第1章

ThreeEssaysintheEarlyHistoryofEnglandbyF。W。MaitlandEssayOneDomesdayBookAtmidwinterintheyear1085WilliamtheConquerorworehiscrownatGloucesterandtherehehaddeepspeechwithhiswisemen。TheoutcomeofthatspeechwasthemissionthroughoutallEnglandof\'barons，\'\'legates\'or\'justices\'chargedwiththedutyofcollectingfromtheverdictsoftheshires，thehundredsandthevillsadescriptioofhisnewrealm。Theoutcomeofthatmissionwasthedescriptiopreservedforusintwomanuscriptvolumes，whichwithinacenturyaftertheirmakinghadalreadyacquiredthenameofDomesdayBook。Thesecondofthosevolumes，sometimesknownasLittleDomesday，dealswithbutthreecounties，namelyEssex，NorfolkandSuffolk，whilethefirstvolumecomprehendstherestofEngland。Alongwiththesewemustplacecertainotherdocumentsthatarecloselyconnectedwiththegrandinquest。Wehaveintheso-calledInquisitioComitatusCantabrigiae，acopy，animperfectcopy，oftheverdictsdeliveredbytheCambridgeshirejurors，andthis，asweshallhereaftersee，isadocumentofthehighestvalue，eventhoughinsomedetailsitisnotalwaysverytrustworthy。(1*)Wehaveintheso-calledInquisitioEliensisanaccountoftheestatesoftheAbbeyofElyinCambridgeshire，Suffolkandothercounties，anaccountwhichhasasitsultimatesourcetheverdictsofthejuriesandwhichcontainssomeparticularswhichwereomittedfromDomesdayBook。(2*)Wehaveintheso-calledExonDomesdayanaccountofCornwallandDevonshireandofcertainlandsinSomerset，DorsetandWiltshire；thisalsoseemstohavebeenconstructeddirectlyorindirectlyoutoftheverdictsdeliveredinthosecounties，anditcontainscertainparticularsabouttheamountofstockuponthevariousestateswhichareomittedfromwhat，fordistinction\'ssake，issometimescalledtheExchequerDomesday。(3*)AtthebeginningofthisExonDomesdaywehavecertainaccountsrelatingtothepaymentofagreatgeld，seeminglythegeldofsixshillingsonthehidethatWilliamleviedinthewinterof1083-4，twoyearsbeforethedeepspeechatGloucester。(4*)LastlyintheNorthamptonshireGeldRoll，(5*)

wehavesomepreciousinformationaboutfiscalaffairsastheystoodsomefewyearsbeforethesurvey。(6*)

Suchinbriefarethedocumentsoutofwhich，withsomesmallhelpfromtheAnglo-Saxondoomsandland-books，fromthechartersofNormankingsandfromtheso-calledLegesoftheConqueror，theConfessorandHenryI，somefuturehistorianmaybeabletoreconstructtheland-lawwhichobtainedintheconqueredEnglandof1086，and(forourrecordsfrequentlyspeakofthetempusRegisEdwardi)theunconqueredEnglandof1065。ThereflectionthatbutforthedeepspeechatGloucester，butfortheluckysurvivaloftwoorthreemanuscripts，hewouldhaveknownnexttonothingofthatlaw，willmakehimmodestandcautious。Atthepresentmoment，thoughmuchhasbeendonetowardsforcingDomesdayBooktoyielditsmeaning，someofthelegalproblemsthatareraisedbyit，especiallythosewhichconcernthetimeofKingEdward，havehardlybeenstated，muchlesssolved。Itiswithsomehopeofstating，withlittlehopeofsolving，themthatwebeginthisessay。Ifonlywecanasktherightquestionsweshallhavedonesomethingforagoodend。IfEnglishhistoryistobeunderstood，thelawofDomesdayBookmustbemastered。Wehavehereanabsolutelyuniqueaccountoffeudalismintwodifferentstagesofitsgrowth，themoretrustworthy，thoughthemorepuzzling，becauseitgivesusparticularsandnotgeneralities。

Puzzlingenoughitcertainlyis，andthisformanyreasons。

Ourtaskmaybetheeasierifwestatesomeofthosereasonsattheoutset。

TosaythatDomesdayBookisnocollectionoflawsortreatiseonlawwouldbeneedless。Veryseldomdoesitstateanyrulesingeneralterms，andwhenitdoessoweshillusuallyfindcauseforbelievingthatthisruleisitselfanexception，alocalcustom，aprovincialprivilege。Thus，ifwearetocomebygeneralrules，wemustobtaintheminductivelybyacomparisonofmanythousandparticularinstances。Butfurther，DomesdayBookisnoregisteroftitle，noregisterofallthoserightsandfactswhichconstitutethesystemoflandholdership。Onegreatpurposeseemstomouldbothitsformanditssubstance；itisageld-book。

WhenDukeWilliambecamekingoftheEnglish，hefound(sohemightwellthink)amongthemostvaluableofhisnewlyacquiredregaliaarighttolevyaland-taxunderthenameofgeldordanegeld。Adetailedhistoryofthattaxcannotbewritten。Itisundertheyear991thatourEnglishchroniclefirstmentionsatributepaidtotheDanes；(7*)？0，000wasthenpaidtothem。In994theyetlargersumof？6，000(8*)waslevied。In1002thetributehadrisento？4，000，(9*)in1007to？0，000；(10*)in1009EastKentpaid？，000；(11*)？1，000wasraisedin1014；(12*)

in1018Cnutwhennewlycrownedtook？2，000besides？1，000paidbytheLondoners；(13*)in1040Harthacnuttook？1，099besidesasumof？1，048thatwaspaidforthirty-twoships。(14*)WithaDaneuponthethrone，thistributeseemstohavebecomeanoccasionalwar-tax。Howoftenitwasleviedwecannottell；butthatitwasleviedmorethanoncebytheConfessorisnotdoubtful。(15*)Wearetoldthatheabolisheditinorabouttheyear1051，someeightornineyearsafterhisaccession，somefifteenbeforehisdeath。NosoonerwasWilliamcrownedthan\'helaidonmenageldexceedingstiff。\'Inthenextyear\'hesetamicklegeld\'onthepeople。Inthewinterof1083-4heraisedageldof72pence(6Normanshillings)uponthehide。Thatthistaxwasenormouslyheavyisplain。Takingonecasewithanother，itwouldseemthatthehidewasfrequentlysupposedtobeworthabout？ayearandthereweremanyhidesinEnglandthatwereworthfarless。Butgrievousaswasthetaxwhichimmediatelyprecededthemakingofthesurvey，wearenotentitledtoinferthatitwasofunprecedentedseverity。ItbroughtWilliambut？15orthereaboutsfromDorsetand？10orthereaboutsfromSomerset。(16*)Worcestershirewasdeemedtocontainabout1200

hidesandtherefore，evenifnoneofitshideshadbeenexempted，itwouldhavecontributedbut？60。Ifthehugesumsmentionedbythechroniclerhadreallybeenexacted，andthattoowithinthememoryofmenwhowereyetliving，WilliammightwellregardtherighttolevyageldasthemostpreciousjewelinhisEnglishcrown。Tosecureadueandpunctualpaymentofitwasworthagiganticeffort，asurveysuchashadneverbeenmadeandarecordsuchashadneverbeenpennedsincethegrandestdaysoftheoldRomanEmpire。Butfurther，theassessmentofthegeldsadlyneededreform。Owingtoonecauseandanother，owingtoprivilegesandimmunitiesthathadbeencapriciouslygranted，owingalso，sowethink，toaradicallyviciousmethodofcompilingthegeldableareasofcountiesandhundreds，theoldassessmentwasfullofanomaliesandiniquities。Someestateswereover-rated，otherswerescandalouslyunder-rated。ThatWilliamintendedtocorrecttheoldassessment，orrathertosweepitawayandputanewassessmentinitsstead，seemshighlyprobable，thoughithasnotbeenprovedthateitherheorhissonsaccomplishedthisfeat。(17*)Forthispurpose，however，materialsweretobecollectedwhichwouldenabletheroyalofficerstodecidewhatchangeswerenecessaryinorderthatallEnglandmightbetaxedinaccordancewithajustanduniformplan。Concerningeachestatetheyweretoknowthenumberofgeldableunits(\'hides\'or\'carucates\')forwhichithadansweredinKingEdward\'sday，theyweretoknowthenumberofploughoxenthattherewereuponit，theyweretoknowitstrueannualvalue，theyweretoknowwhetherthatvaluehadbeenrisingorfallingduringthepasttwentyyears。DomesdayBookhaswellbeencalledaratebook，andthetaskofspellingoutalandlawfromtheparticularsthatitstatesisnotunlikethetaskthatwouldliebeforeanyonewhoendeavouredtoconstructourmodernlawofrealpropertyoutofratebooks，incometaxreturnsandsimilarmaterials。Allthelands，alltheland-holdersofEnglandmaybebroughtbeforeus，butwearetoldonlyofsuchfacts，suchrights，suchlegalrelationshipsasbearontheactualorpotentialpaymentofgeld。True，thatsomeminorpurposesmaybeachievedbytheking\'scommissioners，thoughthequestforgeldistheironemainobject。Abouttherentsandrendersduefromhisowndemesnemanorsthekingmaythusobtainsomevaluableinformation。Alsohemaylearn，asitwerebytheway，whetheranyofhisbaronsorothermenhavepresumedtooccupy，to\'invade，\'landswhichhehasreservedforhimself。Again，ifseveralpersonsareindisputeaboutatractofground，thecontestmaybeappeasedbythetestimonyofshireandhundred，ormaybereservedfortheking\'saudience；atanyratetheexistenceofanoutstandingclaimmayberecordedbytheroyalcommissioners。Hereandtherethepeculiarcustomsofashireoraboroughwillbestated，andincidentallytheservicesthatcertaintenantsowetotheirlordsmaybenoticed。Butallthisisdonesporadicallyandunsystematically。Ourrecordisnoregisteroftitle，itisnofeodary，itisnocustumal，itisnorentroll；itisataxbook，ageldbook。

Wesaythis，notbywayofvaincomplaintagainstitsmeagreness，butbecauseinourbeliefacareforgeldandforallthatconcernstheassessmentandpaymentofgeldcoloursfarmoredeeplythancommentatorshaveusuallysupposedtheinformationthatisgiventousaboutothermatters。Weshouldnotbesurprisedifdefinitionsanddistinctionswhichatfirstsighthavelittleenoughtodowithfiscalarrangements，forexamplethedefinitionofamanorandthedistinctionbetweenavilleinanda\'freeman\'，involvedreferencestotheapportionmentandthelevyoftheland-tax。Oftenenoughithappensthatlegalideasofaverygeneralkindaredefinedbyfiscalrules；forexample，ourmodernEnglishideaof\'occupation\'hasbecomesomuchpartandparcelofasystemofassessmentthatlawyersarealwaysreadytoarguethatacertainmanmustbean\'occupier\'

becausesuchmenasheareratedtothereliefofthepoor。ItseemsthenafairsuppositionthatanylinethatDomesdayBookdrawssystematicallyandsharply，whetheritbebetweenvariousclassesofmenorbetweenvariousclassesoftenements，issomehoworanotherconnectedwiththemainthemeofthatbook-geldability，actualorpotential。

SincewehavementionedthestoriestoldbythechronicleraboutthetributepaidtotheDanes，wemaymakeacommentuponthemwhichwillbecomeofimportancehereafter。Thosestorieslooktrue，andtheyseemtobeacceptedbymodernhistorians。Hadwebeentoldjustoncethatsomelargenumberofpounds，forexample？0，000，waslevied，orhadthesameroundsumbeenrepeatedinyearafteryear，wemightwellhavesaidthatsuchfiguresdeservednoattention，andthatby？0，000ourannalistmerelymeantabigsumofmoney。But，aswillhavebeenseen，hevarieshisfiguresfromyeartoyearandisnotalwayscontentwitharoundnumber；hespeaksof？1，099andof？1，048。(18*)Wecanhardlythereforetreathisstatementsasmereloosetalkandarereluctantlydriventosupposethattheyaretrueornearthetruth。Ifthisbeso，then，unlesssomediscoveryhasyettobemadeinthehistoryofmoney，nowordbut\'appalling\'willadequatelydescribethetaxationofwhichhespeaks。WeknowprettyaccuratelytheamountofmoneythatbecameduewhenHenryIorHenryIIimposedadanegeldoftwoshillingsonthehide。

Thefollowingtableconstructedfromthepiperollswillshowthesumchargedagainsteachcounty。Wearrangetheshiresintheorderoftheirindebtedness，forafewofthemanycapricesoftheallotmentwillthusbevisible，andourtablemaybeofusetousinothercontexts。(18*)

ApproximateChargeofaDanegeldofTwoShillingsontheHideintheMiddleoftheTwelfthCentury？

Wiltshire389

Norfolk330

Somerset278

Lincoln266

Dorset248

Oxford242

Essex236

Suffolk235

Sussex210

Bucks205

Berks202

Gloucester190

S。Hants180

Surrey177

York160

Warwick129

N。Hants。120

Salop118

Cambridge114

Derby&Nottingham110

Hertford110

Bedford110

Kent105

Devon104

Worcester101

Leicester100

Hereford94

Middlesex85

Huntingdon71

Stafford44

Cornwall23

Rutland12

Northumberland100

Cheshire(20*)0

Total5198

NowbeitunderstoodthatthesefiguresdonotshowtheamountofmoneythatHenryIandHenryIIcouldobtainbyadanegeld。Theyhadtotakemuchless。Whenitwaslastlevied，thetaxwasnotbringingin？500，somanywerethechurchesandgreatfolkwhohadobtainedtemporaryorpermanentexemptionsfromit。WewillciteLeicestershireforexample。Thetotalofthegeldchargeduponitwasalmostexactlyorquiteexactly？00。OnthesecondrollofHenryII\'sreignwefindthat？57s。

6d。havebeenpaidintothetreasury，that？28s。3d。havebeen\'pardoned\'tomagnatesandtemplars，that？18s。2d。arewrittenoffinrespectofwaste，andthat16s。0d。arestilldue。Ontheeighthrolltheaccountshowsthat？212s。7d。havebeenpaidandthat？76s。9d。havebeen\'pardoned。\'No，whatourtabledisplaysistheamountthatwouldberaisedifallexemptionsweredisregardedandnopennyforborne。Andnowletusturnbacktothechronicleand(nottotakeanextremeexample)readof？0，000beingraised。UnlesswearepreparedtobringagainstthefathersofEnglishhistoryachargeofrepeated，wantonandcircumstantiallying，weshallthinkofthedanegeldofAEthelred\'sreignandofCnut\'sasofanimpostsoheavythatitwasfullycapableoftransmutingawholenation。Thereforethelinesthataredrawnbytheincidenceofthistributewillbedeepandpermanent；butstillwemustrememberthatprimarilytheywillbefiscallines。

Thenagain，weoughtnottolooktoDomesdayBookforasettledandstableschemeoftechnicalterms。Suchaschemecouldnotbeestablishedinabrieftwentyyears。Aboutonehalfofthetechnicaltermsthatmeetus，aboutonehalfofthetermswhich，aswethink，oughttobepreciselydefined，are，wemaysay，Englishterms。TheyareancientEnglishwords，ortheyarewordsbroughthitherbytheDanes，ortheyareLatinwordswhichhavelongbeeninuseinEnglandandhaveacquiredspecialmeaningsinrelationtoEnglishaffairs。Ontheotherhand，abouthalfthetechnicaltermsareFrench。SomeofthemareoldLatinwordswhichhaveacquiredspecialmeaningsinFrance，someareRomancewordsnewlycoinedinFrance，someareTeutonicwordswhichtelloftheFrankishconquestofGaul。Intheonegreatclassweplacescira，hundredum，wapentac，hida，berewica，inland，haga，soka，saka，geldum，gablum，Scotum，heregeat，gersuma，thegnus，sochemannus，burus，coscet；intheothercomitatus，carucata，virgata，bovata，arpentum，manerium，feudum，alodium，homagium，relevium，baro，vicecomes，vavassor，villanus，bordarius，colibertus，hospes。Itisnotintwentyyearsthatasettledandstableschemecanbeformedoutofsuchelementsasthese。AndoftenenoughitisverydifficultforustogivejusttherightmeaningtosomesimpleLatinword。Ifwetranslatemilesbysoldierorwarrior，thismaybetooindefinite；ifwetranslateitbyknight，thismaybetoodefinite，andyetleaveopenthequestionwhetherwearecomparingthemilesof1086withthecnihtofunconqueredEnglandorwiththeknightofthethirteenthcentury。Ifwerendervicecomesbysheriffwearemakingoursherifftoolittleofavicomte。WhencomesisbeforeuswehavetochoosebetweengivingBritannyanearl，givingChesteracount，oroffendingsomeofourcomitesbyinvidiousdistinctions。Timewillshowwhatthesewordsshallmean。Somewillperishinthestruggleforexistence；othershavelongandadventurouscareersbeforethem。Atpresenttwosetsoftermsarerudelyintermixed；thetimewhentheywillgrowintoanorganicwholeisbutbeginning。

Tothiswemustaddthat，unlesswehavemistakenthegeneraldriftoflegalhistory，thelawimpliedinDomesdayBookoughttobeforusverydifficultlaw，farmoredifficultthanthelawofthethirteenthcentury，forthethirteenthcenturyisnearertousthanistheeleventh。Thegrownmanwillfinditeasiertothinkthethoughtsoftheschool-boythantothinkthethoughtsofthebaby。Andyetthedoctrinethatourremoteforefathersbeingsimplefolkhadsimplelawdieshard。Toooftenweallowourselvestosupposethat，couldwebutgetbacktothebeginning，weshouldfindthatallwasintelligibleandshouldthenbeabletowatchtheprocesswherebysimpleideasweresmotheredundersubtletiesandtechnicalities。Butitisnotso。

Simplicityistheoutcomeoftechnicalsubtlety；itisthegoalnotthestartingpoint。Aswegobackwardsthefamiliaroutlinesbecomeblurred；theideasbecomefluid，andinsteadofthesimplewefindtheindefinite。Butdifficultthoughourtaskmaybe，wemustturntoit。

NOTES：

1。InquisitioComitatusCantabrigiae，ed。N。E。Hamilton。When，assometimeshappens，thefiguresinthisrecorddifferfromthosegiveninDomesdayBook，thelatterseemtobeingeneraltomorecorrect，forthearithmeticisbetter。AlsoitseemsplainthatthecompilersoftheDomesdayhad，evenfordistrictscomprisedintheInquisitio，othermaterialsbesidesthosethattheInquisitiocontains。Forexample，thatdocumentsaysnothingofsomeoftheroyalmanors。[Sincethisnotewaswritten，Mr。

Round，FeudalEngland，pp。10ff。haspublishedthesameresultafteranelaborateinvestigation。]

2。ThisisprintedinD。B。vol。iv。andgivenbyHamiltonattheendofhisInq。Com。Cantab。AstothemannerinwhichitwascompiledseeRound，FeudalEngland，133ff。

3。TheExonDomesdayisprintedinD。B。vol。iv。

4。Round，DomesdayStudies，i。91：\'IamtemptedtobelievethatthesegeldrollsintheforminwhichwenowhavethemwerecompiledatWinchesterafterthecloseofEaster1084，bythebodywhichwasthegermofthefutureExchequer。\'

5。PrintedbyEllis，IntroductiontoDomesday，i。184。

6。Round，FeudalEngland，147。

7。Earle，TwoChronicles，130-1。

8。Ibid。132-3。

9。Ibid。137。

10。Ibid。141。

11。Ibid。142。

12。Ibid。151。

13。Ibid。160-1。

14。Ibid。167。

15。Thereisavaluablepaperonthissubject，AShortAccountofDanegeld[byP。C。Webb]publishedin1756。

16。D。B。iv。26，489。

17。In1194thetaxforRichard\'sransomseems，atleastinWiltshire，tohavebeendistributedinthemainaccordingtotheassessmentthatprevailedin1084；RollsoftheKing\'sCourt(PipeRollSoc。)i。Introduction，p。xxiv。

18。ThestatementinAEthelred，ii。7(Schmid，p。209)astoapaymentof？2，000isinageneralwaycorroborativeofthechronicler\'slargefigures。

19。Thefigureswillbegivenmoreaccuratelyonalaterpage。

20Cheshirepaysnogeldtotheking。ThislossiscompensatedbyasumwhichissometimesexactedfromNorthumberland。

1。PLANOFTHESURVEY

Englandwasalreadymappedoutintocounties，hundredsorwapentakesandvills。TrithingsorridingsappearinYorkshireandLincolnshire，lathesinKent，rapesinSussex，whileleetsappear，atleastsporadicallyinNorfolk。(1*)Theseprovincialpeculiaritieswemustpassby，norwillwepausetocommentatanylengthonthechangesintheboundariesofcountiesandofhundredsthathavetakenplacesincethedateofthesurvey。

Thoughthesechangeshavebeenmanyandsomefewofthemhavebeenlarge，(2*)wemaystillsaythatasageneralrulethepoliticalgeographyofEnglandwasalreadystereotyped。Andweseethatalreadytherearemanycuriousanomalies，\'detachedportions\'ofcounties，discretehundreds，placesthatareextra-hundredal，(3*)placesthatforonepurposeareinonecountyandforanotherpurposeinanothercounty。(4*)Weseealsothatproprietaryrightshavealreadybeenmakingsportofarrangementswhichinoureyesshouldbefixedbypubliclaw。

Earls，sheriffsandothershaveenjoyedamarvellouspoweroftakingatractoflandoutofonedistrictandplacingit，or\'makingitlie\'inanotherdistrict。(5*)Landisconstantlyspokenofasthoughitwerethemostportableofthings；itcaneasilybetakenfromonevillorhundredandbeaddedtoorplacedinorcausedtolieinanothervillorhundred。This\'notionalmovability\'ofland，ifwemayusesuchaterm，willbecomeofimportancetouswhenwearestudyingtheformationofmanors。

Forthepresent，however，weareconcernedwiththegeneraltruththatEnglandisdividedintocounties，hundredsorwapentakesandvills。Thisisthegeographicalbasisofthesurvey。Thatbasis，however，ishiddenfromusbytheformofourrecord。TheplanadoptedbythosewhofashionedDomesdayBookoutofthereturnsprovidedforthembytheking\'scommissionersisacurious，compromisingplan。Wemaysaythatinpartitisgeographical，whileinpartitisfeudalorproprietary。Ittakeseachcountyseparatelyandthusfaritisgeographical；butwithintheboundariesofeachcountyitarrangesthelandsunderthenamesofthetenantsinchiefwhoholdthem。ThusallthelandsinCambridgeshireofwhichCountAlanistenantinchiefarebroughttogether，nomatterthattheyliescatteredaboutinvarioushundreds。Thereforeitisnecessaryforustounderstandthattheoriginalreturnsreportedbythesurveyorsdidnotreachtheroyaltreasuryinthisform。AtleastasregardsthecountyofCambridge，wecanbecertainofthis。Thehundredsweretakenonebyone；theyweretakeninageographicalorder，andnotuntilthejusticeshadlearnedallthatwastobeknownofStaplehowhundreddidtheycalluponthejurorsofCheveleyhundredfortheirverdict。ThatsuchwastheirprocedurewemighthaveguessedevenhadwenotbeenfortunateenoughtohaveacopyoftheCambridgeshireverdicts；for，thoughthecommissionersseemtohaveheldbutonemootforeachshire，stillitisplainthateachhundredwasrepresentedbyaseparatesetofjurors。(6*)ButfromtheseCambridgeshireverdictswelearnwhatotherwisewecouldhardlyhaveknown。Withineachhundredthesurveywasmadebyvills。(7*)Ifwesupposethecommissionerschargingthejurorswemustrepresentthemassaying，not\'Telluswhattenantsinchiefhavelandsinyourhundredandhowmucheachofthemholds，\'but\'Tellusabouteachvillinyourhundred，whoholdslandinit。\'Thus，forexample，themenoftheArmingfordhundredarecalledup。They，makeaseparatereportabouteachvillinit。Theybeginbystatingthatthevillisratedatacertainnumberofhidesandthentheyproceedtodistributethosehidesamongthetenantsinchief。Thus，forexample，theysaythatAbingtonwasratedat5hides，andthatthose5hidesaredistributedthus：(8*)

hidesvirgatesHughPincernaholdsofthebishopofWinchester21/21/2

Theking1/2

RalphandRobertholdofHardouindeEschalers111/2

EarlRoger1

Picotthesheriff1/2

AlwinHamelecocthebedelholdsoftheking1/2

50

NowinDomesdayBookwemustlooktoseveraldifferentpagestogetthisinformationaboutthevillofAbington，——toonepageforEarlRoger\'sland，toanotherpageforPicot\'sland，andwemayeasilymisstheimportantfactthatthisvillofAbingtonhasbeenratedasawholeattheneat，roundfigureof5hides。

AndthenweseethatthewholehundredofArmingfordhasbeenratedattheneat，roundfigureof100hides，andhasconsistedofsixvillsratedat10hidesapieceandeightvillsratedat5

hidesapiece。(9*)Thuswearebroughttolookuponthevillasaunitinasystemofassessment。AllthisisconcealedfromusbytheformofDomesdayBook。

Whenthatbookmentionsthenameofaplace，whenitsaysthatRogerholdsSuttonorthatRalphholdsthreehidesinNorton，weregardthatnameasthenameofavill；itmayormaynotbealsothenameofamanor。Speakingverygenerallywemaysaythattheplacesonamedwillinaftertimesbeknownasavillandinourowndaywillbeacivilparish。NodoubtinsomepartsofthecountrynewvillshavebeencreatedsincetheConqueror\'stime。SomenamesthatoccurinourrecordfailtoobtainapermanentplaceontherollofEnglishvills，becomethenamesofhamletsordisappearaltogether；ontheotherhand，newnamescometothefront。OfcoursewedarenotsaydogmaticallythatallthenamesmentionedinDomesdayBookwerethenamesofvills；verypossibly(ifthisdistinctionwasalreadyknown)someofthemwerethenamesofhamlets；nor，again，doweimplythatthevillaof1086hadmuchorganization；butaplacethatismentionedinDomesdayBookwillprobablyberecognizedasavillinthethirteenth，acivilparishinthenineteenthcentury。LetustakeCambridgeshirebywayofexample。ExcludingtheIsleofEly，wefindthatthepoliticalgeographyoftheConqueror\'sreignhasendureduntilourowntime。Theboundariesofthehundredsliealmostwheretheylay，thenumberofvillshashardlybeenincreasedordiminished。Thechiefchangesamounttothis：——AsmalltractontheeastsideofthecountycontainingExningandBellinghamhasbeenmadeovertoSuffolk；fourothernamescontainedinDomesdaynolongerstandforparishes，whilethenamesoffiveofourmodernparishes——oneofthemisthesignificantnameofNewton——arenotfoundthere。(10*)Butaboutahundredandtenvillsthatwerevillsin1086arevillsorcivilparishesatthepresentday，andinallprobabilitytheythenhadapproximatelythesameboundariesthattheyhavenow。

Thismaybeasomewhattoofavourableexampleofpermanenceandcontinuity。OfallcountiesCambridgeshireistheonewhoseancientgeographycanbethemosteasilyexamined；butwhereverwehavelookedwehavecometotheconclusionthatthedistributionofEnglandintovillsisinthemainasoldastheNormanconquest。(11*)Twocausesofdifficultymaybenoticed，fortheyareofsomeinterest。Owingtowhatwehavecalledthe\'notionalmovability\'ofland，wenevercanbequitesurethatwhencertainhidesoracresaresaidtobeinorlieinacertainplacetheyarereallyandphysicallyinthatplace。Theyarereallyinonevillage，buttheyarespokenofasbelongingtoanothervillage，becausetheiroccupantspaytheirgeldordotheirservicesinthelatter。Manorialandfiscalgeographyinterfereswithphysicalandvillargeography。Wehavelatelyseenhowlandratedatfivehideswascomprised，asamatteroffact，inthevillofAbington；butofthosefivehides，onevirgate\'layin\'Shingay，ahalf-hide\'layin\'Litlingtonwhileahalf-virgate\'layandhadalwayslain\'inMorden。(12*)This，ifwemistakenot，leadsinsomecasestoanomissionofthenamesofsmallvills。Agreatlordhasacompactestate，perhapsthewholeofoneofthesmallsouthernhundreds。Hetreatsitasawhole，andallthelandthathehastherewillbeascribedtosomeconsiderablevillageinwhichhehashishall。Weshouldberashinsupposingthattherewerenoothervillagesonthisland。

Forexample，inSurreythereisnow-a-daysahundredcalledFarnhamwhichcomprisestheparishofFarnham，theparishofFrenshamandsomeothervillages。Ifwemistakenot，allthatDomesdayBookhastosayofthewholeofthisterritoryisthattheBishopofWinchesterholdsFarnham，thatithasbeenratedat60hides，thatithasbeenworththelargesumof？5ayearandthattherearesomanytenantsuponit。(12*)Wecertainlymustnotdrawtheinferencethattherewasbutonevillinthistract。

Ifthebishopistenantinchiefofthewholehundredandhasbecomeresponsibleforallthegeldthatisleviedtherefrom，thereisnogreatreasonwhythesurveyorsshouldtroublethemselvesaboutthevills。ThusthesimpleEpiscopustenetFernehammaydisposeofsome25，000acresofland。SothesamebishophasanestateatChilcombeinHampshire；butclearlythenameCiltecumbecoversawideterritoryfortherearenolessthanninechurchesuponit。(14*)Wenevercanbeverycertainabouttheboundariesoftheselargeandcompactestates。

Asecondcauseofdifficultyliesinthefactthatincomparativelymoderntimes，fromthetwelfthcenturyonwards，twoorthreecontiguousvillageswilloftenbearthesamenameandbedistinguishedonlybywhatwemaycalltheirsurnames——thusGuildenMordenandSteepleMorden，StratfieldSaye，StratfieldTurgis，StratfieldMortimer，TolleshuntKnights，TolleshuntMajor，TolleshuntDarcy。Suchcasesarecommon；insomedistrictstheyarehardlyexceptional。Doubtlesstheypointtoatimewhenasinglevillagebysomeprocessofcolonizationorsubdivisionbecometwovillages。NowDomesdayBookseldomenablesustosayforcertainwhetherthechangehasalreadytakenplace。Inafewinstancesitmarksoffthelittlevillagefromthegreatvillageofthesamename。(15*)Insomeotherinstancesitwillspeak，forexample，ofMorduneandMorduneAlia，ofEmingefordeandEmingefordeAlia，orthelike，thusshowingboththatthechangehastakenplace，andalsothatitissorecentthatitisrecognizedonlybyveryclumsyterms。InCambridgeshire，sincewehavetheoriginalverdicts，wecanseethatthetwoMordensarealreadydistinct；theoneisratedattenhides，theotheratfive。(16*)Ontheotherhand，wecanseethatourGreatandLittleShelfordareratedasonevilloftwentyhides，(17*)ourCastleCampsandShudyCampsasonevilloffivehides。(18*)

Elsewherewearelefttoguesswhetherthefissioniscomplete，andthesurnamesthatmanyofourvillsultimatelyacquire，thenamesoffamilieswhichrosetogreatnessinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies，willoftensuggestthatthesurveyorssawbutonevillwhereweseetwo。(19*)However，thebroadtruthstandsoutthatEnglandwasdividedintovillsandthatingeneralthevillofDomesdayBookisstillavillinafterdays。(20*)

The\'vill\'or\'town\'ofthelatermiddleageswas，likethe\'civilparish\'ofourownday，atractoflandwithsomehousesonit，andthistractwasaunitinthenationalsystemofpoliceandfinance。(21*)ButwearenotentitledtomakeforourselvesanyonetypicalpictureoftheEnglishvill。Wearelearningfromtheordnancemap(thatmarvellouspalimpsest，whichunderDrMeitzen\'sguidancewearebeginningtodecipher)thatinallprobabilitywemustkeepatleasttwotypesbeforeourminds。Ontheonehand，thereiswhatwemightcallthetruevillageorthenucleatedvillage。Inthepurestformofthistypethereisoneandonlyoneclusterofhouses。Itisafairlylargecluster；itstandsinthemidstofitsfields，ofitsterritory，anduntillatelyaconsiderablepartofitsterritorywillprobablyhaveconsistedofspacious\'commonfields。\'Inacountryinwhichtherearevillagesofthistypetheparishboundariesseemalmosttodrawthemselves。(22*)Ontheotherhand，wemayeasilyfindacountryinwhichtherearefewvillagesofthischaracter。Thehouseswhichliewithintheboundaryoftheparisharescatteredaboutinsmallclusters；heretwoorthree，therethreeorfour。

Theseclustersoftenhavenamesoftheirown，anditseemsamerechancethatthenamebornebyoneofthemshouldbealsothenameofthewholeparishorvill。(23*)Weseenotracesofverylargefields。Onthefaceofthemapthereisnoreasonwhyaparticulargroupofcottagesshouldbereckonedtobelongtothisparishratherthantothenext。Asoureyesgrowaccustomedtotheworkwemayarriveatsomeextremely，importantconclusionssuchasthosewhichMeitzenhassuggested。TheoutlinesofournucleatedvillagesmayhavebeendrawnforusbyGermanicsettlers，whereasinthelandofhamletsandscatteredsteadsoldCelticarrangementsmayneverhavebeenthoroughlyeffaced。

Towardstheoriesofthiskindweareslowlywinningourway。InthemeantimeletusrememberthatavillaofDomesdayBookmaycorrespondtooneofatleasttwoverydifferentmodelsormaybeintermediatebetweenvarioustypes。Itmaybeafairlylargeandagrarianlyorganicunit，oritmaybeagroupofsmallagrarianunitswhicharebeingheldtogetherinonewholemerely，byanexternalforce，bypolicelawandfiscallaw。(24*)

Twolittlefragmentsof\'theoriginalone-inchordnancemap\'

willbemoreeloquentthanwouldbemanyparagraphsofwrittendiscourse。TheonepicturesadistrictontheborderbetweenOxfordshireandBerkshirecutbytheThamesandthemainlineoftheGreatWesternRailway；theotheradistrictontheborderbetweenDevonandSomerset，northofCollumptonandsouthofWiveliscombe。Neitherisanextremeexample。Truevillageswemayeasilyfind。Cambridgeshire，forinstance，wouldhaveaffordedsomebeautifulspecimens，formanyofthe\'openfields\'werestillopenwhentheordnancemapofthatcountywasmade。ButthroughoutlargetractsofEngland，eventhoughtherehasbeenan\'inclosure\'andtherearenolongeranyopenfields，ourmapoftenshowsalandofvillages。Whenitdoessoandthedistrictthatitportraysisapurelyagriculturaldistrict，wemaygenerallyassumewithoutgoingfarwrongthatthevillagesareancient，forduringatleastthelastthreecenturiesthepredominantcurrentinouragrarianhistoryhassetagainsttheformationofvillagesandtowardsthedistributionofscatteredhomesteads。TofindthepurestspecimensofalandofhamletsweoughttogotoWalesortoCornwallortootherpartsof\'theCelticfringe\'；veryfairexamplesmightbefoundthroughoutthewestofEngland。Alsowemayperhapsfindhamletsratherthanvillageswherevertherehavebeenwithinthehistoricperiodlargetractsofforestland。Veryoften，again，theparishortownshiplooksonourmaplikeahybrid。Weseemtoseeavillagewithsatellitichamlets。Muchmoreremainstobedonebeforeweshallbeabletoconstruethetestimonyofourfieldsandwallsandhedges，butatleasttwotypesofvillmustbeinoureyeswhenwearereadingDomesdayBook。(25*)

TosaythatthevillaofDomesdayBookisingeneralthevillofthethirteenthcenturyandthecivilparishofthenineteenthistosaythatthearealextentofthevillavariedwidelyfromcasetocase。Moreimportantisitforustoobservethatthenumberofinhabitantsofthevillavariedwidelyfromcasetocase。Theerrorintowhichwearemostlikelytofallwillbethatofmakingourvilltoopopulous。Somevills，especiallysomeroyalvills，arepopulousenough；afewcontainahundredhouseholds；buttheaveragetownshipiscertainlymuchsmallerthanthis。(26*)Beforewegiveanyfigures，itshouldfirstbeobservedthatDomesdayBookneverenablesustocountheads。Itstatesthenumberofthetenantsofvariousclasses，sochemanni，villani，bordarii，andthelike，andleavesustosupposethateachofthesepersonsis，ormaybe，theheadofahousehold。Italsostateshowmanyservithereare。Whetherweoughttosupposethatonlytheheadsofservilehouseholdsarereckoned，orwhetherweoughttothinkoftheserviashavingnohouseholdsbutaslivingwithinthelord\'sgatesandbeingenumerated，men，womenandable-bodiedchildren，bythehead——thisisadifficultquestion。Stillwemayreachsomeresultswhichwillenableustocomparetownshipwithtownship。BywayoffairsamplewemaytaketheArmingfordhundredofCambridgeshire，andallpersonswhoareabovetherankofserviwewillincludeundertheterm\'thenon-servilepopulation\'。(27*)

ArmingfordHundredNon-servilepopulationServiTotalAbingdon19019

Bissingbourn35338

Clapton19019

Croydon29029

Hatley18321

Litlington37643

Melbourn62163

Meldreth44751

Morden431154

MordenAlia50050

Shingay18018

Tadlow27431

Wendy12416

Whaddon44650

Total45745502

Hereinfourteenvillswehaveanaverageofthirty-twonon-servilehouseholdsforeveryvill。Noweveninourowndayaparishwiththirty-twohouses，thoughsmall，isnotextremelysmall。ButweshouldformawrongpictureoftheEnglandoftheeleventhcenturyifwefilledallpartsofitwithsuchvillsasthese。WewilltakeatrandomfourteenvillsinStaffordshireheldbyEarlRoger。(28*)

Non-servilepopulationServiTotalClaverlege45045

Nordlege909

Alvidelege13013

Halas40242

Chenistelei11011

Otne718

Nortberie20121

Erlide8210

Gaitone16016

Cressvale808

Dodintone303

Modreshale505

Almentone808

Metford718

Total2007207

Hereforfourteenvillswehaveanaverageofbutfourteennon-servile。householdsandtheserviaresofewthatwemayneglectthem。WewillnextlookatapageinthesurveyofSomersetshirewhichdescribescertainvillsthathavefallentothelotofthebishopofCoutances。(29*)

Herewehaveontheaveragebutelevennon-servilehouseholdsforeachvillage，andevenifwesupposeeachservustorepresentahousehold，wehavenotfourteenhouseholds。YetsmallervillswillbefoUndinDevonshire，manyvillsinwhichthetotalnumberofthepersonsmentioneddoesnotexceedtenandnearhalfoftheseareservi。InCornwallthetownships，iftownshipsweoughttocallthem，areyetsmaller；oftenwecanattributenomorethanfiveorsixfamiliestothevillevenifweincludetheservi。

Non-servilepopulationServiTotalWinemeresham8311

Chetenore314

Widicumbe21627

Harpetrev10212

Hotune11011

Lilebere617

Wintreth426

Aisecome11718

Clutone22123

Temesbare7310

Nortone16319

Cliveham15116

Ferenberge13619

Cliveware606

Total15336189

Unlessourcalculationsmisleadus，thedensityofthepopulationintheaveragevillofagivencountyvariessomewhatdirectlywiththedensityofthepopulationinthatcounty；atalleventswecannotsaythatwherevillsarepopulous，villswillbefew。Asregardsthismatternopreciseresultsareattainable；ourdocumentisfullofsnaresforarithmeticians。

Stillifforamomentwehaverecoursetothecrudemethodofdividingthenumberofacrescomprisedinamoderncountybythenumberofthepersonswhoarementionedinthesurveyofthatcounty，theoutcomeofourcalculationwillberemarkableandwillpointtosomebroadtruth。(30*)ForSuffolkthequotientis46orthereabouts；forNorfolkbutlittlelarger；(31*)forEssex61，forLincoln67；forBedford，Berkshire，Northampton，Leicester，Middlesex，Oxford，KentandSomersetitliesbetween70and80，forBuckingham，Warwick，Sussex，WiltshireandDorsetitliesbetween80and90；Devon，Gloucester，Worcester，Herefordarethinlypeopled，Cornwall，Stafford，Shropshireverythinly。

Someparticularresultsthatweshouldthusattainwouldbedelusive。ThusweshouldsaythatmenweresparseinCambridgeshire，didwenotrememberthatalargepartofourmodernCambridgeshirewasthenasheetofwater。Permanentphysicalcausesinterferewiththeoperationofthegeneralrule。

ThusSurrey，withitswideheaths，has，aswemightexpect，butfewmentothesquaremile。Derbyshirehasmanyvillslyingwaste；Yorkshireissomuchwastedthatitcangiveusnovaluableresult；andagain，YorkshireandCheshirewerelargerthantheyarenow，whileRutlandandtheadjacentcountieshadnottheirpresentboundaries。Forallthis，however，wecometoaverygeneralrule：——thedensityofthepopulationdecreasesaswepassfromeasttowest。Withthiswemayconnectanotherrule：

landismuchmorevaluableintheeastthanitisinthewest。

Thismatterisindeedhedgedinbymanythornyquestions；still，whateverhypothesiswemayadoptastothemodeinwhichlandwasvalued，onegeneraltruthcomesoutprettyplainly，namely，that，economicarrangementsbeingwhattheywere，itwasfarbettertohaveateam-landinEssexthantohaveanequalareaofarablelandinDevon。

BetweeneasternandwesternEnglandthereweredifferencesvisibletothenaturaleye。Withthesewereconnectedunseenandlegaldifferences，partlyascauses，partlyaseffects。ButforthemomentletusdwellonthefactthatmanyanEnglishvillhasveryfewinhabitants。Wearetospeakhereafterofvillagecommunities。Letusthereforereflectthatacommunityofsomeeightortenhouseholdersisnotlikelytobeahighlyorganizedentity。Thisisnotall，fortheseeightortenhouseholderswilloftenbelongtotwo，threeorfourdifferentsocialandeconomic，ifnotlegal，classes。Somemaybesokemen，somevillani，bordarii，cotarii，andbesidesthemtherewillbeafewservi。Ifavillconsists，asinDevonshireoftenenoughitwill，ofsomethreevillani，somefourbordariiandsometwoservi，the\'township-moot，\'ifsuchamoottherebe，willbeaqueerlittleassembly；themanorialcourt，ifsuchacourttherebe，willnothavemuchtodo。Thesemencannothavemanycommunalaffairs；

therewillbenogreatscopefordoomsorforby-laws；theymaywelltakealltheirdisputesintothehundredcourt，especiallyinDevonshirewherethehundredsaresmall。Thusofthevisiblevilloftheeleventhcenturyanditsmaterialsurroundingswemayformawrongnotion。Oftenenoughinthewestitscommonfields(ifcommonfieldsithad)werenotwidefields；themenwhohadsharesthereinwerefewandbelongedtovariousclasses。ThusoftwovillagesinGloucestershire，BrookthorpeandHarescombe，allthatwecanreadisthatinBrostropthereweretwoteams，onevillanus，threebordarii，fourservi，whileinHersecomethereweretwoteams，twobordariiandfiveservi。(32*)ManyaDevonshiretownshipcanproducebuttwoorthreeteams。Oftenenoughour\'villagecommunity\'willbeaheterogeneouslittlegroupwhosemaincapitalconsistsofsome300acresofarablelandandsome20beastsoftheplough。

Ontheotherhand，wemustbecarefulnottoomitfromourviewtherichandthicklypopulatedshiresortoimagineortospeakasthoughweimaginedthatageneraltheoryofEnglishhistorycanneglecttheEastofEngland。IfweleaveLincolnshire，NorfolkandSuffolkoutofaccountwearetoallappearanceleavingoutofaccountnotmuchlessthanaquarterofthewholenation。(33*)Letusmakethreegroupsofcounties：(1)

aSouth-WesterngroupcontainingDevon，Somerset，DorsetandWiltshire：(2)aMid-WesterngroupcontainingtheshiresofGloucester，Worcester，Hereford，Salop，StaffordandWarwick：(3)

anEasterngroupcontainingLincolnshire，NorfolkandSuffolk。

Thefirstofthesegroupshasthelargest；thethirdthesmallestacreage。InDomesdayBook，however，thefigureswhichstatetheirpopulationseemtobethese：(34*)——

South-WesternGroup：49，155

Mid-WesternGroup：33，191

EasternGroup：72，883

Thesefiguresaresoemphaticthattheymaycauseusforamomenttodoubttheirvalue，andondetailswemustlaynostress。Butwehavematerialswhichenableustocheckthegeneraleffect。In1297EdwardIleviedalaysubsidyofaninth。(35*)Thesumsbornebyourthreegroupsofcountieswerethese：——？

South-WesternGroup：4，038

Mid-WesternGroup：3，514

EasternGroup：7，329

Thereisacuriousresemblancebetweenthesetwosetsoffigures。Thenin1377and1381returnsweremadeforapoll-tax。(36*)Thenumberofpollsreturnedinourthreegroupswerethese：——

13771381

South-WesternGroup：183，842106，086

Mid-WesternGroup：158，245115，679

EasternGroup：255，498182，830

Nodoubtallinferencesdrawnfrommedievalstatisticsareexceedinglyprecarious；but，unlessagoodmanyfigureshaveconspiredtodeceiveus，Lincolnshire，NorfolkandSuffolkwereatthetimeoftheConquestandforthreecenturiesafterwardsvastlyricherandmorepopulousthananytractofequalareaintheWest。

AnotherdistinctionbetweentheeasterncountiesandtherestofEnglandisapparent。Inmanyshiresweshallfindthatthenameofeachvillismentionedonceandnomore。Thisissobecausethelandofeachvillbelongsinitsentiretytosomeonetenantinchief。Wemaygofurther：wemaysay，thoughatpresentinanuntechnicalsense，thateachvillisamanor。Suchisthegeneralrule，thoughtherewillbeexceptionstoit。Ontheotherhand，intheeasterncountiesthisrulewillbecometheexception。Forexample，ofthefourteenvillsintheArmingfordhundredofCambridgeshirethereisbutoneofwhichitistruethatthewholeofitslandisheldbyasingletenantinchief。

InthiscountyitiscommontofindthatthreeorfourNormanlordsholdlandinthesamevill。ThisseemstruenotonlyofCambridgeshire，butalsoofEssex，Suffolk，Norfolk，Lincoln，Nottingham，Derby，andsomepartsofYorkshire。EveninotherdistrictsofEnglandtherulethateachvillhasasinglelordisbynomeansunbrokenintheConqueror\'sdayandwecanseethatthereweremanyexceptionstoitintheConfessor\'s。AcarefulexaminationofallEnglandvillbyvillwouldperhapsshowthatthecontrastwhichwearenotingisneithersosharpnorsoancientasatfirstsightitseemstobe：neverthelessitexists。

Abetterknowncontrastthereis。Theeasterncountiesarethehomeofliberty。(37*)Wemaydividethetillersofthesoilintofivegreatclasses；theseinorderofdignityandfreedomare(1)liberihomines，(2)sochemanni，(3)villani，(4)

bordarii，cotarii，etc。，(5)servi。ThetwofirstoftheseclassesaretobefoundinlargenumbersonlyinNorfolk，Suffolk，Lincolnshire，Nottinghamshire，LeicestershireandNorthamptonshire。WeshallhereafterseethatCambridgeshirealsohasbeenfullofsokemen，thoughsincetheConquesttheyhavefallenfromtheirhighestate。Ontheotherhand，thenumberofserviincreasesprettysteadilyaswecrossthecountryfromeasttowest。ItreachesitsmaximuminCornwallandGloucestershire；

itisverylowinNorfolk，Suffolk，Derby，Leicester，Middlesex，Sussex；itdescendstozeroinYorkshireandLincolnshire。ThisdescenttozeromayfairlywarnusthatthetermswithwhichwearedealingmaynotbearpreciselythesamemeaninginallpartsofEngland，orthatasmallclassisapttobereckonedasformingpartofalargerclass。Butstillitisclearenoughthatsomeofthesetermsareusedwithcareandexpressrealandimportantdistinctions。

Ofthisweareassuredbyadocumentwhichseemstoreproducethewordingoftheinstructionswhichdefinedthedutyofatleastonepartyofroyalcommissioners。(38*)WeareabouttospeakofthemodeinwhichtheoccupantsofthesoilareclassifiedbyDomesdayBook，andthereforethisdocumentdeservesourbestattention。Itrunsthus：——TheKing\'sbaronsinquiredbytheoathofthesheriffoftheshireandofallthebaronsandoftheirFrenchmenandofthewholehundred，thepriest，reeveandsixvillaniofeveryvill，howthemansion(mansio)iscalled，whohelditinthetimeofKingEdward，whoholdsitnow，howmanyhides，howmanyplough-teamsonthedemesne，howmanyploughteamsofthemen，howmanyvillani，howmanycotarii，howmanyservi，howmanyliberihomines，howmanysochemanni，howmuchwood，howmuchmeadow，howmuchpasture，howmanymills，howmanyfisheries，howmuchhasbeentakenawaytherefrom，howmuchaddedthereto，andhowmuchthereisnow，howmucheachliberhomoandsochemannushadandhas：——Allthisthriceover，towitasregardsthetimeofKingEdward，thetimewhenKingWilliamgaveit，andthepresenttime，andwhethermorecanbehadthencethanishadnow。(39*)

Fiveclassesofmenarementionedandtheyarementionedinanorderthatisextremelycurious：——villani，cotarii，servi，liberihomines，sochemanni。Itdescendsthreesteps，thenitleapsfromtheverybottomofthescaletotheverytopandthenceitdescendsonestep。AparodyofitmightspeakoftheruralpopulationofmodernEnglandasconsistingoflargefarmers，smallfarmers，cottagers，greatlandlords，smalllandlords。Butalittleconsiderationwillconvinceusthatbeneaththisapparentcapricethereliessomelegalprinciple。Weshallobservethatthesefivespeciesoftenantsaregroupedintotwogenera。Thekingwantstoknowhowmucheachliberhomo，howmucheachsochemannusholds；hedoesnotwanttoknowhowmucheachvillanus，eachcotarius，eachservusholds。Connectingthiswiththemainobjectofthewholesurvey，weshallprobablybebroughttotheguessthatbetweenthesokemanandthevilleinthereissomebroaddistinctionwhichconcernsthekingastherecipientofgeld。Mayitnotbethis：——thevillein\'slordisanswerableforthegeldduefromthelandthatthevilleinholds，thesokeman\'slordisnotanswerable，atleastheisnotanswerableasprincipaldebtorforthegeldduefromthelandthatthesokemanholds？Ifthisbeso，theorderinwhichthefiveclassesofmenarementionedwillnotseemunnatural。Itproceedsoutwardsfromthelordandhismansio。Firstitmentionsthepersonsseatedonlandforthegeldofwhichheisresponsible，andthemitarrangesinan\'orderofmerit。\'Thenitturnstopersonswho，thoughinsomewayoranotherconnectedwiththelordandhismansio，arethemselvestax-payers，andconcerningthemthecommissionersaretoinquirehowmucheachofthemholds。Ofcoursewecannotsaythatthistheoryisprovedbythestatementthatliesbeforeus；butitissuggestedbythatstatementandmayforawhileserveusasaworkinghypothesis。

Ifthistheorybesound，thenwehavehereadistinctionoftheutmostimportance。Foronemightypurpose，thepurposethatisuppermostinKingWilliam\'smind，thevillanusisnotalandowner，hislordisthelandowner；ontheotherhand，thesochemannusisalandowner，andistaxedassuch。Wearenotsayingthatthisisapurelyfiscaldistinction。Inlegallogicthelord\'sliabilityforthegeldthatisapportionedonthelandoccupiedbyhisvilleinsmayberatheraneffectthanacause。A

lawyermightarguethatthelordmustpaybecausetheoccupierishisvillanus，notthattheoccupierisavillanusbecausethelordpays。Andyet，aswemayoftenseeinlegalhistory，therewillbeactionandreactionbetweencauseandeffect。Thegeldisnotrifle。LeviedatthatrateofsixshillingsonthehideatwhichKingWilliamhasjustnowleviedit，itisamomentousforcecapableofdepressinganddisplacingwholeclassesofmen。

In1086thistaxissomuchineverybody\'smindthatanydistinctionastoitsincidencewillcutdeeplyintothebodyofthelaw。

Nowthisclassificationofmenwewilltakeasthestartingpointforourenterprise。Ifwecoulddefinetheliberhomo，sochemannus，villanus，cotarius，servus，weshouldhavesolvedsomeofthegreatlegalproblemsofDomesdayBook，forbythewayweshouldhavehadtodefinetwootherdifficultterms，namelymaneriumandsoca。Itwouldthenremainthatweshouldsaysomethingofthehigherstrataofsociety，ofearlsandsheriffs，ofbarons，knights，thegnsandtheirtenures，ofsuchtermsasalodiumandfeudum，ofthegeneraltheoryoflandownershiporlandholdership。Wewillbeginwiththelowestorderofmen，withtheservi，andthenceworkourwayupwards。Butourcoursecannotbestraightforward。Therearesomanytermstobeexplainedthatsometimesweshallbecompelledtoleaveaquestionbutpartiallyansweredwhileweareendeavouringtofindapartialanswerforsomeyetmoredifficultquestion。