第4章

Throughthissubjectivityandnegativeunity，andthroughthisabsolutenegativity，theidealbecomesnolongerourobjectmerely，butobjecttoitself，andthisprinciplehastakeneffectintheworldofChristianity。Thusinthemodernpointofviewthesubjectisforitselffree，manisfreeasman，andfromthiscomestheideathatbecauseheisMindhehasfromhisverynaturetheeternalqualityofbeingsubstantial。GodbecomesknownasMindwhichappearstoitselfasdouble，yetremovesthedifferencethatitmayinitbeforandathomewithitself。Thebusinessoftheworld，takingitasawhole，istobecomereconciledwithMind，recognizingitselftherein，andthisbusinessisassignedtotheTeutonicworld。

ThefirstbeginningofthisundertakingisfoundintheReligionwhichisthecontemplationofandfaithinthisprincipleasinanactualexistencebeforeaknowledgeoftheprinciplehasbeenarrivedat。IntheChristianReligionthisprincipleisfoundmoreasfeelingandidea；initmanasmanisdestinedtoeverlastingbliss，andisanobjectofdivinegrace，pityandinterest，whichisasmuchassayingthatmanhasanabsoluteandinfinitevalue。WefinditfurtherinthatdogmarevealedthroughChristtomen，oftheunityofthedivineandhumannature，accordingtowhichthesubjectiveandtheobjectiveIdea-manandGodareone。This，inanotherform，isfoundintheoldstoryoftheFall，inwhichtheserpentdidnotdeludeman，forGodsaid，"Behold，Adamhasbecomeasoneofus，toknowgoodandevil。"Wehavetodealwiththisunityofsubjectiveprincipleandofsubstance；itconstitutestheprocessofMindthatthisindividualoneorindependentexistenceofsubjectshouldputasideitsimmediatecharacterandbringitselfforthasidenticalwiththesubstantial。Suchanaimispronouncedtobethehighestendattainablebyman。Weseefromthisthatreligiousideasandspeculationarenotsofarasunderaswasatfirstbelieved，andImaintaintheseideasinorderthatwemaynotbeashamedofthem，seeingthatwestillbelongtothem，andsothatifwedogetbeyondthem，wemaynotbeashamedofourprogenitorsoftheearlyChristiantimes，whoheldtheseideasinsuchhighesteem。

ThefirstprincipleofthatPhilosophywhichhastakenitsplaceinChristendomisthusfoundintheexistenceoftwototalities。Thisisareduplicationofsubstancewhichnow，however，ischaracterizedbythefactthatthetwototalitiesarenolongerexternaltooneanother，butareclearlybothrequiredthroughtheirrelationtooneanother。IfformerlyStoicismandEpicureanism，whosenegativitywasScepticism，cameforthasindependent，andiffinallytheimplicitlyexistentuniversalityofbothwasestablished，thesemomentsarenowknownasseparatetotalities，andyetintheiroppositiontheyhavetobethoughtofasone。WehaveherethetruespeculativeIdea，theNotioninitsdeterminations，eachofwhichisbroughtintoatotalityandclearlyrelatestotheother。

WethushavereallytwoIdeas，thesubjectiveIdeaasknowledge，andthenthesubstantialandconcreteIdea；andthedevelopmentandperfectionofthisprincipleanditscomingtotheconsciousnessofThought，isthesubjecttreatedbymodernPhilosophy。Thusthedeterminationsareinitmoreconcretethanwiththeancients。Thisoppositioninwhichthetwosidesculminate，graspedinitswidestsignificance，istheoppositionbetweenThoughtandBeing，individualityandsubstance，sothatinthesubjecthimselfhisfreedomstandsoncemorewithintheboundsofnecessity；itistheoppositionbetweensubjectandobject，andbetweenNatureandMind，insofarasthislastasfinitestandsinoppositiontoNature。

TheGreekPhilosophyisfreefromrestraintbecauseitdoesnotyethaveregardtotheoppositionbetweenBeingandThought，butproceedsfromtheunconsciouspresuppositionthatThoughtisalsoBeing。CertainlycertainstagesintheGreekPhilosophyarelaidholdofwhichseemtostandonthesameplatformastheChristianphilosophies。Thuswhenwesee，forinstance，inthePhilosophyoftheSophists，thenewAcademics，andtheSceptics，thattheymaintainthedoctrinethatthetruthisnotcapableofbeingknown，theymightappeartoaccordwiththelatersubjectivephilosophiesinassertingthatallthought-determinationswereonlysubjectiveincharacter，andthathencefromthesenoconclusionscouldbearrivedatasregardswhatisobjective。Butthereisreallyadifference。Inthecaseofancientphilosophies，whichsaidthatweknowonlythephenomenal，everythingisconfinedtothat；itisasregardspracticallifethatthenewAcademyandtheScepticsalsoadmittedthepossibilityofconductingoneselfrightly，morallyandrationally，whenoneadoptsthephenomenalasone\'sruleandguideinlife。Butthoughitisthephenomenalthatliesatthefoundationofthings，itisnotassertedthatthereislikewiseaknowledgeofthetrueandexistent，asinthecaseofthemerelysubjectiveidealistsofamoremodernday。Thoselaststillkeepinthebackgroundapotentiality，abeyondwhichcannotbeknownthroughthoughtorthroughconception。Thisotherknowledgeisanimmediateknowledge-afaithin，aviewof，andayearningafter，thebeyondsuchaswasevincedbyJacobi。Theancientshavenosuchyearning:onthecontrary，theyhaveperfectsatisfactionandrestinthecertitudethatonlythatwhichappearsisforKnowledge。

Thusitisnecessaryinthisrespecttokeepstrictlytothepointofviewfromwhichwestart，elsethroughthesimilarityoftheresults，wecometoseeinthatoldPhilosophyallthedeterminatecharacterofmodernsubjectivity。Sinceinthesimplicityofancientphilosophythephenomenalwasitselftheonlysphere，doubtsastoobjectivethoughtwerenotpresenttoit。

Theoppositiondefined，thetwosidesofwhichareinmoderntimesreallyrelatedtooneanotherastotalities，alsohastheformofanoppositionbetweenreasonandfaith，betweenindividualperceptionandtheobjectivetruthwhichmustbetakenwithoutreasonofone\'sown，andevenwithacompletedisregardforsuchreason。Thisisfaithasunderstoodbythechurch，orfaithinthemodernsense，i。e。arejectionofreasoninfavourofaninwardrevelation，calledadirectcertaintyorperception，oranimplicitandintuitivefeeling。Theoppositionbetweenthisknowledge，whichhasfirstofalltodevelopitself，andthatknowledgewhichhasalreadydevelopeditselfinwardly，arousesapeculiarinterest。InbothcasestheunityofthoughtorsubjectivityandofTruthorobjectivityismanifested，onlyinthefirstformitissaidthatthenaturalmanknowstheTruthsinceheintuitivelybelievesit，whileinthesecondformtheunityofknowledgeandTruthisshown，butinsuchawaythatthesubjectraisesitselfabovetheimmediateformofsensuousconsciousnessandreachestheTruthfirstofallthroughThought。

ThefinalendistothinktheAbsoluteasMind，astheUniversal，thatwhich，whentheinfinitebountyoftheNotioninitsrealityfreelyemitsitsdeterminationsfromitself，whollyimpressesitselfuponandimpartsitselftothem，sothattheymaybeindifferentlyoutsideoforinconflictwithoneanother，butsothatthesetotalitiesareoneonly，notaloneimplicitly，(whichwouldsimplybeourreflection)butexplicitlyidentical，thedeterminationsoftheirdifferencebeingthusexplicitlymerelyideal。Henceifthestarting-pointofthehistoryofPhilosophycanbeexpressedbysayingthatGodiscomprehendedastheimmediateandnotyetdevelopeduniversality，andthatitsend-thegraspingoftheAbsoluteasMindthroughthetwoandahalfthousandyears\'workofthethusfarinertworld-spirit-istheendofourtime，itmakesiteasyforusfromonedeterminationtogoonthroughthemanifestationofitsneeds，toothers。Yetinthecourseofhistorythisisdifficult。

Wethushavealtogethertwophilosophies-theGreekandtheTeutonic。AsregardsthelatterwemustdistinguishthetimewhenPhilosophymadeitsformalappearanceasPhilosophyandtheperiodofformationandofpreparationformoderntimes。WemayfirstbeginTeutonicphilosophywhereitappearsinproperformasPhilosophy。Betweenthefirstperiodandthosemorerecent，comes，asanintermediateperiod，thatfermentationofanewPhilosophywhichontheonesidekeepswithinthesubstantialandrealexistenceanddoesnotarriveatform，whileontheotherside，itperfectsThought，asthebareformofapre-supposedtruth，untilitagainknowsitselfasthefreegroundandsourceofTruth。HencethehistoryofPhilosophyfallsintothreeperiods-thatoftheGreekPhilosophy，thePhilosophyoftheMiddleAgesandthemodernPhilosophy。Ofthesethefirstisspeakinggenerally，regulatedbyThought，thesecondfallsintotheoppositionbetweenexistenceandformalreflection，butthethirdhastheNotionasitsground。ThismustnotbetakentomeanthatthefirstcontainsThoughtalone；italsohasconceptionsandideas，justasthelatterbeginsfromabstractthoughtswhichyetconstituteaduality。

FirstPeriod。—ThiscommencesatthetimeofThales，about600B。C。，andgoesontothecomingtomaturityoftheNeo-platonicphilosophywithPlotinusinthethirdcentury；fromthencetoitsfurtherprogressanddevelopmentwithProclusinthefifthcenturyuntilthetimewhenallphilosophywasextinguished。TheNeo-platonicphilosophythenmadeitsentranceintoChristianitylateron，andmanyphilosophieswithinChristianityhavethisphilosophyastheironlygroundwork。

Thisisaspaceoftimeextendingtoabout1000years，theendofwhichcoincideswiththemigrationofthenationsandthedeclineoftheRomanEmpire。

SecondPeriod。—ThesecondperiodisthatoftheMiddleAges。TheScholasticsareincludedinit，andArabiansandJewsarealsohistoricallytobenoticed，butthisphilosophymainlyfallswithintheChristianChurch。Thisperiodisofsomethingover1000years\'duration。

ThirdPeriod。—PhilosophyofmoderntimesmadeitsfirstindependentappearanceaftertheThirtyYears\'War，withBacon，JacobB？hmandDescartes；itbeginswiththedistinctioncontainedin:cogitoergosum。Thisperiodisoneofacoupleofcenturiesandthephilosophyisconsequentlystillsomewhatmodern。

2。SourcesoftheHistoryofPhilosophy。

Wehavetoseekforsourcesofanotherkindinthisthaninpoliticalhistory。Therehistoriansarethefountainheads，whichagainhaveassourcesthedeedsandsayingsofindividuals；andthehistorianswhoarenotoriginalhaveoverandaboveperformedtheirworkatsecondhand。Buthistoriansalwayshavethedeedsalreadypresentinhistory，thatistosay，herebroughtintotheformofordinaryconception；forthenameofhistoryhastwomeanings:itsignifiesontheonehandthedeedsandeventsthemselves，andontheother，itdenotestheminsofarastheyareformedthroughconceptionforconception。InthehistoryofPhilosophythereare，onthecontrary，notanysourceswhichcanbederivedfromhistorians，butthedeedsthemselvesliebeforeus，andthese-thephilosophicoperationsthemselves-arethetruesources。IfwewishtostudythehistoryofPhilosophyinearnest，wemustgotosuchspringsasthese。Yettheseoperationsformtoowideafieldtopermitofourkeepingtoitaloneinthishistory。Inthecaseofmanyphilosophersitisabsolutelynecessarytoconfineoneselftotheoriginalauthors，butinmanyperiods，inwhichwecannotobtainoriginalsources，seeingthattheyhavenotbeenpreservedtous，(as，forinstance，inthatoftheolderGreekphilosophy)wemustcertainlyconfineourattentionsimplytohistoriansandotherwriters。Thereareotherperiods，too，whereitisdesirablethatothersshouldhavereadtheworksofthephilosophersandthatweshouldreceiveabstractstherefrom。Severalschoolmenhaveleftbehindthemworksofsixteen，twenty-fourandtwenty-sixfolios，andhencewemustintheircaseconfineourselvestotheresearchesofothers。Manyphilosophicworksarealsorareandhencedifficulttoobtain。Manyphilosophersareforthemostpartimportantfromanhistoricorliterarypointofviewonly，andhencewemaylimitourselvestothecompilationsinwhichtheyaredealtwith。ThemostnoteworthyworksonthehistoryofPhilosophyare，however，thefollowing，regardingwhichIreferforparticularstothesummaryofTennemann\'sHistoryofPhilosophy，byA。Wendt，sinceIdonotwishtogiveanycompletelist。

1。OneofthefirstHistoriesofPhilosophy，whichisonlyinterestingasanattempt，isthe"HistoryofPhilosophy，"byThomasStanley(London，1655，folioed。III。，1701。4。translatedintoLatinbyGodofr。Olearius，Lipsiae，1711，4)。Thishistoryisnolongermuchused，andonlycontainstheoldphilosophicschoolsintheformofsectsandasifnonewoneshadexisted。Thatistosay，itkeepstotheoldbeliefcommonlyheldatthattime，thatthereonlywereancientphilosophiesandthattheperiodofphilosophycametoanendwithChristianity，asifPhilosophyweresomethingbelongingtoheathendomandthetruthonlycouldbefoundinChristianity。InitadistinctionwasdrawnbetweenTruthasitiscreatedfromthenaturalreasonintheancientphilosophies，andtherevealedtruthoftheChristianreligion，inwhichtherewasconsequentlynolongeranyPhilosophy。InthetimeoftheRevivalofLearningtherecertainlywerenoproperphilosophies，andaboveallinStanley\'stimesystemsofPhilosophyproperweretooyoungfortheoldergenerationstohavetheamountofrespectforthemnecessarytoallowoftheirbeingesteemedasrealities。

2。Jo。Jac。BruckeriHistoriacriticaphilosoph？Lipsi？，1742-1744，fourparts，orfivevolumesinfour，forthefourthparthastwovolumes。Thesecondedition，unaltered，butwiththeadditionofasupplement，1766-1767，fourpartsinsixquartosthelastofwhichformsthesupplement。Thisisanimmensecompilationwhichisnotformedstraightfromtheoriginalsources，butismixedwithreflectionsafterthemannerofthetimes。Aswehaveseenfromanexampleabove[§A。3。c。]theaccountsgivenareinthehighestdegreeinaccurate。Brucker\'smannerofprocedureisentirelyunhistoric，andyetnowhereoughtwetoproceedinamorehistoricmannerthaninthehistoryofPhilosophy。Thisworkisthussimplysomuchuselessballast。AnepitomeofthesameisJo。Jac。BruckeriInstitutioneshistori？philosophic？，usuiacademic？juventutisadornat？。Lipsi？，1747，8；secondedition，Leipzig，1756；thirdeditionpreparedbyBorn，Leipzig，1790，8。

3。DietrichTiedmann\'sGeistderSpeculativenPhilosophie，Marburg，1791-1797，6vols。，8。

Hetreatsofpoliticalhistorydiffusely，butwithoutanylife，andthelanguageisstiffandaffected。

Thewholeworkisamelancholyexampleofhowalearnedprofessorcanoccupyhiswholelifewiththestudyofspeculativephilosophy，andyethavenoideaatallofspeculation。HisargumentatothePlatoofBruckerareofthesamedescription。Ineveryhistoryhemakesabstractsfromthephilosopherssolongastheykeeptomereratiocination，butwhenthespeculativeisarrivedat，hebecomesirate，declaringitalltobecomposedofemptysubtleties，andstopsshortwiththewords"weknowbetter。"HismeritisthathehassuppliedvaluableabstractsfromrarebooksbelongingtotheMiddleAgesandfromcabalisticandmysticalworksofthattime。

4。Job。GottliebBuhle:LehrbuchderGeschichtederPhilosophieundeinerkritischenLiteraturderselben。G？ttingen，1796to1804。Eightparts，8。Ancientphilosophyistreatedwithdisproportionatebrevity；thefurtherBuhlewenton，themoreparticularhebecame。Hehasmanygoodsummariesofrareworks，asforinstancethoseofGiordanoBruno，whichwereintheG？ttingenLibrary。

5。Wilh。Gottl。Tennemann\'sGeschichtederPhilosophie，Leipzig，1798-1819，elevenparts，8。

Theeighthpart，theScholasticPhilosophy，occupiestwovolumes。Thephilosophiesarefullydescribed，andthemoremoderntimesarebetterdonethantheancient。Thephilosophiesofrecenttimesareeasiertodescribe，sinceitisonlynecessarytomakeanabstractortointerpretstraighton，forthethoughtscontainedinthemlienearertoours。Itisotherwisewiththeancientphilosophers，becausetheystandinanotherstageoftheNotion，andonthisaccounttheyarelikewisemoredifficulttograsp。Thatistosay，whatisoldiseasilyoverthrownbysomethingelsemorefamiliartous，andwhereTennemanncomesacrosssuchheisalmostuseless。InAristotle，forinstance，themisinterpretationissogreat，thatTennemannfoistsuponhimwhatisdirectlyoppositetohisbeliefs，andthusfromtheadoptionoftheoppositetowhatTennemannassertstobeAristotle\'sopinion，acorrectideaofAristotelianphilosophyisarrivedat。TennemannisthencandidenoughtoplacethereferencetoAristotleunderneaththetext，sothattheoriginalandtheinterpretationoftencontradictoneanother。Tennemannthinksthatitisreallythecasethatthehistorianshouldhavenophilosophy，andhegloriesinthat；yethereallyhasasystemandheisacriticalphilosopher。Hepraisesphilosophers，theirworkandtheirgenius，andyettheendofthelayisthatallofthemwillbepronouncedtobewantinginthattheyhaveonedefect，whichisnottobeKantianphilosophersandnotyettohavesoughtthesourceofknowledge。FromthistheresultisthattheTruthcouldnotbeknown。

Ofcompendiums，threehavetobenoticed。1。FrederickAft\'sGrundrisseinerGeschichtederPhilosophie。(Landshut1807，8；secondedition，1825)iswrittenfromabetterpointofview；thePhilosophyisthatofSchellingforthemostpart，butitissomewhatconfused。Aftbysomeformalmethodhasdistinguishedidealphilosophyfromreal。2。ProfessorWendt\'sG？ttingeneditionofTennemann(fifthedition，Leipzig，1828，8)。ItisastonishingtoseewhatisrepresentedasbeingPhilosophy，withoutanyconsiderationastowhetherithasanymeaningornot。Suchso-callednewphilosophiesgrowlikemushroomsoutoftheground。Thereisnothingeasierthantocomprehendinharmonywithaprinciple；butitmustnotbethoughtthathencesomethingnewandprofoundhasbeenaccomplished。3。Rirner\'sHandbuchderGeschichtederPhilosophie，3

vols。，Sulzbach，1822-1823，8(secondamendededition，1829)ismosttobecommanded，andyetIwillnotassertthatitanswersalltherequirementsofaHistoryofPhilosophy。Therearemanypointswhichleavemuchtodesire，buttheappendicestoeachvolumeinwhichtheprincipaloriginalauthoritiesarequoted，areparticularlyexcellentfortheirpurpose。Selectedextracts，morespeciallyfromtheancientphilosophers，areneeded，andthesewouldnotbelengthy，sincetherearenotverymanypassagestobegivenfromthephilosophersbeforePlato。

3。MethodofTreatmentAdoptedinthisHistoryofPhilosophy。

AsregardsexternalhistoryIshallonlytouchuponthatwhichistheconcernofuniversalhistory，thespiritortheprincipleofthetimes，andhenceIwilltreatofconditionsoflifeinreferencetotheoutstandingphilosophers。Ofphilosophies，however，onlythosearetobemadementionoftheprinciplesofwhichhavecausedsomesensation，andthroughwhichsciencehasmadeanadvance；

henceIshallputasidemanynameswhichwouldbetakenupinalearnedtreatise，butwhichareoflittlevalueinrespecttoPhilosophy。Thehistoryofthedisseminationofadoctrine，itsfate，thosewhohavemerelytaughtaparticulardoctrine，Ipassover，asthedeductionofthewholeworldfromoneparticularprinciple。

ThedemandthatinPhilosophyanhistorianshouldhavenosystem，shouldputintothephilosophynothingofhisown，norassailitwithhisideas，seemsaplausibleone。ThehistoryofPhilosophyshouldshowjustthisimpartiality，anditseems，insofarthattogiveonlysummariesofthephilosophersprovesasuccess。Hewhounderstandsnothingofthematter，andhasnosystem，butmerelyhistoricknowledge，willcertainlybeimpartial。ButpoliticalhistoryhastobecarefullydistinguishedfromthehistoryofPhilosophy。Thatistosay，thoughintheformer，oneisnotindeedatlibertytolimitoneselftorepresentingtheeventschronologicallyonly，onecanyetkeeptowhatisentirelyobjective，asisdoneintheHomericepic。ThusHerodotusandThucydides，asfreemen，lettheobjectiveworlddofreelyandindependentlyasitwould；theyhaveaddednothingoftheirown，neitherhavetheytakenandjudgedbeforetheirtribunaltheactionswhichtheyrepresented。

Yeteveninpoliticalhistorythereisalsoaparticularendkeptinview。InLivythemainpointsaretheRomanrule，itsenlargement，andtheperfectingoftheconstitution；weseeRomearise，defenditself，andexerciseitsmastery。Itisthusthattheself-developingreasoninthehistoryofPhilosophymakesofitselfanend，andthisendisnotforeignorimported，butisthematteritself，whichliesatthebasisasuniversal，andwithwhichtheindividualformsofthemselvescorrespond。ThuswhenthehistoryofPhilosophyhastotellofdeedsinhistory，wefirstask，whatadeedinPhilosophyis；

andwhetheranyparticularthingisphilosophicornot。Inexternalhistoryeverythingisinaction-certainlythereisinitwhatisimportantandthatwhichisunimportant-butactionistheideaimmediatelyplacedbeforeus。ThisisnotthecaseinPhilosophy，andonthisaccountthehistoryofPhilosophycannotbetreatedthroughoutwithouttheintroductionofthehistorian\'sviews。

MODERNPHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION

IFwecastaglancebackovertheperiodjusttraversed，wefindthatinitaturning-pointhadbeenreached，thattheChristianreligionhadplaceditsabsolutecontentinthemindandwillofman，andthatitwasthus，asadivineandsupersensuouscontent，separatedfromtheworldandshutupwithinitselfinthecentre-pointoftheindividual。Overagainstthereligiouslifeanexternalworldstoodasanaturalworld-aworldofheartorfeeling，ofdesire，ofhumannature-whichhadvalueonlyinasfarasitwasovercome。ThismutualindependenceofthetwoworldshadmuchattentionbestowedonitthroughouttheMiddleAges；theoppositionwasattackedonallquartersandintheendovercome。Butsincetherelationofmankindtothedivinelifeexistsuponearth，thisconquestatfirstpresentedtheappearanceofbringingwithitthedestructionofthechurchandoftheeternalthroughthesensuousdesiresofman。Theeternaltruthwaslikewisegrafteduponthedry，formalunderstanding，sothatwemightsaythattheseparationofself-consciousnesshasinitselfdisappeared，andtherebyapossibilityhasbeengivenofobtainingreconciliation。ButbecausethisimplicitunionoftheBeyondandtheHerewasofsounsatisfactoryanaturethatthebetterfeelingswerearousedandforcedtoturnagainstit，theReformationmadeitsappearance，partly，nodoubt，asaseparationfromtheCatholicChurch，butpartlyasareformationfromwithin。ThereisamistakenideathattheReformationonlyeffectedaseparationfromtheCatholicChurch；LutherjustastrulyreformedtheCatholicChurch，thecorruptionofwhichonelearnsfromhiswritings，andfromthereportsoftheemperorsandoftheempiretothePope；iffurtherevidenceberequired，weneedonlyreadtheaccountsgivenevenbytheCatholicbishops，theFathersofthecouncilsatConstance，Basle，&c。，oftheconditionoftheCatholicpriesthoodandoftheRomanCourt。Theprincipleoftheinwardreconciliationofspirit，whichwasinitselftheveryIdeaofChristianity，wasthusagainestranged，andappearedasaconditionofexternal，unreconciledalienationanddiscord；thisgivesusanexampleoftheslowoperationoftheworld-spiritinovercomingthisexternality。Iteatsawaytheinwardsubstance，buttheappearance，theoutwardform，stillremains；attheend，however，itisanemptyshell，thenewformbreaksforth。Insuchtimesthisspiritappearsasifit-havingsofarproceededinitsdevelopmentatasnail\'space，andhavingevenretrogradedandbecomeestrangedfromitself-hadsuddenlyadoptedseven-leaguedboots。

Sincethusthereconciliationofself-consciousnesswiththepresentisimplicitlyaccomplished，manhasattainedtoconfidenceinhimselfandinhisthought，insensuousnatureoutsideofandwithinhim；hehasdiscoveredaninterestandpleasureinmakingdiscoveriesbothinnatureandthearts。

Intheaffairsofthisworldtheunderstandingdeveloped；manbecameconsciousofhiswillandhisachievements，tookpleasureintheearthanditssoil，asalsoinhisoccupations，becauserightandunderstandingweretherepresent。Withthediscoveryofgunpowdertheindividualpassionofbattlewaslost。Theromanticimpulsetowardsacasualkindofbraverypassedintootheradventures，notofhateorrevenge，ortheso-calleddeliverancefromwhatmenconsideredthewrongsofinnocence，butmoreharmlessadventures，theexplorationoftheearth，orthediscoveryofthepassagetotheEastIndies。Americawasdiscovered，itstreasuresandpeople-nature，manhimself；navigationwasthehigherromanceofcommerce。Thepresentworldwasagainpresenttomanasworthyoftheinterestsofmind；thinkingmindwasagaincapableofaction。NowtheReformationofLutherhadinevitablytocome-theappealtothesensuscommuniswhichdoesnotrecognizetheauthorityoftheFathersorofAristotle，butonlytheinwardpersonalspiritwhichquickensandanimates，incontradistinctiontoworks。InthiswaytheChurchlostherpoweragainstit，forherprinciplewaswithinitandnolongerlackingtoit。Tothefiniteandpresentduehonourisaccorded；fromthishonourtheworkofscienceproceeds。Wethusseethatthefinite，theinwardandoutwardpresent，becomesamatterofexperience，andthroughtheunderstandingiselevatedintouniversality；mendesiretounderstandlawsandforces，i。e。，totransformtheindividualofperceptionsintotheformofuniversality。Worldlymattersdemandtobejudgedofinaworldlyway；thejudgeisthinkingunderstanding。Theothersideisthattheeternal，whichisinandforitselftrue，isalsoknownandcomprehendedthroughthepureheartitself；theindividualmindappropriatestoitselftheeternal。ThisistheLutheranfaithwithoutanyotheraccessories-works，astheywerecalled。Everythinghadvalueonlyasitwasgraspedbytheheart，andnotasamerething。Thecontentceasestobeanobjectivething；Godisthusinspiritalone，Heisnotabeyondbutthetruestrealityoftheindividual。

Purethoughtislikewiseoneformofinwardness；italsoapproachesabsoluteexistenceandfindsitselfjustifiedinapprehendingthesame。Thephilosophyofmoderntimesproceedsfromtheprinciplewhichancientphilosophyhadreached，thestandpointofactualself-consciousness-ithasasprinciplethespiritthatispresenttoitself；itbringsthestandpointoftheMiddleAges，thediversitybetweenwhatisthoughtandtheexistentuniverse，intoopposition，andithastodowiththedissolutionofthisgameopposition。Themaininteresthenceis，notsomuchthethinkingoftheobjectsintheirtruth，asthethinkingandunderstandingoftheobjects，thethinkingthisunityitself，whichisreallythebeingconsciousofapre-supposedobject。Thegettingridoftheformalcultureofthelogicalunderstandingandthemonstrositiesofwhichitwascomposed，wasmoreessentialthantheextensionofit:investigationinsuchacasebecomesdissipatedanddiffused，andpassesintothefalseinfinite。Thegeneralpointsofviewwhichinmodernphilosophywereacharehencesomewhatasfollows:—

1。Theconcreteformofthoughtwhichwehaveheretoconsideronitsownaccount，reallyappearsassubjectivewiththereflectionofimplicitude，sothatthishasanantithesisinexistence；

andtheinterestisthenaltogetherfoundingraspingthereconciliationofthisoppositioninitshighestexistence，i。e。，inthemostabstractextremes。ThishighestseveranceistheoppositionbetweenthoughtandBeing，thecomprehendingofwhoseunityfromthistimeforwardconstitutestheinterestofallphilosophies。Herethoughtismoreindependent，andthuswenowabandonitsunitywiththeology；itseparatesitselftherefrom，justaswiththeGreeksitseparateditselffrommythology，thepopularreligion，anddidnotuntilthetimeoftheAlexandriansseekouttheseformsagainandfillthemythologicalconceptionswiththeformofthought。Thebondremains，butforthisreasonitisclearlyimplicit:theologythroughoutismerelywhatphilosophyis，forthislastissimplythoughtrespectingit。Itdoesnothelptheologytostriveagainstphilosophy，ortosaythatitwishestoknownothingaboutit，andthatphilosophicmaximsarethustobesetaside。Ithasalwaystodowiththethoughtthatitbringsalongwithit，andtheseitssubjectiveconceptions，itshomeandprivatemetaphysics，arethusfrequentlyaquiteuncultured，uncriticalthought-thethoughtofthestreet。Themegeneralconceptionsare，indeed，connectedwithparticularsubjectiveconviction，andthislastissaidtoprovetheChristiancontenttobetrueinasenseallitsown；butthemethoughtswhichconstitutethecriterionaremerelythereflectionsandopinionswhichfloataboutthesurfaceofthetime。Thus，whenthoughtcomesforthonitsownaccount，wetherebyseparateourselvesfromtheology；weshall，however，consideroneotherinwhombotharestillinunity。ThisindividualisJacobBoehme，forsincemindnowmovesinitsowndomains，itisfoundpartlyinthenaturalandfiniteworld，andpartlyintheinward，andthisatfirstistheChristian。

Whileearlierthanthis，moreover，thespirit，distractedbyoutwardthings，hadtomakeitsinfluencefeltinreligionandinthesecularlife，andcametobeknowninthepopularphilosophyso-called，itwasonlyinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesthatthegenuinePhilosophyre-appeared，whichseekstograspthetruthastruthbecausemaninthoughtisinfinitelyfreetocomprehendhimselfandnature，andalongwiththatseekstounderstandthepresentofrationality，reality，universallawitself。Forthisisours，sinceitissubjectivity。Theprincipleofmodernphilosophyishencenotafreeandnaturalthought，becauseithastheoppositionofthoughtandnaturebeforeitasafactofwhichitisconscious。Spiritandnature，thoughtandBeing，arethetwoinfinitesidesoftheIdea，whichcanforthefirsttimetrulymakeitsappearancewhenitssidesaregraspedforthemselvesintheirabstractionandtotality。Platocomprehendeditasthebond，aslimitingandasinfinite，asoneandmany，simpleanddiverse，butnotasthoughtandBeing；whenwefirstthinkinglyovercomethisoppositionitsignifiescomprehendingtheunity。Thisisthestandpointofphilosophicconsciousnessgenerally；butthewayinwhichthisunitymustbethinkinglydevelopedisadoubleone。Philosophy，hencefallsintothetwomainformsinwhichtheoppositionisresolved，intoarealisticandanidealisticsystemofphilosophy，i。e。，intoonewhichmakesobjectivityandthecontentofthoughttoarisefromtheperceptions，andonewhichproceedstotruthfromtheindependenceofthought。

a。Experienceconstitutesthefirstofthesemethods，viz。Realism。Philosophynowsignified，orhadasitsmainattribute，self-thoughtandtheacceptanceofthepresentasthatinwhichtruthlay，andwhichwastherebyknowable。Allthatisspeculativeisparedandsmootheddowninordertobringitunderexperience。Thispresentistheexistentexternalnature，andspiritualactivityasthepoliticalworldandassubjectiveactivity。Thewaytotruthwastobeginfromthishypothesis，butnottoremainwithitinitsexternalself-isolatingactuality，buttoleadittotheuniversal。

i。Theactivitiesofthatfirstmethodoperate，tobeginwith，onphysicalnature，fromtheobservationofwhichmenderiveuniversallaws，andonthisbasistheirknowledgeisfounded；thescienceofnature，however，onlyreachestothestageofreflection。Thiskindofexperimentalphysicswasoncecalled，andisstillcalledphilosophy，asNewton\'sPrincipiaphilosophi？naturalis(Vol。I。p。59)show。Thisworkisoneinwhichthemethodsofthefinitesciencesthroughobservationanddeductionarealonepresent-thosescienceswhichtheFrenchstillcallthesciencesexactes。Tothis，theunderstandingoftheindividual，pietywasopposed，andhenceinthisrespectphilosophywastermedworldlywisdom(Vol。I。p。

60)。HeretheIdeainitsinfinitudeisnotitselftheobjectofknowledge；butadeterminatecontentisraisedintotheuniversal，orthislastinitsdeterminatenessfortheunderstandingisderivedfromobservation，justasis，forinstance，doneinKeppler\'sLaws。InScholasticphilosophy，ontheotherhand，man\'spowerofobservationwassetaside，anddisputationsrespectingnatureatthattimeproceededfromabstrusehypotheses。

ii。Inthesecondplace，thespiritualwasobservedasinitsrealizationitconstitutesthespiritualworldofstates，inorderthustoinvestigatefromexperiencetherightsofindividualsasregardsoneanother，andasregardsrulers，andtherightsofstatesagainststates。Beforethispopesanointedkings，justaswasdoneinOldTestamenttimestothoseappointedbyGod；itwasintheOldTestamentthatthetithewascommanded；theforbiddendegreesofrelationshipinmarriagewerealsoadoptedfromtheMosaiclaws。WhatwasrightandpermissibleforkingswasdemonstratedfromSaul\'sandDavid\'shistories，therightsofpriesthoodfromSamuel-inshort，theOldTestamentwasthesourceofalltheprinciplesofpubliclaw，anditisinthiswayevennowthatallpapalbullshavetheirdeliverancesconfirmed。Itmayeasilybeconceivedhowmuchnonsensewasinthismannerconcocted。

Now，however，rightwassoughtforinmanhimself，andinhistory，andwhathadbeenaccountedrightbothinpeaceandinwarwasexplained。InthiswaybookswerecomposedwhichevennowareconstantlyquotedintheParliamentofEngland。Menfurtherobservedthedesireswhichcouldbesatisfiedinthestateandthemannerinwhichsatisfactioncouldbegiventothem，inorderthusfrommanhimself，frommanofthepastaswellasofthepresent，tolearnwhatisright。

b。Thesecondmethod，thatofIdealism，proceedsfromwhatisinward；accordingtoiteverythingisinthought，minditselfisallcontent。HeretheIdeaitselfismadetheobject；thatsignifiesthethinkingitandfromitproceedingtothedeterminate。WhatRealismdrawsfromexperienceisnowderivedfromthoughtàpriori；orthedeterminateisalsocomprehendedbutnotledbacktotheuniversalmerely，buttotheIdea。

Thetwomethodsoverlaponeanother，however，becauseexperienceonitssidedesirestoderiveuniversallawsfromobservations，while，ontheotherside，thoughtproceedingfromabstractuniversalitymuststillgiveitselfadeterminatecontent；thusaprioriandaposteriorimethodsaremingled。InFranceabstractuniversalitywasthemorepredominant；fromEnglandexperiencetookitsrise，andevennowitisthereheldinthegreatestrespect；GermanyproceededfromtheconcreteIdea，fromtheinwardnessofmindandspirit。

2。Thequestionsofpresentphilosophy，theopposites，thecontentwhichoccupiestheattentionofthesemoderntimes，areasfollows:—

a。ThefirstformoftheoppositionwhichwehavealreadytoucheduponintheMiddleAgesistheIdeaofGodandHisBeing，andthetaskimposedistodeducetheexistenceofGod，aspurespirit，fromthought。Bothsidesmustbecomprehendedthroughthoughtasabsoluteunity；theextremestoppositionisapprehendedasgatheredintooneunity。Othersubjectswhichengageourattentionareconnectedwiththesamegeneralaim，namely，thebringingaboutoftheinwardreconciliationintheoppositionwhichexistsbetweenknowledgeanditsobject。

b。ThesecondformofoppositionisthatofGoodandEvil-theoppositionoftheassertionofindependentwilltothepositiveanduniversal；theoriginofevilmustbeknown。Evilisplainlythe"other，"thenegationofGodasHoliness；becauseHeis，becauseHeiswise，good，andatthesametimealmighty，eviliscontradictorytoHim；anendeavourismadetoreconcilethiscontradiction。

c。Thethirdformofoppositionisthatofthefreedomofmanandnecessity。

i。Theindividualisclearlynotdeterminedinanyotherwaythanfromhimself，heistheabsolutebeginningofdetermination；inthe\'I，\'intheself，apowerofdecisionisclearlytobefound。ThisfreedomisinoppositiontothetheorythatGodaloneisreallyabsolutelydetermining。Further，whenthatwhichhappensisinfuturity，thedeterminingofitthroughGodisregardedasProvidenceandtheforeknowledgeofGod。Inthis，however，anewcontradictionisinvolved，inasmuchasbecauseGod\'sknowledgeisnotmerelysubjective，thatwhichGodknowslikewiseis。

ii。Furtherstill，humanfreedomisinoppositiontonecessityasthedeterminatenessofnature；manisdependentonnature，andtheexternalaswellastheinwardnatureofmanishisnecessityasagainsthisfreedom。

iii。Consideredobjectively，thisoppositionisthatbetweenfinalcausesandefficientcauses，i。e。，betweentheactsoffreedomandtheactsofnecessity。

iv。Thisoppositionbetweenthefreedomofmanandnaturalnecessityhasfinallylikewisethefurtherformofcommunityofsoulandbody，ofcommerciumanimicumcorpore，asithasbeencalled，whereinthesoulappearsasthesimple，ideal，andfree，andthebodyasthemanifold，materialandnecessary。

Thesemattersoccupytheattentionofscience，andtheyareofacompletelydifferentnaturefromtheinterestsofancientphilosophy。Thedifferenceisthis，thatherethereisaconsciousnessofanopposition，whichiscertainlylikewisecontainedinthesubjectswithwhichthelearningoftheancientswasoccupied，butwhichhadnotcometoconsciousness。Thisconsciousnessoftheopposition，this\'Fall，\'isthemainpointofinterestintheconceptionoftheChristianreligion。Thebringingaboutinthoughtofthereconciliationwhichisacceptedinbelief，nowconstitutesthewholeinterestofknowledge。Implicitlyithascometopass；forknowledgeconsidersitselfqualifiedtobringaboutinitselfthisrecognitionofthereconciliation。Thephilosophicsystemsarethereforenomorethanmodesofthisabsoluteunity，andonlytheconcreteunityofthoseoppositesisthetruth。

3。Asregardsthestageswhichwerereachedintheprogressofthisknowledgewehavetomentionthreeoftheprincipal。

a。Firstofallwefindtheunionofthoseoppositesstated；andtoproveitgenuineattemptsaremade，thoughnotyetdeterminedinpurity。

b。Thesecondstageisthemetaphysicalunion；andhere，withDescartes，thephilosophyofmoderntimesasabstractthoughtproperlyspeakingbegins。

i。Thinkingunderstandingseekstobringtopasstheunion，inasmuchasitinvestigateswithitspurethought-determinations；thisisinthefirstplacethestandpointofmetaphysicsassuch。

ii。Inthesecondplace，wehavetoconsidernegation，thedestructionofthismetaphysics-

theattempttoconsiderknowledgeonitsownaccount，andthedeterminationswhichproceedfromit。

c。Thethirdstageisthatthisunionitselfwhichistobebroughtabout，andwhichistheonlysubjectofinterest，comestoconsciousnessandbecomesanobject。Asprincipletheunionhastheformoftherelationshipofknowledgetothecontent，andthusthisquestionhasbeenput:\'Howis，andhowcanthoughtbeidenticalwiththeobjective？\'Withthistheinwardelementwhichliesatthebasisofthismetaphysicisraisedintoexplicitudeandmadeanobject；andthisincludesallmodernphilosophyinitsrange。

4。Inrespecttotheexternalhistoryandthelivesofthephilosophers，itwillstrikeusthatfromthistimeon，theseappeartobeverydifferentfromthoseofthephilosophersofancienttimes，whomweregardedasself-sufficingindividualities。Itisrequiredthataphilosophershouldliveasheteaches，thatheshoulddespisetheworldandnotenterintoconnectionwithit；thistheancientshaveaccomplished，andtheyaresuchplasticindividualitiesjustbecausetheinwardspiritualaimofphilosophyhaslikewisefrequentlydeterminedtheirexternalrelationsandconditions。Theobjectoftheirknowledgewastotakeathoughtfulviewoftheuniverse；theykepttheexternalconnectionwiththeworldallthefurtherremovedfromthemselvesbecausetheydidnotgreatlyapproveofmuchthereinpresent；or，atleast，iteverproceedsonitsway，accordingtoitsownparticularlaws，onwhichtheindividualisdependent。Theindividuallikewiseparticipatesinthepresentinterestsofexternallife，inordertosatisfyhispersonalends，andthroughthemtoattaintohonour，wealth，respect，anddistinction；theancientphilosophers，however，becausetheyremainedintheIdea，didnotconcernthemselveswiththingsthatwerenottheobjectsoftheirthought。HencewiththeGreeksandRomansthephilosopherslivedinanindependentfashionpeculiartothemselves，andinanexternalmodeoflifewhichappearedsuitabletoandworthyofthesciencetheyprofessed；

theyconductedthemselvesindependentlyasprivatepersons，unfetteredbyoutsidetrammels，andtheymaybecomparedtothemonkswhorenouncedalltemporalgoods。

IntheMiddleAgesitwaschieflytheclergy，doctorsoftheology，whooccupiedthemselveswithphilosophy。Inthetransitionperiodthephilosophersshowedthemselvestobeinaninwardwarfarewiththemselvesandinanexternalwarfarewiththeirsurroundings，andtheirliveswerespentinawild，unsettledfashion。

Inmoderntimesthingsareverydifferent；nowwenolongerseephilosophicindividualswhoconstituteaclassbythemselves。Withthepresentdayalldifferencehasdisappeared；philosophersarenotmonks，forwefindthemgenerallyinconnectionwiththeworld，participatingwithothersinsomecommonworkorcalling。Theylive，notindependently，butintherelationofcitizens，ortheyoccupypublicofficesandtakepartinthelifeofthestate。Certainlytheymaybeprivatepersons，butifso，theirpositionassuchdoesnotinanywayisolatethemfromtheirotherrelationship。Theyareinvolvedinpresentconditions，intheworldanditsworkandprogress。Thustheirphilosophyisonlybytheway，asortofluxuryandsuperfluity。Thisdifferenceisreallytobefoundinthemannerinwhichoutwardconditionshavetakenshapeafterthebuildingupoftheinwardworldofreligion。

Inmoderntimes，namely，onaccountofthereconciliationoftheworldlyprinciplewithitself，theexternalworldisatrest，isbroughtintoorder-worldlyrelationships，conditions，modesoflife，havebecomeconstitutedandorganizedinamannerwhichisconformabletonatureandrational。

Weseeauniversal，comprehensibleconnection，andwiththatindividualitylikewiseattainsanothercharacterandnature，foritisnolongertheplasticindividualityoftheancients。Thisconnectionisofsuchpowerthateveryindividualityisunderitsdominion，andyetatthesametimecanconstructforitselfaninwardworld。Theexternalhasthusbeenreconciledwithitselfinsuchawaythatbothinwardandoutwardmaybeself-sufficingandremainindependentofoneanother；andtheindividualisintheconditionofbeingabletoleavehisexternalsidetoexternalorder，whileinthecaseofthoseplasticformstheexternalcouldonlybedeterminedentirelyfromwithin。Now，onthecontrary，withthehigherdegreeofstrengthattainedbytheinwardsideoftheindividual，hemayhandtheexternalovertochance；justasheleavesclothingtothecontingenciesoffashion，notconsideringitworthwhiletoexerthisunderstandinguponit。Theexternalheleavestobedeterminedbytheorderwhichispresentintheparticularsphereinwhichhislotiscast。Thecircumstancesoflifeare，inthetruesense，privateaffairs，determinedbyoutwardconditions，anddonotcontainanythingworthyofournotice。Lifebecomesscholarly，uniform，commonplace，itconnectsitselfwithoutwardlygivenrelationshipsandcannotrepresentorsetitselfforthasaformpertainingonlytoitself。Manmustnottakeupthecharacterofshowinghimselfanindependentform，andgivinghimselfapositionintheworldcreatedbyhimself。Becausetheobjectivepowerofexternalrelationshipsisinfinitelygreat，andforthatreasonthewayinwhichIperforceamplacedinthemhasbecomeamatterofindifferencetome，personalityandtheindividuallifegenerallyareequallyindifferent。Aphilosopher，itissaid，shouldliveasaphilosopher，i。e。，shouldbeindependentoftheexternalrelationshipsoftheworld，andshouldgiveupoccupyinghimselfwithandtroublinghimselfconcerningthem。Butthuscircumscribedinrespectofallnecessities，moreespeciallyofculture，noonecansufficeforhimself；hemustseektoactinconnectionwithothers。

Themodernworldisthisessentialpowerofconnection，anditimpliesthefactthatitisclearlynecessaryfortheindividualtoenterintotheserelationsofexternalexistence；onlyacommonmodeofexistenceispossibleinanycallingorcondition，andtothisSpinozaformsthesolitaryexception。Thusinearliertimesbraverywasindividual；whilemodernbraveryconsistsineachnotactingafterhisownfashion，butrelyingonhisconnectionwithothers-andthisconstituteshiswholemerit。Thecallingofphilosopherisnot，likethatofthemonks，anorganizedcondition。

Membersofacademiesoflearningarenodoubtorganizedinpart，butevenaspecialcallingliketheirssinksintotheordinarycommonplaceofstateorclassrelationships，becauseadmissionthereintoisoutwardlydetermined。Therealmatteristoremainfaithfultoone\'saims。

SectionOne:ModernPhilosophyinitsFirstStatementA。BACON。

Therewasalreadybeingaccomplishedtheabandonmentofthecontentwhichliesbeyondus，andwhichthroughitsformhaslostthemerititpossessedofbeingtrue，andisbecomeofnosignificancetoself-consciousnessorthecertaintyofselfandofitsactuality；thisweseeforthefirsttimeconsciouslyexpressed，thoughnotasyetinaveryperfectform，byFrancisBacon，BaronVerulam，ViscountSt。Albans。Heisthereforeinstancedasinthefore-frontofallthisempiricalphilosophy，andevennowourcountrymenliketoadorntheirworkswithsententioussayingsculledfromhim。Baconianphilosophythususuallymeansaphilosophywhichisfoundedontheobservationoftheexternalorspiritualnatureofmaninhisinclinations，desires，rationalandjudicialqualities。Fromtheseconclusionsaredrawn，andgeneralconceptions，lawspertainingtothisdomain，arethusdiscovered。Baconhasentirelysetasideandrejectedthescholasticmethodofreasoningfromremoteabstractionsandbeingblindtowhatliesbeforeone”seyes。Hetakesashisstandpointthesensuousmanifestationasitappearstotheculturedman，asthelatterreflectsuponit；andthisisconformabletotheprincipleofacceptingthefiniteandworldlyassuch。

BaconwasborninLondonin1561。Hisprogenitorsandrelativesheldhighofficeinthestate，andhisfatherwasKeeperoftheGreatSealtoQueenElizabeth。Heinhisturn，havingbeeneducatedtofollowthesamevocation，atoncedevotedhimselftothebusinessoftheState，andentereduponanimportantcareer。Heearlydisplayedgreattalent，andattheageofnineteenheproducedaworkontheconditionofEurope(DestatuEurop？)。BaconinhisyouthattachedhimselftotheEarlofEssex，thefavouriteofElizabeth，throughwhosesupporthe，whoasayoungersonhadtoseehispaternalestatepasstohiselderbrother，soonattainedtobettercircumstances，andwaselevatedtoahigherposition。Bacon，however，sulliedhisfamebytheutmostingratitudeandfaithlessnesstowardshisprotector；forheisaccusedofhavingbeenprevaileduponbytheenemiesoftheEarlafterhisfalltochargehimpubliclywithHighTreason。UnderJamesI。，thefatherofCharlesI。，whowasbeheaded，aweakman，towhomherecommendedhimselfbyhisworkDeaugmentisscientiarum，hereceivedthemosthonourableofficesofstatebyattachinghimselftoBuckingham:hewasmadeKeeperoftheGreatSeal，LordChancellorofEngland，BaronVerulam。Helikewisemadearichmarriage，thoughhesoonsquanderedallhismeans，andhighthoughhispositionwas，hestoopedtointriguesandwasguiltyofacceptingbribesinthemostbarefacedmanner。Therebyhebroughtuponhimselftheill-willbothofpeopleandofnobles，sothathewasprosecuted，andhiscasewastriedbeforeParliament。HewasfinedL40，000，thrownintotheTower，andhisnamewasstruckoutofthelistofpeers；duringthetrialandwhilehewasinprisonheshowedthegreatestweaknessofcharacter。Hewas，however，liberatedfromprison，andhistrialwasannulled，owingtotheevengreaterhatredofthekingandhisministerBuckingham，underwhoseadministrationBaconhadfilledtheseoffices，andwhosevictimheappearedtohavebeen；forhefellearlierthanhiscomradeBuckingham，andwasdesertedandcondemnedbyhim。Itwasnotsomuchhisinnocenceasthefactthatthosewhoruinedhimhadmadethemselveshatedtoanequaldegreethroughtheirrule，thatcausedthehatredandindignationagainstBacontobesomewhatmitigated。Butheneitherrecoveredhisownsenseofself-respectnorthepersonalesteemofothers，whichhehadlostthroughhisformerconduct。Heretiredintoprivatelife，livedinpoverty，hadtobegsustenancefromtheking，occupiedhimselfduringtheremainderofhislifewithscienceonly，anddiedin1626。(1)

SinceBaconhaseverbeenesteemedasthemanwhodirectedknowledgetoitstruesource，toexperience，heis，infact，thespecialleaderandrepresentativeofwhatisinEnglandcalledPhilosophy，andbeyondwhichtheEnglishhavenotyetadvanced。FortheyappeartoconstitutethatpeopleinEuropewhich，limitedtotheunderstandingofactuality，isdestined，liketheclassofshopkeepersandworkmenintheState，tolivealwaysimmersedinmatter，andtohaveactualitybutnotreasonasobject。BaconwongreatpraisebyshowinghowattentionistobepaidtotheoutwardandinwardmanifestationsofNature，andtheesteeminwhichhisnameisthusheldisgreaterthancanbeascribeddirectlytohismerit。IthasbecometheuniversaltendencyofthetimeandoftheEnglishmodeofreasoning，toproceedfromfacts，andtojudgeinaccordancewiththem。BecauseBacongaveexpressiontothetendency，andmenrequiretohavealeaderandoriginatorforanyparticularmannerofthinking，heiscreditedwithhavinggiventoknowledgethisimpulsetowardsexperimentalphilosophygenerally。Butmanyculturedmenhavespokenandthoughtregardingwhatconcernsandinterestsmankind，regardingstateaffairs，mind，heart，externalnature，&c。，inaccordancewithexperienceandinaccordancewithaculturedknowledgeoftheworld。Baconwasjustsuchaculturedmanoftheworld，whohadseenlifeinitsgreatrelations，hadengagedinstateaffairs，haddealtpracticallywithactuallife，hadobservedmen，theircircumstancesandrelations，andhadworkedwiththemascultured，reflecting，and，wemayevensay，philosophicalmenoftheworld。Hethusdidnotescapethecorruptionofthosewhostoodatthehelmofthestate。Withallthedepravityofhischaracterhewasamanofmindandclearperception；hedidnot，however，possessthepowerofreasoningthroughthoughtsandnotionsthatareuniversal。Wedonotfindinhimamethodicalorscientificmannerofregardingthings，butonlytheexternalreasoningofamanoftheworld。Knowledgeoftheworldhepossessedinthehighestdegree:“richimagination，powerfulwit，andthepenetratingwisdomwhichhedisplaysuponthatmostinterestingofallsubjects，commonlycalledtheworld。ThislastappearstoustohavebeenthecharacteristicalqualityofBacon”sgenius……Itwasmenratherthanthingsthathehadstudied，themistakesofphilosophersratherthantheerrorsofphilosophy。Infacthewasnoloverofabstractreasoning；”andalthoughitpertainstophilosophy，wefindaslittleaspossibleofitinhim。“Hiswritingsareindeedfullofrefinedandmostacuteobservations，butitseldomrequiresanyeffortonourparttoapprehendtheirwisdom。”Hencemottoesareoftenderivedfromhim。

“Hisjudgments，”however，“arecommonlygivenexcathedra，or，ifheendeavourstoelucidatethem，itisbysimilesandillustrationsandpointedanimadversionsmorethanbydirectandappropriatearguments。Generalreasoningisabsolutelyessentialinphilosophy；thewantofitismarkedinBacon”swritings。”(2)Hispracticalwritingsarespeciallyinteresting；butwedonotfindthebrightflashesofgeniusthatweexpected。Asduringhiscareerinthestateheactedinaccordancewithpracticalutility，henow，atitsconclusion，likewiseappliedhimselfinapracticalwaytoscientificendeavours，andconsideredandtreatedthesciencesinaccordancewithconcreteexperienceandinvestigation。Hisisaconsiderationofthepresent，hemakesthemostof，andascribesvaluetoitasitappears；theexistentisthusregardedwithopeneyes，respectispaidtoitastowhatreignspreeminent，andthissensuousperceptionisreverencedandrecognized。Hereaconfidenceonthepartofreasoninitselfandinnatureisawakened；itthinkinglyappliesitselftonature，certainoffindingthetruthinit，sincebothareinthemselvesharmonious。

Baconlikewisetreatedthesciencesmethodically；hedidnotmerelybringforwardopinionsandsentiments，hedidnotmerelyexpresshimselfregardingthesciencesdogmatically，asafinegentlemanmight，buthewentintothematterclosely，andestablishedamethodinrespectofscientificknowledge。Itisonlythroughthismethodofinvestigationintroducedbyhimthatheisnoteworthy—itisinthatwayalonethathecanbeconsideredtobelongtothehistoryofthesciencesandofphilosophy。Andthroughthisprincipleofmethodicalknowledgehehaslikewiseproducedagreateffectuponhistimes，bydrawingattentiontowhatwaslackinginthesciences，bothintheirmethodsandintheircontent。Hesetforththegeneralprinciplesofprocedureinanempiricalphilosophy。ThespiritofthephilosophyofBaconistotakeexperienceasthetrueandonlysourceofknowledge，andthentoregulatethethoughtconcerningit。KnowledgefromexperiencestandsinoppositiontoknowledgearisingfromthespeculativeNotion，andtheoppositionisapprehendedinsoacuteamannerthattheknowledgeproceedingfromtheNotionisashamedoftheknowledgefromexperience，justasthisagaintakesupapositionofantagonismtotheknowledgethroughtheNotion。WhatCicerosaysofSocratesmaybesaidofBacon，thathebroughtPhilosophydowntotheworld，tothehomesandevery-daylivesofmen(Vol。I。p。389)。

ToacertainextentknowledgefromtheabsoluteNotionmayassumeanairofsuperiorityoverthisknowledge；butitisessential，asfarastheIdeaisconcerned，thattheparticularityofthecontentshouldbedeveloped。TheNotionisanessentialmatter，butassuchitsfinitesideisjustasessential。Mindgivespresence，externalexistence，toitself；tocometounderstandthisextension，theworldasitis，thesensuousuniverse，tounderstanditselfasthis，i。e。，withitsmanifest，sensuousextension，isonesideofthings。TheothersideistherelationtotheIdea。Abstractioninandforitselfmustdetermineandparticularizeitself。TheIdeaisconcrete，self-determining，ithastheprincipleofdevelopment；andperfectknowledgeisalwaysdeveloped。AconditionalknowledgeinrespectoftheIdeamerelysignifiesthattheworkingoutofthedevelopmenthasnotyetadvancedveryfar。Butwehavetodealwiththisdevelopment；andforthisdevelopmentanddeterminationoftheparticularfromtheIdea，sothattheknowledgeoftheuniverse，ofnature，maybecultivated—forthis，theknowledgeoftheparticularisnecessary。Thisparticularitymustbeworkedoutonitsownaccount；wemustbecomeacquaintedwithempiricalnature，bothwiththephysicalandwiththehuman。Themeritofmoderntimesistohaveaccomplishedorfurtheredtheseends；itwasinthehighestdegreeunsatisfactorywhentheancientsattemptedthework。

Empiricismisnotmerelyanobserving，hearing，feeling，etc。，aperceptionoftheindividual；foritreallysetstoworktofindthespecies，theuniversal，todiscoverlaws。Nowbecauseitdoesthis，itcomeswithintheterritoryoftheNotion—itbegetswhatpertainstotheregionoftheIdea；itthuspreparestheempiricalmaterialfortheNotion，sothatthelattercanthenreceiveitreadyforitsuse。IfthescienceisperfectedtheIdeamustcertainlyissueforthofitself；scienceassuchnolongercommencesfromtheempiric。Butinorderthatthissciencemaycomeintoexistence，wemusthavetheprogressionfromtheindividualandparticulartotheuniversal—anactivitywhichisareactiononthegivenmaterialofempiricisminordertobringaboutitsreconstruction。Thedemandofaprioriknowledge，whichseemstoimplythattheIdeashouldconstructfromitself，isthusareconstructiononly，orwhatisinreligionaccomplishedthroughsentimentandfeeling。

Withouttheworkingoutoftheempiricalsciencesontheirownaccount，Philosophycouldnothavereachedfurtherthanwiththeancients。ThewholeoftheIdeainitselfisscienceasperfectedandcomplete；buttheothersideisthebeginning，theprocessofitsorigination。Thisprocessoftheoriginationofscienceisdifferentfromitsprocessinitselfwhenitiscomplete，justasistheprocessofthehistoryofPhilosophyandthatofPhilosophyitself。Ineveryscienceprinciplesarecommencedwith；atthefirstthesearetheresultsoftheparticular，butifthescienceiscompletedtheyaremadethebeginning。ThecaseissimilarwithPhilosophy；theworkingoutoftheempiricalsidehasreallybecometheconditioningoftheIdea，sothatthislastmayreachitsfulldevelopmentanddetermination。Forinstance，inorderthatthehistoryofthePhilosophyofmoderntimesmayexist，wemusthaveahistoryofPhilosophyingeneral，theprocessofPhilosophyduringsomanythousandyears；mindmusthavefollowedthislong，roadinorderthatthePhilosophymaybeproduced。Inconsciousnessitthenadoptstheattitudeofhavingcutawaythebridgefrombehindit；itappearstobefreetolaunchforthinitsotheronly，andtodevelopwithoutresistanceinthismedium；butitisanothermattertoattaintothisetherandtodevelopmentinit。WemustnotoverlookthefactthatPhilosophywouldnothavecomeintoexistencewithoutthisprocess，formindisessentiallyaworkinguponsomethingdifferent。

1。Bacon”sfamerestsontwoworks。Inthefirstplace，hehasthemeritofhavinginhisworkDeaugmentisscientiarumpresentedtousasystematicencyclopediaofthesciences，anoutlinewhichmustundoubtedlyhavecausedasensationamongsthiscontemporaries。Itisimportanttosetbeforemen”seyesawellarrangedpicturesuchasthisofthewhole，whenthatwholehasnotbeengraspedinthought。Thisencyclopediagivesageneralclassificationofthesciences；theprinciplesoftheclassificationareregulatedinaccordancewiththedifferencesintheintellectualcapacities。Baconthusdivideshumanlearningaccordingtothefacultiesofmemory，imagination，andreason，forhedistinguisheswhatpertains(1)tomemory；(2)toimagination；(3)toreason。

Undermemoryheconsideredhistory；underimagination，poetry，andart；andfinally，underreason，philosophy。(3)Accordingtohisfavouritemethodofdivisiontheseagainarefurtherdivided，sincehebringsallelseunderthesesameheads；thisis，however，unsatisfactory。TohistorybelongtheworksofGod—sacred，prophetic，ecclesiasticalhistory；theworksofmen—

civilandliteraryhistory；andlikewisetheworksofnature，andsoon。(4)Hegoesthroughthesetopicsafterthemannerofhistime，amaincharacteristicofwhichisthatanythingcanbemadeplausiblethroughexamples，e。g。，fromtheBible。Thus，intreatingofCosmetica，hesaysinregardtopaintthat“Heissurprisedthatthisdepravedcustomofpaintinghasbeenbythepenallawsbothecclesiasticalandcivilsolongoverlooked。IntheBiblewereadindeedofJezebelthatshepaintedherface；butnothingofthekindissaidofEstherorJudith。”(5)Ifkings，popes，etc。，arebeingdiscussed，suchexamplesasthoseofAhabandSolomonmustbebroughtforward。Asformerlyincivillaws—thoserespectingmarriage，forinstance—theJewishformsheldgood，inPhilosophy，too，thesamearestilltobefound。Inthisworktheologylikewiseappearsasalsomagic；thereiscontainedinitacomprehensivesystemofknowledgeandofthesciences。

ThearrangementofthesciencesistheleastsignificantpartoftheworkDeaugmentisscientiarum。Itwasbyitscriticismthatitsvaluewasestablishedanditseffectproduced，asalsobythenumberofinstructiveremarkscontainedinit；allthiswasatthattimelackingintheparticularvarietiesoflearningandmodesofdiscipline，especiallyinasfarasthemethodshithertoadoptedwerefaulty，andunsuitabletotheendsinview:inthemtheAristotelianconceptionsoftheschoolswerespunoutbytheunderstandingasthoughtheywererealities。AsitwaswiththeSchoolmenandwiththeancients，thisclassificationisstillthemodeadoptedinthesciences，inwhichthenatureofknowledgeisunknown。Inthemtheideaofthescienceisadvancedbeforehand，andtothisideaaprincipleforeigntoitisadded，asabasisofdivision，justashereisaddedthedistinctionbetweenmemory，imaginationandreason。Thetruemethodofdivisionisfoundintheself-divisionoftheNotion，itsseparatingitselffromitself。Inknowledgethemomentofself-consciousnessisundoubtedlyfound，andtherealself-consciousnesshasinitthemomentsofmemory，imaginationandreason。ButthisdivisioniscertainlynottakenfromtheNotionofself-consciousness，butfromexperience，inwhichself-consciousnessfindsitselfpossessedofthesecapacities。

2。TheotherremarkablefeatureinBaconisthatinhissecondwork，hisOrganon，hesoughtatgreatlengthtoestablishanewmethodinlearning；inthisregardhisnameisstillheldgreatlyinhonourbymany。Whatchieflydistinguisheshissystemishispolemicalattitudetowardsscholasticmethodsastheyhadhithertoexisted，towardssyllogisticforms。Hecallsthesemethodsanticipationesnatur？；inthemmenbeginwithpre-suppositions，definitions，acceptedideas，withascholasticabstraction，andreasonfurtherfromthesewithoutregardingthatwhichispresentinactuality。ThusregardingGodandHismethodsofoperatinginnature，regardingdevils，&c。，theymakeuseofpassagesfromtheBible，suchas“Sun，standthoustill，”inordertodeducetherefromcertainmetaphysicalpropositionsfromwhichtheygofurtherstill。ItwasagainstthisapriorimethodthatBacondirectedhispolemic；asagainsttheseanticipationsofnaturehecalledattentiontotheexplanation，theinterpretationofnature。(6)“Thesameactionofmind，”hesays，“whichdiscoversathinginquestion，judgesit；andtheoperationisnotperformedbythehelpofanymiddleterm，butdirectly，almostinthesamemannerasbythesense。Forthesenseinitsprimaryobjectsatonceapprehendstheappearanceoftheobject，andconsentstothetruththereof。”(7)ThesyllogismisaltogetherrejectedbyBacon。Asamatteroffact，thisAristoteliandeductionisnotaknowledgethroughitselfinaccordancewithitscontent:itrequiresaforeignuniversalasitsbasis，andforthatreasonitsmovementisinitsformcontingent。Thecontentisnotinunitywiththeform，andthisformishenceinitselfcontingent，becauseit，consideredonitsownaccount，isthemovementonwardsinaforeigncontent。Themajorpremiseisthecontentexistentforitself，theminorislikewisethecontentnotthroughitself，foritgoesbackintotheinfinite，i。e。，ithasnottheforminitself；theformisnotthecontent。Theoppositemayalwaysbemadeoutequallywellthroughthesyllogism，foritisamatterofindifferencetothisformwhatcontentismadeitsbasis。“Dialecticdoesnotassistinthediscoveryofthearts；manyartswerefoundoutbychance。”(8)

Itwasnotagainstthissyllogismgenerally，i。e。，notagainsttheNotionofit(forBacondidnotpossessthis)，butagainstdeductionasitwasputintooperation，asitwastothescholastics—thedeductionwhichtookanassumedcontentasitsbasis—thatBacondeclaimed，urgingthatthecontentofexperienceshouldbemadethebasis，andthemethodofinductionpursued。Hedemandedthatobservationsonnatureandexperimentsshouldbemadefundamental，andpointedouttheobjectswhoseinvestigationwasofspecialimportanceintheinterestsofhumansociety，andsoon。Fromthistherethenresultedtheestablishmentofconclusionsthroughinductionandanalogy。(9)Infactitwasonlytoanalterationinthecontentthat，withoutbeingawareofit，Baconwasimpelled。Forthoughherejectedthesyllogismandonlypermittedconclusionstobereachedthroughinduction，heunconsciouslyhimselfdrewdeductions；likewiseallthesechampionsofempiricism，whofollowedafterhim，andwhoputintopracticewhathedemanded，andthoughttheycouldbyobservations，experimentsandexperiences，keepthematterinquestionpure，couldneithersodowithoutdrawingdeductions，norwithoutintroducingconceptions；andtheydrewtheirdeductionsandformedtheirnotionsandconceptionsallthemorefreelybecausetheythoughtthattheyhadnothingtodowithconceptionsatall；nordidtheygoforthfromdeductiontoimmanent，trueknowledge。ThuswhenBaconsetupinductioninoppositiontothesyllogism，thisoppositionisformal；eachinductionisalsoadeduction，whichfactwasknowneventoAristotle。

Forifauniversalisdeducedfromanumberofthings，thefirstpropositionreads，“Thesebodieshavethesequalities；”thesecond，“Allthesebodiesbelongtooneclass；”andthus，inthethirdplace，thisclasshasthesequalities。Thatisaperfectsyllogism。Inductionalwayssignifiesthatobservationsareinstituted，experimentsmade，experienceregarded，andfromthistheuniversaldeterminationisderived。

Wehavealreadycalledtomindhowimportantitistoleadontothecontentasthecontentofactuality，ofthepresent；fortherationalmusthaveobjectivetruth。Thereconciliationofspiritwiththeworld，theglorificationofnatureandofallactuality，mustnotbeaBeyond，aFuturity，butmustbeaccomplishednowandhere。Itisthismomentofthenowandherewhichtherebycomesintoself-consciousness。Butthosewhomakeexperimentsandobservations，donotrealizewhattheyarereallydoing，forthesoleinteresttakenbytheminthings，isowingtotheinwardandunconsciouscertaintywhichreasonhasoffindingitselfinactuality；andobservationsandexperiments，ifentereduponinarightway，resultinshowingthattheNotionistheonlyobjectiveexistence。Thesensuousindividualeludestheexperimentsevenwhileitisbeingoperatedupon，andbecomesauniversal；thebestknownexampleofthisistobefoundinpositiveandnegativeelectricityinsofarasitispositiveandnegative。Thereisanothershortcomingofaformalnature，andoneofwhichallempiricistspartake，—thatisthattheybelievethemselvestobekeepingtoexperiencealone；itistothemanunknownfactthatinreceivingtheseperceptionstheyareindulginginmetaphysics。Mandoesnotstopshortattheindividual，norcanhedoso。Heseekstheuniversal，butthoughts，evenifnotNotionslikewise，arewhatconstitutethesame。Themostremarkablethought-formisthatofforce；wethusspeakoftheforceofelectricity，ofmagnetism，ofgravity。Force，however，isauniversalandnotaperceptible；quiteuncriticallyandunconsciouslytheempiriciststhuspermitofdeterminationssuchasthese。

3。BaconfinallygivestheobjectswithwhichPhilosophymainlyhastodeal。Theseobjectscontrastmuchwiththatwhichwederivefromperceptionandexperience。“InthesummarywhichBacongivesofwhatheconceivesoughttobetheobjectsofphilosophicalinquiry，arethefollowing；andweselectthosewhichheprincipallydwellsuponinhisworks:‘Theprolongationoflife；therestitutionofyouthinsomedegree；theretardationofoldage，andthealteringofstatures；thealteringoffeatures；versionsofbodiesintootherbodies；makingofnewspecies；impressionoftheairandraisingtempests；greaterpleasuresofthesenses，&c。””Helikewisedealswithobjectssuchasthese，andheseekstodirectattentionuponwhetherintheirregardthemeanscouldnotbefoundtocarryouttheirends；insuchpowersweshouldbeabletomakesomeprogress。“Hecomplainsthatsuchinvestigationshavebeenneglectedbythosewhombedesignatesignaviregionumexploratores。InhisNaturalHistoryhegivesformalreceiptsformakinggold，andperformingmanywonders。”(10)Baconthusdoesnotbyanymeanstaketheintelligentstandpointofaninvestigationofnature，beingstillinvolvedinthegrossestsuperstition，falsemagic，&c。Thiswefindtobeonthewholepropoundedinanintelligentway，andBaconthusremainswithintheconceptionsofhistime。“Theconversionofsilver，quicksilver，oranyothermetalintogoldisathingdifficulttobelieve，yetitisfarmoreprobablethatamanwhoknowsclearlythenaturesofweight，ofthecolourofyellow，ofmalleability，andextension，ofvolatilityandfixedness，andwhohasalsomadediligentsearchintothefirstseedsandmenstruumsofminerals，mayatlastbymuchandsagaciousendeavourproducegold，thanthatafewgrainsofanelixirmaysodo……

Soagainamanwhoknowswellthenatureofrarefaction，ofassimilation，andofalimentation，shallbydiets，bathings，andthelikeprolonglife，orinsomedegreerenewthevigourofyouth。”(11)

Theseassertionsarethusnotascrudeastheyatfirstappear。IndealingwithMedicineBaconspeaksamongstotherthingsofmaceration(Malacissatioperexterius)(12)andsoforth。

Baconemphasizeswhathasreferencetotheformalaspectofinvestigation。Forhesays，“Naturalphilosophyisdividedintotwoparts，thefirstconsistsintheinvestigationofcauses；thesecondintheproductionofeffects；thecausestobeinvestigatedareeitherfinalorformalcauses，orelsematerialorefficientcauses。Theformerconstitutesmetaphysics；thelatterphysics。ThislastBaconlooksuponasabranchofphilosophyveryinferiorinpointofdignityandimportancetotheotherandaccordinglytoascertainthemostprobablemeansofimprovingourknowledgeofmetaphysicsisthegreatobjectofhisOrganon。"(13)Hehimselfsays:“Itisacorrectpositionthat‘trueknowledgeisknowledgebycauses。Andcauses，again，arenotimproperly，distributedintofourkind:thematerial，theformal，theefficient，andthefinal。””(14)(Vol。I。p。174，Vol。II。p。138。)

ButinthisconnectionanimportantpointisthatBaconhasturnedagainsttheteleologicalinvestigationofnature，againsttheinvestigationintofinalcauses。“Theinvestigationoffinalcausesisuseless；theycorruptratherthanadvancethesciencesexceptsuchashavetodowithhumanaction。”(15)ToBacontheimportantmatteristoinvestigatebythestudyofcaus？efficientes。

Totheconsiderationoffinalcausessuchassertionsasthesebelong:“Thatthehairsoftheeyelidsareforaprotectiontotheeyes；thatthethickskinsandhidesoflivingcreaturesaretodefendthemfromheatandcold；thatthetreeshaveleavessothatthefruitmaynotsufferfromsunandwind”(16):thehairisontheheadonaccountofwarmth；thunderandlightningarethepunishmentofGod，orelsetheymakefruitfultheearth；marmotssleepduringthewinterbecausetheycanfindnothingtoeat；snailshaveashellinorderthattheymaybesecureagainstattacks；thebeeisprovidedwithasting。AccordingtoBaconthishasbeenworkedoutininnumerabledifferentways。Thenegativeandexternalsideofutilityisturnedround，andthelackofthisadaptationtoendislikewisedrawnwithinthesameembrace。Itmay，forexample，besaidthatifsunormoonweretoshineatalltimes，thepolicemightsavemuchmoney，andthiswouldprovidemenwithfoodanddrinkforwholemonthstogether。ItwasrightthatBaconshouldsethimselftoopposethisinvestigationintofinalcauses，becauseitrelatestoexternalexpediency，justasKantwasrightindistinguishingtheinwardteleologyfromtheoutward。Asagainsttheexternalend，thereis，infact，theinwardend，i。e。theinwardNotionofthethingitself，aswefounditearlierinAristotle(Vol。II。pp。166-163)。Becausetheorganismpossessesaninwardadaptationtoitsends，itsmembersareindeedlikewiseexternallyadaptedasregardsoneanother；buttheends，asexternalends，areheterogeneoustotheindividual，areunconnectedwiththeobjectwhichisinvestigated。Speakinggenerally，theNotionofnatureisnotinnatureitself，whichwouldmeanthattheendwasinnatureitself；butasteleological，theNotionissomethingforeigntoit。Itdoesnothavetheendinitselfinsuchawaythatwehavetoaccordrespecttoit—astheindividualmanhashisendinhimselfandhencehastoberespected。Buteventheindividualmanasindividualhasonlyarighttorespectfromtheindividualassuch，andnotfromtheuniversal。Hewhoactsinthenameoftheuniversal，ofthestate，asageneraldoesforinstance，doesnotrequiretorespecttheindividualatall；forthelatter，althoughanendinhimself，doesnotceasetoberelative。Heisthisendinhimself，notasexcludinghimselfandsettinghimselfinopposition，butonlyinsofarashistruerealityistheuniversalNotion。Theendoftheanimalinitselfasanindividualisitsownself-preservation；butitstrueendinitselfisthespecies。Itsself-preservationisnotinvolvedinthis；

fortheself-preservationofitsindividualityisdisadvantageoustothespecies，whiletheabrogationofitselfisfavourablethereto。

NowBaconseparatestheuniversalprincipleandtheefficientcause，andforthatreasonheremovesinvestigationintoendsfromphysicstometaphysics。OrherecognizestheNotion，notasuniversalinnature，butonlyasnecessity，i。e。asauniversalwhichpresentsitselfintheoppositionofitsmoments，notonewhichhasboundthemintoaunity—inotherwordsheonlyacknowledgesacomprehensionofonedeterminatefromanotherdeterminategoingonintoinfinity，andnotofbothfromtheirNotion。Baconhasthusmadeinvestigationintotheefficientcausemoregeneral，andheassertsthatthisinvestigationalonebelongstophysics，althoughbeallowsthatbothkindsofinvestigationmayexistsidebyside。(17)Throughthatviewheeffectedagreatdeal，andinsofarasithascounteractedthesenselesssuperstitionwhichintheGermanicnationsfarexceededinitshorrorsandabsurditythatoftheancientworld，ithastheverymeritwhichwemetwithintheEpicureanphilosophy。ThatphilosophyopposeditselftothesuperstitiousStoicsandtosuperstitiongenerally—whichlastmakesanyexistencethatwesetbeforeourselvesintoacause(aBeyondwhichismadetoexistinasensuouswayandtooperateasacause)，ormakestwosensuousthingswhichhavenorelationoperateononeanother。ThispolemicofBacon”sagainstspectres，astrology，magic，&c。，(18)cancertainlynotberegardedexactlyasPhilosophylikehisotherreflections，butitisatleastofservicetoculture。

Healsoadvisesthatattentionshouldbedirectedtoformalcauses，theformsofthings，andthattheyshouldberecognized。(19)“ButtogiveanexactdefinitionofthemeaningwhichBaconattachestothephraseformalcausesisratherdifficult；becausehislanguageuponthissubjectisuncertaininaveryremarkabledegree。”(20)“Itmaybethoughtthatheunderstoodbythistheimmanentdeterminationsofthings，thelawsofnature；asamatteroffacttheformsarenoneelsethanuniversaldeterminations，species，&c。”(21)Hesays:“Thediscoveryoftheformalisdespairedof。Theefficientandthematerial(astheyareinvestigatedandreceived，thatisasremotecauses，withoutreferencetothelatentprocessleadingtotheforms)arebutslightandsuperficial，andcontributelittle，ifanything，totrueandactivescience。Forthoughinnaturenothingreallyexistsbesideindividualbodies，performingpureindividualactsaccordingtoafixedlaw，yetinphilosophythisverylaw，andtheinvestigation，discoveryandexplanationofit，isthefoundationaswellofknowledgeasofoperation。Anditisthislaw，withitsclauses，thatImeanwhenIspeakofForms……LettheinvestigationofFormswhichareeternalandimmutableconstitutemetaphysics。

WhosoeverisacquaintedwithFormsembracestheunityofnatureinsubstancesthemostunlike。”

(22)Hegoesthroughthisindetail，andquotesmanyexamplestoillustrateit，suchasthatofHeat。

“Mindmustraiseitselffromdifferencestospecies。Thewarmthofthesunandthatofthefirearediverse。Weseethatgrapesripenbythewarmthofthesun。Buttoseewhetherthewarmthofthesunisspecific，wealsoobserveotherwarmth，andwefindthatgrapeslikewiseripeninawarmroom；thisprovesthatthewarmthofthesunisnotspecific。”(23)

“Physic，”hesays，“directsusthroughnarrowruggedpathsinimitationofthecrookedwaysofnature。Buthethatunderstandsaformknowstheultimatepossibilityofsuperinducingthatnatureuponallkindsofmatter；thatistosay，ashehimselfinterpretsthislastexpression，isabletosuperinducethenatureofgolduponsilver，”thatistosaytomakegoldfromsilver，“andtoperformallthoseothermarvelstowhichthealchymistspretended。Theerroroftheselastconsistedaloneinhopingtoarriveattheseendsbyfabulousandfantasticalmethods；”thetruemethodistorecognizetheseforms。“OneleadingobjectoftheInstauratioMagnaandoftheNovumOrganonistopointoutthenecessityofascertainingtheformalcausesandlogicalrules。”