaretryingtosubjecthimtothecuriousprinciplethatheisthelord\'schattelbutafreemaninrelationtoallbuthislord。(1*)ItisfarotherwiseinDomesdayBook。Inentryafterentryandcountyaftercountytheserviarekeptwellapartfromthevillani，bordarii，cotarii。Oftentheyarementionedinquiteanothercontexttothatinwhichthevillaniareenumerated。AsaninstancewemaytakeamanorinSurrey；(2*)——\'Indemesnethereare5teamsandthereare25

villaniand6bordariiwith14teams。Thereisonemillof2

shillingsandonefisheryandonechurchand4acresofmeadow，andwoodfor150pannagepigs，and2stone-quarriesof2

shillingsand2nestsofhawksinthewoodand10servi。\'Oftenenoughtheserviareplacedbetweentwoothersourcesofwealth，thechurchandthemill。Insomecountiestheyseemtotakeprecedenceoverthevillani；thecommonformulais\'Indominiosuntacurucaeetbservietcvillanietdbordariicumecarucis。\'Butthisisdelusive；theformulaisbringingtheserviintoconnexionwiththedemesneteamsandseparatingthemfromtheteamsofthetenants。Wemustrenderitthus——\'Onthedemesnethereareateamsandbservi；andtherearecvillanianddbordariiwitheteams。\'Stillweseemtoseeagentlygraduatedscaleofsocialclasses，villani，bordarii，cotarii，servi，andwhilethejurorsofonecountywillarrangetheminonefashion，thejurorsofanothercountymayadoptadifferentscheme。Thusintheirclassificationofmankindthejurorswillsometimeslaygreatstressonthepossessionofploughoxen。InHertfordshireweread：——\'Thereare6teamsindemesneand41

villaniand17bordariihave20teams……thereare22cotariiand12servi。(3*)——\'Thepriest，13villaniand4bordariihave6

teams……therearetwocotariiand4servi。\'(4*)——\'Thepriestand24villanihave13teams……thereare12bordarii，16cotariiand11servi。\'(5*)Adivisionisinthisinstancemadebetweenthepeoplewhohaveoxenandthepeoplewhohavenone；villanihaveoxen，cotariiandservihavenone；sometimesthebordariistandabovethisline，sometimesbelowit。

OfthelegalpositionoftheservusDomesdayBooktellsuslittleornothing；butearlierandlaterdocumentsobligeustothinkofhimasaslave，onewhointhemainhasnolegalrights。

Heisthethe體oftheAnglo-Saxondooms，theservusoftheecclesiasticalcanons。Butthoughwedorightincallinghimaslave，stillwemightwellbemistakenwerewetothinkofthelinewhichdivideshimfromothermenasbeingassharpasthelinewhichamaturejurisprudencewilldrawbetweenthingandperson。Wemaywelldoubtwhetherthisprinciple——\'Theslaveisathing，notaperson\'——canbefullyunderstoodbyagrosslybarbarousage。Itimpliestheideaofaperson，andintheworldofsensewefindnotpersonsbutmen。

Thusdegreesofservilityarepossible。Aclassmaystand，asitwere，half-waybetweentheclassofslavesandtheclassoffreemen。TheKentishlawoftheseventhcenturyasitappearsinthedoomsofAEthelbert，(6*)likemanyofitscontinentalsisters，knowsaclassofmenwhoperhapsarenotfreemenandyetarenotslaves；itknowsthelaetaswellasthethe體。FromwhatracetheKentishlaethassprung，andhow，whenitcomestodetails，thelawwilltreathim——theseareobscurequestions，andthelatterofthemcannotbeansweredunlessweapplytohimwhatiswrittenaboutthelaeti，litiandlidiofthecontinent。

Heisthusfarapersonthathehasasmallwergildbutpossiblyheisboundtothesoil。OnlyinAEthelbert\'sdoomsdowereadofhim。Fromlaterdays，untilDomesdayBookbreaksthesilence，wedonotobtainanydefiniteevidenceoftheexistenceofanyclassofmenwhoarenotslavesbutnonethelessaretiedtotheland。

Ofmenwhoareboundtodoheavylabourservicesfortheirlordswedohear，butwedonothearthatiftheyrunawaytheycanbecapturedandbroughtback。Asweshallseebyandby，DomesdayBookbearswitnesstotheexistenceofaclassofburi，burs，coliberti，whoseemtobedistinctlysuperiortotheservi，butdistinctlyinferiortothevilleins，bordiersandcottiers。Itisbynomeansimpossiblethatthey，withoutbeingslaves，areinaveryproperandintelligiblesenseunfreemen，thattheyhavecivilrightswhichtheycanassertincourtsoflaw，butthattheyaretiedtothesoil。ThegulfbetweentheseventhandtheeleventhcenturiesistoowidetoallowofourconnectingthemwiththelaetofAEthelbert\'slaws，butstillourdocumentsarenotexhaustiveenoughtojustifyusindenyingthatallalongtherehasbeenaclass(thoughitcanhardlyhavebeenalargeclass)ofmenwhocouldnotquittheirtenementsandyetwerenoslaves。Asweshallseehereafter，libertywasincertaincontextsreckonedasamatterofdegree；eventhevillanus，eventhesochemannus，wasnotforeverypurposeliberhomo。Whenthisisso，thethe體orservusisliketoappearastheunfreestofpersonsratherthanasnopersonbutathing。

Inthesecondplace，wemayguessthatfromaremotetimetherehasbeenintheconditionofthethe體acertainelementofpraediality。Theslaveshavenotbeenworkedingangsnorhousedinbarracks。(7*)Theservushasoftenbeenaservuscasatus，hehashadacottageorevenamanseandyardlandwhichdefactohemightcallhisown。Thereisherenolegallimitationofhismaster\'spower。Someslavetradetherehasbeen；butonthewholeitseemsprobablethatthethe體hasbeenusuallytreatedasannexedtoatenement。Thedutiesexactedofhimfromyeartoyearhaveremainedconstant。Theconsequenceisthatafreemaninreturnforaplotoflandmaywellagreetodoallthatathe體usuallydoesandseeinthisnodescentintoslavery。Thustheslavegetsachanceofacquiringwhatwillbeasamatteroffactapeculium。Intheseventhcenturythechurchtriedtoturnthismatteroffactintomatteroflaw。\'Nonlicethomini，\'saysTheodore\'sPenitential，\'aservotollerepecuniam，quamipselaboresuoadquesierit。\'(8*)Wehavenoreasonforthinkingthatthiseffortwasverystrenuousorverysuccessful，orthatthelawoftheeleventhcenturyallowedtheservusanyproprietaryrights；andyethemightoftenbetheoccupieroflandandofchattelswithwhich，solongashedidhiscustomaryservices，hislordwouldseldommeddle。

Inthethirdplace，wemaybelievethatforsometimepastpolicelawandpunitivelawhavebeendoingsomethingtoconceal，ifnottoobliterate，thelinewhichseparatestheslavefromothermen。Amaturejurisprudencemaybeabletoholdfastthefundamentalprinciplethataslaveisnotapersonbutathing，whileatthesametimeitbothlimitsthemaster\'spowerofabusinghishumanchattelandguardsagainstthosedangerswhichmayarisefromtheexistenceofthingswhichhavewills，andsometimesbadwills，oftheirown。Butanimmaturejurisprudenceisincapableofthisexploit。Itbeginstoplayfastandloosewithitselementarynotions。Itbeginstopunishthecriminousslavewithoutbeingquitecertainastohowfaritispunishinghimandhowfaritispunishinghismaster。Confusioniseasy，foriftheslavebepunishedbydeathormutilation，hismasterwillsuffer，andapecuniarymulctexactedfromtheslaveisexactedfromhismaster。LearnedwritershavecometothemostoppositeopinionsastotheextenttowhichtheAnglo-Saxondoomsbytheirdistributionofpenaltiesrecognizethepersonalityofthethe體。Butthisisnotall。Foralongtimepastthelawhashadbeforeitthedifficultproblemofdealingwithcrimesanddelictscommittedbypoorandeconomicallydependentfreemen，menwhohavenolandoftheirown，whoarehereto-dayandgoneto-morrow，\'menfromwhomnorightcanbehad。\'Ithasbeenendeavouringtomakethelordsanswerabletoacertainextentforthemisdeedsoftheirfreeretainers。Ifaslaveischargedwithacrimehismasterisboundtoproducehimincourt。Butthelawrequiresthatthelordshallinverysimilarfashionproducehisfree\'loafeater，\'hismainpast，nay，ithasbeenendeavouringtoenforcetherulethateveryfreemanwhohasnolandofhisownshallhavealordboundtoproducehimwhenheisaccused。Alsoithasbeenfosteringthegrowthofprivatejustice。Thelord\'sdutyofproducinghismen，bondandfree，hasbeenbecomingthedutyofholdingacourtinwhichhismen，freeandbond，willanswerforthemselves。HowfarthisprocesshadgoneinthedaysoftheConfessorisaquestiontowhichweshallreturn。(9*)

Forallthis，however，wemaysaywithcertaintythatintheeleventhcenturytheserviweremarkedofffromallothermenbydefinitelegallines。Whatismore，wemaysaythateverymanwhowasnotathe體wasinsomedefinitelegalsenseafreeman。ThissharpcontrastisputbeforeusbythelawsofCnutaswellasbythoseofhispredecessors。Ifafreemanworksonaholiday，hepaysforitwithhishealsfang；ifathe體niandoesthelike，hepaysforitwithhishideorhishide-geld。(10*)EquallysharpisthesamedistinctionintheLegesHenrici，andthistooinpassageswhich，sofarasweknow，arenotborrowedfromAnglo-Saxondocuments。Formanypurposes\'autservusautliberhomo\'isaperfectdilemma。Thereisnoconfusionwhateverbetweenthevillaniandtheservi。Thevillaniare\'vilesetinopespersonae\'butclearlyenoughtheyareliberihomines。SoalsointheQuadripartitus，theLatintranslationoftheancientdoomsmadeinHenryI\'sreign，thereisnoconfusionaboutthismatter；thethe體manbecomesaservus，whilevillanusistheequivalentforceorl。TheNormanwritersstilltellhowaccordingtotheoldlawoftheEnglishthevillanusmightbecomeathegnifheacquiredfivehidesofland；(11*)attimestheywillputbeforeusvillaniandthainiorevenvillaniandbaronesasanexhaustiveclassificationoffreemen。(12*)

LetuslearnwhatmaybelearntoftheservusfromtheLegesHenrici。Everymaniseitheraliberhomooraservus。(13*)Freemenareeithertwo-hundred-menortwelve-hundredmen；perhapsweoughttoaddthatthereisalsoaclassofsix-hundred-men。(14*)

Aserfbecomessucheitherbybirthorbysomeevent，suchasasaleintoslavery，thathappensinhislifetime。(15*)Servilebloodistransmitted，fromfathertochild；somelordsholdthatitisalsotransmittedbymothertochild。(16*)Ifaslaveistobefreedthisshouldbedonepublicly，incourt，orchurchormarket，andlanceandhelmetorotherthearmsoffreemenshouldbegivenhim，whileheshouldgivehislordthirtypence，thatisthepriceofhisskin，asasignthatheishenceforth\'worthyofhishide。\'Ontheotherhand，whenafreemanfallsintoslaverythenalsothereshouldbeapublicceremony。Heshouldputhisheadbetweenhislord\'shandsandshouldreceiveasthearmsofslaverysomebill-hookorthelike。(17*)Publicceremoniesarerequisite，forthestateisendangeredbytheuncertainconditionofaccusedcriminals；thelordswillassertatonemomentthattheirmenarefreeandatthenextmomentthatthesesamemenareslaves。(18*)Thedescentofafreemanintoslaveryistreatedasnouncommonevent；theslavemaywellhavefreekinsfolk。(19*)

But，tocometothefundamentalrule，thevillanus，themeanestoffreemen，isatwo-hundred-man，thatistosay，ifhebeslaintheverysubstantialwergildof200Saxonshillingsor？mustbepaidtohiskinsfolk，(20*)whileaman-b髏of30shillingsispaidtohislord。(21*)Butifaservusbeslainhiskinsfolkreceivethecomparativelytriflingsumof40pencewhilethelordgetstheman-b髏of20shillings。(22*)Thattheserf\'skinsfolkshouldreceiveasmallsumneednotsurpriseus。Germaniclawhasneverfounditeasytocarrytheprinciplethattheslaveisachatteltoextremeconclusions；butthepaymentseemstriflingandhalfcontemptuous；atanyratethelifeofthevilleinisworththelifeoftwenty-fourserfs。(23*)Thenagain，itisbynomeanscertainthatalordcannotkillhisserfwithimpunity。

\'If，\'saysourtext，\'amanslayhisownserf，hisisthesinandhisistheloss\'：——wemayinterpretthistomeanthathehassinnedbutsinnedagainsthimself。(24*)Thenagain，fortheevildeedsofhisslavethemasterisinsomedegreeresponsible。Ifmyslavebeguiltyofapettytheftnotworthyofdeath，Iamboundtomakerestitution；ifthecrimebeacapitaloneandhebetakenhandhaving，thenhemust\'dielikeafreeman。\'(25*)Ifmyslavebeguiltyofhomicide，mydutyistosethimfreeandhandhimovertothekindredoftheslain，butapparentlyImaypurchasehislifebyasumof40shillings，asummuchlessthantheweroftheslainman。(26*)Wemustnotbetoohardontheownersofdelinquentslaves。Therearecases，forexample，inwhich，severalslaveshavingcommittedacrime，oneofthemchosenbylotmustsufferforthesinsofall。(27*)Ourauthorisborrowingfromthelawsofseveraldifferentcenturiesanddoesnotarriveatanyneatresult；normustwewonderatthis，fortheproblemspresentedtojurisprudencebythecrimesanddelictsofslavesareveryintricate。Thenagain，wehavetherulethatiffreemenandserfsjoininacrime，thewholeguiltistobeattributedtothefree：hewhojoinswithaslaveinathefthasnocompanion。(28*)Onthewhole，thoughtheslaveislikelytohaveasamatteroffactapeculiumofhisown，apeculiumoutofwhichhemaybeabletopayforhisoffencesandevenperhapstopurchasehisliberty，(29*)theservusofourLegesseemstobeinthemainarightlessbeing。WelookinvainforanytraceofthatideaoftherelativityofservitudewhichbecomesthecoreofBracton\'sdoctrine。(30*)Atthesametimeweobservethatmany，perhapsmost，oftheruleswhichmarktheslavishconditionoftheserfareancientrulesandrulesthatarebecomingobsolete。

Inthetwelfthcenturytheoldsystemofwerandb髏isalreadyvanishing，thoughanantiquarianlawyermayyettrytorevivifyit。Whenitdisappearsaltogetherbeforethenewlaw，whichholdseverygravecrimetobeafelony，andpunishesalmosteveryfelonywithdeath，(31*)manygranddifferencesbetweenthevilleinandtheserfwillhaveperished。Thegallowsisagreatleveller。

IfnowwerecurtothedaysoftheConquest，wecannotdoubtthatthelawknewadefiniteclassofslaves，andmarkedthemoffbymanydistinctionsfromthevillaniandcotarii，andevenfromthecoliberti。Sumsthatseemhighwerebeingpaidformenwhosefreedomwasbeingpurchased。(32*)AtLewesthetollpaidforthesaleofanoxwasahalfpenny；onthesaleofamanitwasfourpence。(33*)Inlaterdocumentswemaysometimesseeadistinctionwelldrawn。ThusintheBlackBookofPeterborough，compiledin1127orthereabouts，wemayreadhowononeofhismanorstheabbothaseightherdsmen(bovarii)，howeachofthemholdstenacres，hastodolabourservicesandrenderloavesandpoultry。Andthenwereadthateachofthemmustpayonepennyforhisheadifhebeafreeman(liberhomo)，whilehepaysnothingifhebeaservus。(34*)Thisisawell-drawndistinction。

Oftwomenwhoseeconomicpositionispreciselythesame，theonemaybefree，theotheraslave，anditisthefreeman，nottheslave，whohastopayahead-penny。NowwhentheConqueror\'ssurveyors，orratherthejurors，callamanaservustheyare，soitseemstous，thinkingratherofhislegalstatusthanofhispositionintheeconomyofamanor。Atanyrateweoughttoobservethattheeconomicstratificationofsocietymaycutthelegalstratification。Weareaccustomedperhapstosupposethatwhilethevillanihavelandsthatareinsomesensetheirown，whiletheysupportthemselvesandtheirfamiliesbytillingthoselands，theservushasnolandthatisinanysensehisown，butisfedathislord\'sboard，ishousedinhislord\'scourt，andspendsallhistimeinthecultivationofhislord\'sdemesnelands。SuchmayhavebeenthecaseinthosepartsofEnglandwherewehearofbutfewservi；thosefewmayhavebeeninmatesofthelord\'shouseandhavehadnoplotsoftheirown。Butsuchcanhardlyhavebeenthecaseinthesouth-westerncounties；theserviaretoomanytobemenials。Indeeditwouldseemthattheseservisometimeshadarableplots，andhadoxen，whichweretobedistinguishedfromthedemesneoxenoftheirlords——notindeedasamatteroflaw，butasamatterofeconomicusage。(35*)Itisplainthatthelegalandtheeconomiclinesmayintersectoneanother；themenialwhoisfedbythelordandwhomustgivehiswholetimetothelord\'sworkmaybeafreeman；theslavemayhaveacottageandoxenandaplotofarableland，andlabourforhimselfaswellaslabouringforhislord。Henceaperplexedanduncertainterminology：——theservuswhohaslandandoxenmaybecasuallycalledavillanus，(36*)andwecannotbesurethatnoonewhomourrecordcallsaservushasthewergildofafreeman。

Norcanwebesurethattheenumerationoftheserviisalwaysgovernedbyoneconsistentprinciple。IntheshiresofGloucester，HerefordandWorcesterwereadofnumerousancillae——inWorcestershireof677serviand101ancillae(37*)——andthismaymakeusthinkthatinthisdistrictalltheable-bodiedserfsareenumerated，whetherornotheyhavecottagestothemselves。(38*)Wemaystronglysuspectthattheking\'scommissionerswerenotmuchinterestedinthelinethatseparatedthevillanifromtheservi，sincethelordwasasdirectlyanswerableforthegeldofanylandsthatwereintheoccupationofhisvilleinsashewasforthegeldofthoseplotsthatweretilledforhimbyhisslaves。Thatthereshouldhavebeenneverathe體inallYorkshireandLincolnshireishardlycredible，andyetwehearofnoserviinthosecounties。

Thisbeingso，weencountersomedifficultyifwewouldputjusttherightinterpretationonaremarkablefactthatisvisibleinEssex。Thedescriptionofthatcountytellsusnotonlyhowmanyvillani，bordariiandservitherearenow，butalsohowmanytherewereinKingEdward\'sday，andthusshowswhatchangeshavetakenplaceduringthelasttwentyyears。Nowonmanoraftermanorthenumberofvilleinsandbordiers，ifofthemwemakeoneclass，hasincreased，whilethenumberofservihasfallen。Wetake100entries(fourbatchesof25apiece)andseethatthenumberofvillaniandbordariihasrisenfrom1486to1894，whilethenumberofservihasfallenfrom423to303。Wemakeanotherexperimentwithahundredentries。Thisgivesthefollowingresult：——

10661086

Villani12731247

Bordarii8101241

Servi384312

Thisdecreaseinthenumberofserviseemstobeprettyevenlydistributedthroughoutthecounty。(39*)Weshallnotreadilyascribethechangetoanymildheartednessofthelords。

TheyareFrenchmen，andinallprobabilitytheyhavegotthemosttheycouldoutofamassofpeasantrymademalleableandmanageablebytheConquest。Wemayratherbeentitledtoinferthattherehasbeenaconsiderablechangeinruraleconomy。ForthecultivationofhisdemesnelandthelordbeginstorelylessandlessonthelabourofserfswhomheReeds，moreandmoreuponthelabouroftenantswhohaveplotsoftheirownandwhofeedthemselves。Fromthisagainwemayperhapsinferthatthelabourservicesofthevillaniandbordariiarebeingaugmented。Butatanyrateitspeaksilloftheirfate，thatundertheswayofforeigners，whomayfairlybesuspectedofsomeharshnessandgreed，theirinferiors，thetrueservi，aresomewhatrapidlydisappearing。However，itisbynomeansimpossiblethatwithaslaverysocompleteasthatoftheEnglishthe體theNormanswerenotveryfamiliarintheirowncountry。(40*)

NOTES：

1。Hist。Eng。Law，i。398。

2。D。B。i。34，Limenesfeld。

3。D。B。i。132b，Hiz。

4。D。B。i。132b，Waldenei。

5。D。B。i。136，Sandone。

6。AEthelb。26。

7。Tacitus，Germ。c。25：\'Caeterisservisnoninnostrummorem，descriptisperfamiliamministeriis，utuntur。Suamquisquesedem，suospenatesregit。Frumentimodumdominusautpecorisautvestisutcolonoiniungit，etservushactenusparet。\'

8。HaddanandStubbs，Councils，iii。202。

9。SeeontheonehandMaurer，K。U。i。410，ontheotheralearnedessaybyJastrow，ZurstrafrechtlichenStellungderSklaven，inGierke\'sUntersuchungenzurDeutscheGeschichte，vol。

i。MaurerholdsthattheAnglo-Saxonslaveisinthemainachattel，thate。g。themastermustanswerforthedelictsofhisslaveinthesamewaythattheowneranswersfordamagedonebyhisbeasts，andthatthisliabilitycanbeclearlymarkedofffromthedutyofthelordoffreeretainerswhoismerelyboundtoproducethemincourt。Jastrow，onthecontrary，thinksthatevenataquiteearlytimetheAnglo-Saxonslaveistreatedasapersonbycriminallaw；hehasawergild；hecanbefined；histrespassesarenevercomparedtothetrespassesofbeasts；thelord\'sduty，ifoneofhismenischargedwithcrime，ismuchthesamewhetherthatmanbefreeorbond。Anytheoryinvolvesanexplanationofseveralpassagesthatareobscureandperhapscorrupt。

10。Cnut，ii。45-6。

11。Schmid，Appendixv。(OfRanks)；PseudolegesCanuti，60

(Schmid，p。431)。

12。Leg。Hen。76sect。7：\'DifferentiatamenweregildimultaestinCantiavillanorumetbaronum。\'

13。Ibid。76sect。2。

14。Ibid。76sect。3。

15。Ibid。76sect。3。

16。Ibid。77；seeHist。Eng。Law，i。405。

17。Ibid。78sect。2。Thedifficultstrublumweleaveuntouched。

18。Ibid。78sect。2fromCnut，ii。20。OnthisseeJastrow\'scomment，op。cit。p。80。

19。Ibid。70sect。5。

20。Ibid。70sect。1；76sect。4。

21。Ibid。69sect。2。

22。Leg。Hen。70sect。4：\'Siliberservumoccidatsimiliterreddatparentibus40den。etduasmufflasetunumpullum[al。

billum]mutilatum。\'Themufflaearethickgloves。CompareAncientLawsofWales，i。239，511；injuredhereceivesasaraad；thebondmanhasnogalanas(wergild)butif\'thesaraadofabondmanistwelvepence，sixforacoatforhim，threefortrousers，oneforbuskins，oneforahookandoneforarope，andifhebeawoodmanletthehook-pennybeforanaxe。\'IfwereadbilluminsteadofpullumtheEnglishrulemayremindusoftheWelsh。

Hishedger\'sglovesandbill-hookarethearmsappropriatetotheserf，\'servitutis，arma\'。cf。Leg。Hen。78sect。2。Astotheman-b髏seeLiebermann，Leg。Edwardi，p。71。

23。InLeg。Hen。81sect。3(apassagewhichseemstoshowthatbyhismaster\'sfavoureventheservusmaysometimessueforawrongdonetohim)wehavethissum：——villanus：cothsetus：

servus：：30：15：6。

24。Ibid。75sect。4：\'suumpeccatumestetdampnum。\'Seealso70

sect。10，anexceedinglyobscurepassage。

25。Ibid。59sect。23。

26。Ibid。70sect。5；butforthisourauthorhastogobackasfarasIne。

27。Ibid。59sect。25。

28。Leg。Hen。59sect。24；85sect。4：\'Solusfuraturquicumservofuratur。\'

29。Ibid。78sect。3；59sect。25。

30。Hist。Eng。Law，i。398，402。

31。Hist。Eng。Law，ii。457。

32。SeeBathmanumissions，Kemble，Saxons，i。507ff。Sometimesapoundorahalf-poundispaid。

33。D。B。i。26。

34。Chron。Petrob。163。

35。D。B。i。105b，Devon：\'RolftenetdeB[alduino]Boslie……

Terraest8carucis。Indominioest1carucaetdimidiaet7

servicum1caruca。\'D。B。iv。265；\'Balduinushabet1mansionemquaevocaturBosleia……hancpossuntarare8carrucaeetmodoteneteamRoffusdeBalduino。IndehabetR。1ferdinumet1

carrucametdimidiamindominioetvillanitenentaliamterramethabentibi1carrucam。IbihabetR。7servos。\'IntheExeterrecordthesesevenserfsseemtogetreckonedasbeingbothserviandvillani。SointheaccountofRentis，D。B。iv。204-5，thelordissaidtohaveonequarterofthearableindemesneandtwooxen，whilethevillaniaresaidtohavetherestofthearableandoneteam；buttheonlyvillaniare8colibertiand4servi。

36。Seep。59，note2。

37。Ellis，Introduction，ii。504-6。

38。See，forexample，thefollowingHerefordshireentry，D。B。i。

180b：\'Indominiosunt2carucaeet4villaniet8bordariietprepositusetbedellus。Interomneshabent4carucas。Ibi8interservosetancillasetvaccariusetdaia。\'

39。MrRoundhasdrawnattentiontothegreatincreaseofbordarii：Antiquary(1882)vi。9。Inthesecondofourtwoexperimentsthecasesweretakenfromtheroyaldemesneandthelandsthechurches。ThesurveysofNorfolkandSuffolkprofesstoenumeratethevariousclassesofpeasantsT。R。E。；butcommonlyeachentryreportsthattherehasbeennochange。Withoutsayingthatwedisbelievethesereports，weneverthelesssaythataverdictwhichassertsthatthingshavealways(semper)beenastheynowaremayeasilybetheoutcomeofnescience。

40。Hist。Eng。Law，i。53-4。

3。THEVILLEINS

Nextabovetheserviweseethesmallbutinterestingclassofburi，bursorcoliberti。Probablyitwasnotmentionedinthewritwhichsetthecommissionerstheirtask，andthismaywellbethereasonwhyitappearsasbutaverysmallclass。Ithassome900members；stillitisrepresentedinfourteenshires：

Hampshire，Berkshire，Wiltshire，Dorset，Somerset，Devon，Cornwall，Buckingham，Oxford，Gloucester，Worcester，Hereford，Warwick，Shropshire——inshort，intheshiresofWessexandwesternMercia。Twiceoverourrecordexplainsapieceofraregoodfortune——thatburiandcolibertiareallone。(1*)Ingeneraltheyarepresentedtousasbeingakinrathertotheservithantothevillaniorbordarii，aswhenwearetold，\'Indemesnethereisonevirgateoflandandthereare3teamsand11

serviand5coliberti，andthereare15villaniand15bordariiwith8teams。\'(2*)Butthisruleisbynomeansunbroken；

sometimesthecolibertiareseparatedfromtheserviandaprecedenceoverthecotariiorevenoverthebordariiisgiventhem。ThusofaWiltshiremanoritiswritten，\'Indemesnethereare8teamsand20serviand41villaniand30bordariiand7

colibertiand74cotariihaveamongthemall27teams。\'(3*)AgainofaWarwickshiremanor，\'Thereislandfor26teams；indemesneare3teamsand4serviand43villaniand6colibertiand10

bordariiwith16teams。\'(4*)Aclassificationwhichturnsuponlegalstatusiscutbyaclassificationwhichturnsuponeconomiccondition。Thecolibertuswetaketobeanunfreerman(howtherecometobedegreesoffreedomisaquestiontobeaskedbyandby)thanthecotariusorthebordarius，butonagivenmanorhemaybeamoreimportantperson，forhemayhaveploughbeastswhilethecotariushasnone；hemayhavetwooxenwhilethebordariushasbutanox。

IncallinghimacolibertustheNormanclerksaregivinghimaforeignname，theetymologicaloriginofwhichisverydark；(5*)butthismuchseemsplain，thatintheFranceoftheeleventhcenturyalargeclassbearingthisnamehadbeenformedoutofancientelements，RomancoloniandGermanicliti，aclasswhichwasnotrightless(foritcouldbedistinguishedfromtheclassofservi，andacolibertusmightbemadeaservusbywayofpunishmentforhiscrimes)butwhichyetwasunfree，forthecolibertuswholefthislordmightbepursuedandrecaptured。(6*)

AstotheEnglishmanuponwhomthisnameisbestowedweknowhimtobeageb鷕，aboor，andwelearnsomethingofhimfromthatmysteriousdocumententitled\'RectitudinesSingularumPersonarum。(7*)Hisservices，wearetold，varyfromplacetoplace；insomedistrictsheworksforhislordtwodaysaweekandduringharvest-timethreedaysaweek；hePaysgafolinmoney，barley，sheepandpoultry；alsohehasploughingtodobesideshisweek-work；hepayshearthpenny；heandoneofhisfellowsmustbetweenthemfeedadog。Itisusualtoprovidehimwithanoutfitoftwooxen，onecow，sixsheep，andseedforsevenacresofhisyardland，andalsotoprovidehimwithhouseholdstuff；onhisdeathallthesechattelsgobacktohislord。Thustheboorisputbeforeusasatenantwithahouseandayardlandorvirgate，andtwoploughoxen。Hewillthereforeplayamoreimportantpartinthemanorialeconomythanthecottagerwhohasnobeasts。Butheisaverydependentperson；

hisbeasts，eventhepoorfurnitureofhishouse，hispotsandcrocks，areprovidedforhimbyhislord。Probablyitisthisthatmarkshimofffromtheordinaryvillanusor\'townsman，\'andbringshimneartheserf。Inasensehemaybeafreeman。Wehaveseenhowthelaw，whetherwelookforittothecodeofCnutortotheLegesHenrici，isholdingfastthepropositionthateveryonewhoisnotathe體manisafreeman，thateveryoneiseitheraliberhomooraservus。Wehavenowarrantfordenyingtotheboorthefullwergildof200shillings。Hepaysthehearthpenny，orPeter\'spenny，andthedocumentthattellsusthiselsewherementionsthispaymentasthemarkofafreeman。(8*)Andyetinaverytrueandaccuratesensehemaybeunfree，unfreetoquithislord\'sservice。Allthathehasbelongstohislord；hemustbeperpetuallyindebttohislord；

hecouldhardlyleavehislordwithoutbeingguiltyofsomethingveryliketheft，aabstractionofchattelscommittedtohischarge。Veryprobablyifheflies，hislordhasarighttorecapturehim。Ontheotherhand，sodependentamanwillbeinaverystrictsenseatenantatwill。Whenhediesnotonlyhistenementbuthisstockwillbelongtothelord；liketheFrenchcolibertheismainmortable。Atthesametime，toonefamiliarwiththecartulariesofthethirteenthcenturytherentsandservicesthatthisboorhastopayandperformforhisvirgatewillnotappearenormous。Ifwemistakenot，manyavillanusofHenryIII\'sdaywouldhavethoughtthemlight。Ofcourseanysuchcomparisonisbesetbydifficulties，foratpresentweknowalltoolittleofthehistoryofwagesandprices。NeverthelesstheintermediationofthisclassofburiorcolibertibetweentheserfsandthevilleinsofDomesdayBookmusttendtoraiseourestimatebothofthelegalfreedomandoftheeconomicwelfareofthatgreatmassofpeasantswhichisnowtocomebeforeus。(9*)

Thatgreatmassconsistsofsome108，500villani，some82，600

bordarii，andsome6，800cotariiandcoscets。(10*)Thoughinmanoraftermanorwemayfindrepresentativesofeachofthesethreeclasses，wecanseethatforsomeimportantpurposetheyformbutonegrandclass，andthatthetermvillanusmaybeusedtocoverthewholegenusaswellastodesignateoneofitsthreespecies。IntheExonDomesdayacommonformula，havingstatedthenumberofhidesinthemanorandthenumberofteamsforwhichitcanfindwork，proceedstodividethelandandtheexistingteamsbetweenthedemesneandthevillani——thevillani，itwillsay，havesomanyhidesandsomanyteams。Thenitwillstatehowmanyvillani，bordarii，cotariithereare。Butitwillsometimesfalloutthattherearenovillaniifthattermistobeusedinitsspecificsense，andso，afterhavingbeentoldthatthevillanihavesomuchlandandsomanyteams，welearnthattheonlyvillanionthismanorarebordarii。(11*)Thelineswhichdividethethreespeciesare，wemaybesure，muchrathereconomicthanlegallines。Ofcoursethelawmayrecognisethemuponoccasion，(12*)butwecannotsaythatthebordariushasadifferentstatusfromthatofthevillanus。IntheLegesbothfallunderthetermvillani；indeed，ashereafterwillbeseen，thattermhassometimestocoverallmenwhoarenotservibutarenotnoble。Normustwesupposethattheeconomiclinesaredrawnwithmuchprecisionoraccordingtoanyoneuniformpattern。Ofvillaniandbordariiwemayreadineverycounty；

cotariiorcoscetsinconsiderablenumbersarefoundonlyinKent，Sussex，Surrey，Middlesex，Wiltshire，Dorset，Somerset，Berkshire，HertfordandCambridge，thoughtheyarenotabsolutelyunknowninBuckingham，inDevon，inHereford，Worcester，Shropshire，Yorkshire。WecannottellhowtheEnglishjurorswouldhaveexpressedthedistinctionbetweenbordariiandcotarii，forwhilethecotisEnglish，thebordeisFrench。Ifweareentitledtodrawanyinferencefromthedistributionofthecottiers，itwouldbethatthesmallestofsmalltenementsweretobefoundchieflyalongthesouthernshore；butthentherearenocotariiinHampshire，plentyinSussex，Surrey，WiltshireandDorset。Again，inthetwoshireslastmentionedsomedistinctionseemstobetakenbetweenthecoscetsandthecotarii，theformerbeingsuperiortothelatter。(13*)TwocenturieslaterwefindasimilardistinctionamongthetenantsofWorcesterPriory。Therearecotmanniwhoserentsandservicesareheavier，andwhosetenementsarepresumablylargerthanthoseofthecotarii，thoughthedifferenceisnotverygreat。(14*)

Thevaguenessofdistinctionssuchastheseiswellillustratedbythefailureoftheterm。bordarius(andnoneismoreprominentinDomesdayBook)totakefirmrootinthiscountry。(15*)Thesuccessorsofthebordariiseemtobecomeinthelaterdocumentseithervillaniwithsmallorcottierswithlargetenements。Distinctionswhichturnontheamountoflandthatispossessedortheamountofservicethatisdonecannotbeaccuratelyformulatedandforceduponawholecountry。PerhapsingeneralwemayendowthevillanusofDomesdayBookwithavirgateorquarterofahide，whileweascribetothebordariusalessquantityanddoubtwhetherthecotariususuallyhadarableland。

ButthesurveyofMiddlesex，whichisthemainauthority，touchingthismatter，showsthatthevillanusmayonoccasionhaveawholehide，(16*)thatisfourvirgates，andthatoftenhehasbuthalfavirgate；itshowsusthatthebordarius，thoughoftenhehasbutfourorfiveacres，mayhaveahalfvirgate，thatisasmuchasmanyavillanus；(17*)itshowsusthatthecotariusmayhavefiveacres，thatisasmuchasmanyabordarius，(18*)thoughhewilloftenhavenomorethanacroft。(19*)InEssexwehearofbordariiwhoheldnoarableland。(20*)Nordarewelaydownanysternruleaboutthepossessionofploughbeasts。Itwouldseemasifsometimesthebordariushadoxen，whilesometimeshehadnone。(21*)Thevillanusmighthavetwooxen，buthemighthavemoreorless。WemayfindthatinCornwallasingleteamofeightisforthcomingwherethereare(22*)

3villani，4bordarii，2servi2“2“3“

0“5“2“

1“5“1“

2“5“4“

2“3“1“

3“6“3“

InsomeGloucestershiremanorseveryvilleinseemstohaveafullploughteam。(23*)Merelyeconomicgradesareessentiallyindefinite。Whocouldhavedefineda\'cottage\'intheeleventhcentury？Whocandefineonenow？(24*)

Intruththevastclassofmenthatweareexaminingmusthavebeenheterogeneoustoahighdegree。Notonlyweresomemembersofitmuchwealthierthanothers，butinallprobabilitysomewereeconomicallysubjecttoothers。Soitwasinlaterdays。Inthethirteenthcenturywemayeasilyfindamanorinwhichthelordispayinghardlyanywages。Hegetsnearlyallhisagriculturalworkdoneforhimbyhisvilleinsandhiscottiers。

Outofhiscottiershoweverhewillgetbutoneday\'sworkintheweek。Ifthenweaskwhatthecottiersaredoingduringtherestoftheirtime，theanswersurelymustbethattheyareoftenworkingashiredlabourersonthevillein\'svirgates，foracottiercannothavespentfivedaysintheweekoverthetillageofhispoorlittletenement。Itisaremarkablefeatureofthemanorialarrangementthatthemeanestofthelord\'snativiarebutrarelyworkingforhim。Thusifweweretoremovethelordinorderthatthevillagecommunitymightberevealed，weshouldstillseenotonlyrichandpoor，butemployersandemployed，villagersand\'undersettles。\'

Nowallthesepeopleareinasenseunfree，whileyetinsomeothersensetheyarefree。Letusthenspendashortwhileindiscussingthevariousmeaningsthatfreedommayhaveinalegalclassificationofthesortsandconditionsofmen。Whenwehaveputoutofaccounttherightlessslave，whoisathing，itstillremainspossibletosaythatsomemenareunfree，whileothersarefree，andeventhatfreedomisamatterofdegree。Butwemayusevariousstandardsforthemeasurementofliberty。

PerhapsinthefirstplaceweshallthinkofwhatGermanwriterscallFreiz黦igkeit，thepowertoleavethemasterwhomonehasbeenserving。Thispowerourancestorswouldperhapshavecalled\'fare-worthiness。\'(25*)Ifthemasterhastherighttorecapturetheservantwholeaveshisservice，orevenifhehastherighttocallupontheofficersofthestatetopursuehimandbringhimbacktohiswork，thenwemayaccountthisservantanunfreeman，albeittherelationbetweenhimandhismasterhasbeencreatedbyfreecontract。Suchunfreedomisverydistinctfromrightlessness。Asafreakofjurisprudencewemightimagineamodernnoblemanentitledtoreducebyforceandarmshisfugitivebutlertowell-paidandeasyduties，whileallthesamethatbutlerhadrightsagainstalltheworldincludinghismaster，hadaccesstoallcourts，andcouldevensueforhiswagesiftheywerenotpunctuallypaid。Ifwecallhimunfree，thenfreedomwilllooklikeamatterofdegree，forthemaster\'spowertogetbackhisfugitivemaybedefinedbylawindiversmanners。Mayhegoinpursuitanduseforce？Musthesendaconstableorsheriff\'sofficer？Musthefirstgotocourtandobtainajudgment，\'adecreeforspecificperformance\'ofthecontractofservice？Therightofrecaptureseemstoshadeoffgraduallyintoarighttoinsistthatabreachofthecontractofserviceisacriminaloffencetobepunishedbyfineorimprisonment。

Then，again，theremayseemtoustobemoreofunfreedominthecaseofonewhowasbornaservantthaninthecaseofonewhohascontractedtoserve，thoughweshouldnotethatonemaybeborntoservewithoutbeingbornrightless。

Moretothepointthantheseobviousreflectionswillbetheremarkthatinthethirteenthcenturywelearntothinkofvariousspheresorplanesofjustice。Arightgoodinonespheremayhavenoexistenceinanother。Therightsofthevilleinsintheirtenementsaresanctionedbymanorialjustice；theyareignoredbytheking\'scourts。Here，again，theideasoffreedomandunfreedomfindaparttoplay。Truethatintheorderoflegallogicfreedommayprecederoyalprotection；atenureisprotectedbecauseitisfree；stillmenaresoonarguingthatitisfreebecauseitisprotected，andthisprobablydisclosesanideawhichliesdeep：(26*)——theking\'scourts，thenationalcourts，areopentothefree；weapproachtherightlessnessoftheslaveifourrightsarerecognizedonlyinacourtofwhichourlordisthepresident。

Thethirteenthcenturywillalsosupplyuswiththenotionthatcontinuousagriculturalservice，serviceinwhichthereisaconsiderableelementofuncertainty，isunfreeservice。Wherefromdaytodaythelord\'swillcountsformuchindeterminingtheworkthathistenantsmustdo，suchtenants，eveniftheybefreemen，arenotholdingfreely。Butuncertaintyisamatterofdegree，andthereforeunfreedommayeasilyberegardedasamatterofdegree。(27*)

Then，again，inthelawbooksoftheNormanageweseedistincttracesofausagewhichwouldmakeliberorliberalisanequivalentforournoble，oratleastforourgentle。Thecommonmanwiththewergildof200shillings，thoughindubitablyheisnoservus，isnotliberalishomo。(28*)

Lastly，inourthirteenthcenturywelearnthatprivilegesandexceptionalimmunitiesare\'liberties\'and\'franchises。\'Whatisourdefinitionofaliberty，afranchise？Aportionofroyalpowerinthehandsofasubject。InHenryIII\'sdaywedonotsaythattheEarlofChesterisafreerman，moreofaliberhomo，thanistheEarlofGloucester，butwedosaythathehasmore，greater，higherliberties。

ThereforeweshallnotbesurprisedifinDomesdayBookwhatwereadoffreedom，offreemen，offreelandissadlyobscure。

Letusthenobservethatthevillanusbothisandisnotafreeman。

AccordingtotheusualterminologyoftheLeges，everyonewhoisabovetherankofaservus，butbelowtherankofathegn，isavillanus。Thevillanusisthenon-nobleliberhomo。AllthosenumeroussokemenoftheeasterncountieswhomDomesdayranksabovethevillani，allthosenumerousliberihomineswhomitranksabovethesokemen，are，accordingtothisscheme，villaniiftheybenotthegns。Andthisschemeisstillofgreatimportance，foritistheschemeofb髏andwer。Bywhathavebeenthemostvitalofalltherulesoflaw，allthesemenhavebeenmassedtogether；eachofthemhasaweroftwohundredshillings。(29*)This，wemayremarkinpassing，isnotrivialsum，thoughtheshillingsarethesmallSaxonshillingsoffourpenceorfivepence。Thereseemstobeagooddealofevidencethatforalongtimepasttheoxhadbeenvaluedat30pence，thesheepat5pence。(30*)Atthisratetheceorl\'sdeathmustbepaidforbythepriceofsometwenty-fourorthirtyoxen。Thesonsofavillanuswhohadbuttwooxenmusthavebeenundersometemptationtowishthattheirfatherwouldgethimselfkilledbyasolventthegn。VeryrarelyindeeddotheLegesnoticethesokemanormentionliberihominessoastoexcludethevillanifromthescopeofthatterm。(31*)DomesdayBookalsoonoccasioncandividemankindintoslavesandfreemen。ItdoessowhenittellsusthatonaGloucestershiremanorthereweretwelveserviwhomthelordhadmadefree。(32*)ItdoessoagainwhenittellsusthatinthecityofChesterthebishophadeightshillingsifafreeman，fourshillingsifaserf，didworkuponafestival。(33*)SoinadescriptionofthemanorofSouthPerrottinSomersetwereadthatacertaincustomisduetoitfromthemanorof\'Cruche\'(Crewkerne)，namelythateveryfreemanmustrenderonebloomofiron。Welookforthesefreemenat\'Cruche\'

andseenooneonthemanorbutvillani，bordarii，colibertiandservi。(34*)OftheCountofMortain\'smanorofBickenhallitiswrittenthateveryfreemanrendersabloomofironattheking\'smanorofCurry；butatBickenhallthereisnooneabovetheconditionofavillanus。(35*)Otherpassageswillsuggestthatthevillanussometimesisandsometimesisnotliberhomo。OnaNorfolkmanorwefindfreevilleins，liberivillani。(36*)

Forallthis，however，theremustbesomeveryimportantsenseinwhichthevillanusisnotfree。Inthesurveyoftheeasterncountiesheisseparatedfromtheliberihominesbythewholeclassofsochemanni。\'Inthismanor，\'wearetold，\'therewasatthattimeafreemanwithhalfahidewhohasnowbeenmadeoneofthevilleins。(37*)Attimesthewordfrancusisintroducedsoastosuggestforamomentthat，thoughthevilleinmaybeliberhomo，heisnotfrancus。(38*)Butthissuggestion，evenifitbemade，isnotmaintained，andtherearehundredsofpassageswhichimplicitlydenythatthevilleinisliberhomo。

Butthenthesepassagesdrawthelinebetweenfreedomandunfreedomatapointhighinthelegalscale，apointfarabovetheheadsofthevillani。AtleastforthemainpurposesofDomesdayBookthefreemanisamanwhoholdslandfreely。Letusobservewhatissaidofthemenwhohavebeenholdingmanors。Theformulawillvarysomewhatfromcountytocounty，butweshalloftenfindfourphrasesusedasequivalent，\'Xtenuitetliberhomofuit，\'\'Xtenuitutliberhomo，\'\'Xtenuitetcumterrasualiberfuit，\'\'Xtenuitlibere。\'(39*)Butthisfreeholdingimpliesahighdegreeoffreedom，freedomofakindthatwouldhaveshockedthelawyersofalaterage。

Withsomeregretswemustleavethepeasantsforawhileinorderthatwemayglanceatthehigherstrataofsociety。Wemaytakeitascertainthat，atleastintheeyesofWilliam\'sministers，theordinaryholderofamanorinthetimeoftheConfessorhadbeenholdingitunder(sub)somelord，ifnotof(de)somelord。Butthentheclosenessoftheconnexionbetweenhimandhislord，thecharacteroftherelationbetweenlord，manandland，hadvariedmuchfromcasetocase。Nowthesemattersareoftenexpressedintermsofacalculusofpersonalfreedom。

Butletusbeginwithsomephraseswhichseemintelligibleenough。Themancan，orhecannot，\'sellorgivehisland\'；hecan，orhecannot，\'sellorgiveitwithoutthelicenceofhislord\'；(40*)hecansellitifhehasfirstofferedittohislords；hecansellitonpayinghislordtwoshillings。(41*)Thisseemsverysimple：——thelordcan，or(asthecasemaybe)

cannot，preventhistenantfromalienatingtheland；hehasarightofpreemptionorhehasarighttoexactafinewhenthereisachangeoftenants。Butthencomephrasesthatarelessinharmonywithourideaoffeudaltenure。Themancannotsellhisland\'awayfrom\'hislord，(42*)hecannotgiveorsellit\'outside\'acertainmanorbelongingtohislord，(43*)or，beingthetenantofsomechurch，hecannot\'separate\'hislandfromthechurch，(44*)orgiveorsellitoutsidethechurch。(45*)

Wehaveperhapstakenforgrantedundertheinfluenceoflaterlawthatanalienationwillnotimpairthelord\'srights，andwillbutgivehimanewinsteadofanoldtenant。Butitisnotofanymeresubstitutionsuchasthisthatthesemenoftheeleventhcenturyarethinking。Theyhaveitintheirmindsthatthemanmaywish，maybeable，utterlytowithdrawhislandfromthesphereofhislord\'srights。Thereforeinmanycasestheynotewithsomecarethattheman，thoughhecangiveorsellhisland，cannotaltogetherputanendtosuchrelationashasexistedbetweenthislandandhislord。Hecansell，butsomeofthelord\'srightswill\'remain，\'inparticularthelord\'s\'soke\'

overtheland(forthepresentletussayhisjurisdictionovertheland)willremain。(46*)Thepurchaserwillnotofnecessitybecomethe\'man\'ofthislord，willnotofnecessityowehimanyservitiumorconsuetudo，butwillcomeunderhisjurisdiction。(47*)Interchanginghoweverwiththesephrases，(48*)

wehaveotherswhichseemtopointtothesamesetofdistinctions，buttoexpressthemintermsofpersonalfreedom。

Themancan，orelsehecannot，withdrawfromhislord，goawayfromhislord，withdrawfromhislord\'smanor；hecanorhecannotwithdrawwithhisland；hecanorcannotgotoanotherlord，orgowhereverhepleases。(49*)Someofthesephraseswill，iftakenliterally，seemtosaythatthepersonsofwhomtheyareusedaretiedtothesoil；theycannotleavetheland，orthemanor，orthesoke。Probablyinsomeofthesecasesthebondbetweenmanandlordisaperpetualbondofhomageandfealty，andifthemanbreaksthatbondbyrefusingthedueobedienceorputtinghimselfunderanotherlord，heisguiltyofawrong。(50*)

Butofpursuinghimandcapturinghimandreducinghimtoservitudetherecanbenotalk。Manyofthesepersonswho\'cannotrecede\'aremenofwealthandrank，ofhighrankthatisrecognizedbylaw，theyareking\'sthegnsorthethegnsofthechurches，theyare\'twelve-hundredmen。\'(51*)However，itisnottheman\'spowertoleavehislordsomuchasthepowertoleavehislordandtakehislandwithhimthatthesephrasesbringtoournotice；orrathertheassumptionismadethatnoonewillwanttoleavehislordifhemustalsoleavehislandbehindhim。

Andthenthispoweroftakinglandfromthislordandbringingitunderanotherlordisconceivedasanindexofpersonalfreedom。

Thusweread：\'Thesemenweresofreethattheycouldgowheretheypleased。\'(52*)andagain，\'Foursokemenheldthisland，ofwhomthreewerefree，whilethefourthheldonehidebutcouldnotgiveorsellit。\'(53*)Notthatnooneiscalledaliberhomounlesshehasthispowerof\'receding\'fromhislord；farfromit；allisamatterofdegree；butthefreemanisfreerifhecan\'gotowhatlordhepleases，\'andoftenenoughthephrases\'X

tenuitetliberhomofuit，\'\'Xtenuitlibere，\'\'Xtenuitutliberhomo\'seemtohavenoothermeaningthanthis，thattheoccupantofthelandenjoyedthelibertyoftakingitwithhimwhithersoeverhewould。Thereforethereisnotautologyinsayingthattheholderofthelandwasathegnandafreeman，thoughofcoursethereisasense，therearemanysenses，inwhicheverythegnisfree。(54*)Allthistalkofthefreedomthatconsistsinchoosingalordandsubjectinglandtohimmaywellpuzzleus，foritpuzzledthemenofthetwelfthcentury。ThechroniclerofAbingdonabbeyhadtoexplainthatintheolddaysafreemancoulddostrangethings。(55*)

Comparisonsmaybeinstitutedbetweenthefreedomofonefreemanandthatofanother：——\'FivethegnsheldthislandofEarlEdwinandcouldgowiththeirlandwhithertheywould，andbelowthemtheyhadfoursoldiers，whowereasfreeasthemselves。\'(56*)Ahighdegreeoflibertyismarkedwhenwearetoldthat，\'Thesaidmenweresofreethattheycouldselltheirlandwithsokeandsakewherevertheywould。\'(57*)Butthereareyethigherdegreesofliberty。OfWorcestershireitiswritten，\'Whenthekinggoesuponamilitaryexpedition，ifanyonewhoissummonedstaysathome，thenifheissofreeamanthathehashissakeandsokeandcangowhitherhepleaseswithhisland，hewithallhislandshallbeintheking\'smercy。\'(58*)Thefreemanisthefreerifhehassokeandsake，ifhehasjurisdictionoverothermen。Exceptionalprivileges，immunitiesfromcommonburdens，arealreadyregardedas\'liberties。\'Thisisnonewthing；oftenenoughwhentheAnglo-Saxonlandbooksspeakoffreedomtheymeanprivilege。

Theideaoffreedomisequallyvagueandelasticif，insteadofapplyingittomen，weapplyittolandorthetenureofland。

Twobordariiarenowholdingasmallplot；\'theythemselveshelditfreelyinKingEdward\'sday。\'(59*)Herenodoubttherehasbeenafall；buthowdeepafallwecannotbesure。Tosaythataman\'slandisfreemayimplyfarmorefreedomthanfreeholdtenureimpliesinlatertimes；itmayimplythatthebondbetweenhimandhislord，ifindeedhehasalord，isofapurelypersonalcharacterandhardlygivesthelordanyholdovertheland。(60*)Butthisisnotall。Perfectfreedomisnotattainedsolongasthelandowesanysingledutytothestate。Oftenenough——butexactlyhowoftenitwerenoeasytasktotell——

theliberaterraofourrecordislandthathasbeenexemptedevenfromthedanegeld；itishighlyprivilegedland。(61*)Letusrememberthatatthepresentday，thoughthedefinitionoffreelandorfreeholdlandhaslongagobeenfixed，westillspeakasthoughfreelandmightbecomefreerifitwere\'freeofland-taxandtitherent-charge。\'

Ifnowwereturntothevillanusanddenythatheisliberhomoanddenyalsothatheisholdingfreely，weshallbesayinglittleandusingthelaxestofterms。Therearehalf-a-dozenquestionsthatwewouldfainaskabouthim，andtherewillbenoharminaskingthem，thoughDomesdayBookistaciturn。

Ishefreetoquithislordandhisland，orcanhebepursuedandcaptured？Noonewordcanbeobtainedinanswertothisquestion。WecanonlysaythatinHenryII\'sdaytheordinarypeasantwasregardedbytheroyalofficialsasascriptitius；thelandthatheoccupiedwassaidtobepartofhislord\'sdemesne；hischattelswerehislord\'s。(62*)Butthenthiswasconceivedtobe，atleastinsomedegree，theresultoftheNormanConquestandsubsequentrebellionsofthepeasantry。(63*)TothiswemayaddthatinoneofoursetsofLeges，theFrenchLeisofWilliamtheConqueror，therearecertainclauseswhichwouldbeofgreatimportancecouldwesupposethattheyhadanauthoritativeorigin，andwhichinanycaseareremarkableenough。Thenativuswhofliesfromthelandonwhichheisborn，letnoneretainhimorhischattels；ifthelordswillnotsendbackthesementotheirlandtheking\'sofficersaretodoit。(64*)Ontheotherhand，thetillersofthesoilarenottobeworkedbeyondtheirproperrent；theirlordmaynotremovethemfromtheirlandsolongastheyperformtheirrightservices。(65*)Whetherornowesupposethatinthewriter\'sopiniontheordinarypeasantwasanativus(ofnativiDomesdayBookhasnothingtosay)westillhavelawmorefavourabletothepeasantthanwasthecommonlawofBracton\'sage：——atillerwhodoeshisaccustomedserviceisnottobeejected；heisnotenantatwill。

HereafterweshallshowthattheEnglishpeasantsdidsufferbythesubstitutionofFrenchforEnglishlords。Butthequestionthatwehaveasked，sourgent，sofundamental，asitmayseemtous，isreallyonewhich，asthehistoryoftheRomancolonimightprove，canlongremainunanswered。Menmaybecomeeconomicallysodependentontheirlords，onwealthymastersandcreditors，thatthelegalquestionwhethertheycanquittheirservicehasnointerest。Whowishestoleavehisallandgoforthabeggarintotheworld？OnthewholewecanfindnoevidencewhateverthatthemenoftheConfessor\'sdaywhowereretrospectivelycalledvillaniweretiedtothesoil。CertainlyinNormantimesthetraditionwasheldthataccordingtotheoldlawthevillanusmightacquirefivehidesoflandandso\'thrivetothegn-right。\'(66*)

Ournextquestionshouldbewhetherhewassubjecttoseignorialjustice。Thisispartofamuchwiderquestionthatwemustfacehereafter，forseignorialjusticeshouldbetreatedasawhole。Wemusthereanticipateaconclusion，theproofofwhichwillcomebyandby，namely，thatthevillanussometimeswasandsometimeswasnotthejusticiableofacourtinwhichhislordorhislord\'sstewardpresided。Alldependedontheanswertothequestionwhetherhislordhad\'sakeandsoke。\'Hislordmighthavejusticiaryrightsoverallhistenants，ormerelyoverhisvillani，orhemighthavenojusticiaryrights，forasyet\'sakeandsoke\'wereintheking\'sgift，andthemerefactthatalordhad\'men\'ortenantsdidnotgivehimajurisdictionoverthem。

Withthisquestionisconnectedanother，namely，whetherthevillanihadalocusstandiinthenationalcourts。Wehaveseensixvillanitogetherwiththepriest(undoubtedlyafreeman)andthereeveofeachvillsummonedtoswearinthegreatinquest。(67*)OneofthemostfamousscenesrecordedbyourbookisthatinwhichWilliamofChernetclaimedaHampshiremanoronbehalfofHughdePortandproducedhiswitnessesfromamongthebestandeldestmenofthecounty；butPicot，thesheriffofCambridgeshire，whowasinpossession，repliedwiththetestimonyofvilleinsandmeanfolkandreeves，whowerewillingtosupporthiscasebyoathorbyordeal。(68*)Again，inNorfolk，RogerthesheriffclaimedahundredacresandfivevillaniandamillasbelongingtotheroyalmanorofBrainfort，andfivevillaniofthesaidmanortestifiedinhisfavourandofferedtomakewhateverproofanyonemightadjudgetothem，butthehalf-hundredofIpswichtestifiedthatthelandbelongedtoacertainchurchofStPeterthatWihtgarheld，andheofferedtoderaignthis。(69*)Certainlythisdoesnotlookasifvillaniwereexcludedfromthenationalmoots。Butarulewhichvaluedtheoathofasinglethegnashighlyastheoathofsixceorlswouldmaketheceorlbutapoorwitnessandtendtokeephimoutofcourt。(70*)Themenwhoareactiveinthecommunalcourts，whomakethejudgmentsthere，areusuallymenofthegnlyrank；buttogotocourtasadoomsmanisonething，togoasalitigantisanother。(71*)

Wemaynowapproachthequestionwhether，andifsoinwhatsense，thelandthatthevillanusoccupiesishisland。

ThroughoutDomesdayBookadistinctionissedulouslymaintainedbetweenthelandofthevilleins(terravillanorum)andthelandthatthelordhasindominio。Letusnoticethisphrase。Onlythedemesnelanddoesthelordholdindominio，inownership。ThedelicateshadeofdifferencethatBractonwouldseebetweendominicumanddominiumisnotasyetmarked。Inlatertimesitbecamestrictlycorrecttosaythatthelordheldindemesne(indominicosuo)notonlythelandwhichheoccupiedbyhimselforhisservants，butalsothelandsheldofhimbyvilleintenure。(72*)ThisusageappearsveryplainlyintheDialogueontheExchequer。\'Youshallknow，\'saysthewriter，\'thatwegivethenamedemesnes(dominica)tothoselandsthatamancultivatesathisowncostorbyhisownlabour，andalsotothosewhicharepossessedinhisnamebyhisascriptitii；forbythelawofhiskingdomnotonlycantheseascriptitiiberemovedbytheirlordsfromthelandsthattheynowpossessandtransferredtootherplaces，buttheymaybesoldanddispersedatwill；sothatrightlyareboththeyandthelandswhichtheycultivateforthebehalfoftheirlordsaccountedtobedominia。\'(73*)Farotheristhenormal，ifnotinvariable，usageofDomesdayBook。Theterraevillanorum，thesilvaevillanorum，thepiscariaevillanorum，themolinivillanorum——forthevilleinshavewoodsandfisheriesandmills——thesethelorddoesnotholdindominio。(74*)Thenagaintheoxenofthevilleinsarecarefullydistinguishedfromtheoxenofthedemesne，whileoftenenoughtheyarenotdistinguishedfromtheoxenofthosewhoineverysensearefreetenants。(75*)Nowasregardsboththelandandtheoxenweseemputtothedilemmathateithertheybelongtothelordorelsetheybelongtothevilleins。Wecannotavoidthisdilemma，aswecaninlaterdays，bysayingthataccordingtothecommonlawtheownershipofthesethingsiswiththelord，whileaccordingtothecustomofthemanoritiswiththevilleins，forwebelievethatahall-moot，amanorialcourt，isstillasomewhatexceptionalinstitution。

Onthewholewecanhardlydoubtthatbothintheirlandandintheiroxenthevilleinshavehadrightsprotectedbylaw。Letusglanceoncemoreattheschemeofb髏andwerthathasbeeninforce。Avilleinisslain；themanb髏payabletohislordismarkedofffromthemuchheavierwergildthatispayabletohiskindred。Ifallthatavilleincouldhavebelongedtohislordsuchadistinctionwouldbeidle。