第35章

Hisdoctrine，onceestablished，isslowtofollowthefluctuationsofhusbandryandpolitics：whileinbothdepartmentsnewfactsareevercroppingupandgatheringstrength，whichhavetofighttheirwayagainsttherigidityofjurisprudencebeforetheyareacceptedbyit。Ontheotherhand，notionsofoldstandingandtenacioustraditioncannotbeputawayatonce，sosoonassomenewdeparturehasbeentakenbyjurists；andevenwhentheydieoutatcommonlawsuchnotionspersistinlocalhabitsandpracticallife。Forthesereasons，whichholdgoodmoreorlesseverywhere，andareespeciallyconspicuousinmediaevalhistory，thegeneralrelationbetweenlegalandmanorialdocumentsbecomesespeciallyimportant。Itwillwidenandstrengthenconclusionsdrawnfromtheanalysisoflegaltheory。Wemaybesuretofindinthirteenth-centurydocumentsofpracticaladministrationthefoundationsofasystemwhichprevailedatlawinthefifteenth。Andwhatismuchmoreinteresting，wemaybesuretofindinlocalcustomariesthetracesofasystemwhichhaditsdaylongbeforethethirteenthcentury，butwasstilllingeringinbrokenremains。

Bractondefinesvillainageasaconditionofmenwhodonotknowintheeveningwhatworkandhowmuchtheywillhavetoperformnextmorning。Thecorrespondingtenureisentirelyprecariousanduncertainatlaw。Butthesefundamentalpositionsoflegaldoctrinewefindopposedindailylifetotheall-controllingruleofcustom。Thepeasantknowsexactlyonwhatdayshebastoappearpersonallyorbyrepresentativeatploughingsandreapings，howmanyloadsheisboundtocarry，andhowmanyeggsheisexpectedtobringatEaster；(1*)inmostcasesheknowsalsowhatwillberequiredfromhimwhenheinheritsfromhisfatherormarrieshisdaughter。Thiscustomaryarrangementofdutiesdoesnotfindanyexpressionincommonlaw，andviceversatheruleofcommonlawdwindlesdownindailylifetoadefinitionofpowerwhichmaybeexercisedinexceptionalcases。Theoppositionbetweenourtwosetsofrecordsisevidentlyconnectedinthiscasewiththeirdifferentwayoftreatingfacts。

Manorialextentsandinquestsgiveinthemselvesonlyaone-sidedpictureofmediaevalvillagelife，becausetheydescribeitonlyfromthepointofviewoftheholding；peoplewhodonotownlandareveryseldomnoticed，andamongthepopulationsettledonthelandonlythosepersonsarenamedwho’defend’thetenementinregardtothelord。Onlythechiefofthehouseholdappears；thisisamatterofcourse。Hemayhavemanyorfewchildren，manyorfewwomenengagedonhisplot：theextentwillnotmakeanydifferenceinthedescriptionofthetenementandofitsservices。Butalthoughveryincompleteinthisimportantrespect，manorialrecordsallowusmanyaglimpseattheprocesswhichwaspreparingagreatchangeinthelawHiredlabourersarefrequentlymentionedinstewards’accounts，andthe’undersette’and’levingmen’and’anelipemen’(2*)oftheextentscorrespondevidentlytothisfluctuatingpopulationofruralworkmenandsquattersgatheringbehindthescreenofrecognisedpeasantholders。

Theveryfoundationofthemediaevalsystem，itsorganisationofworkaccordingtoequalisedholdingsandaroundamanorialcentre，isincourseoftimeunderminedbytheprocessofcommutation。Villainsarereleasedfromploughingsandreapings，fromcarriage-dutiesandboonworkbypayingcertainrents；theybargainwiththelordforasurrenderofhisrightofarbitrarytaxationandarbitraryamercement；theytakeleasesofhouses，arableandmeadows。Thisimportantmovementisdirectlynoticedbythelawinsofarasittakestheshapeofanincreaseinthenumberoffreeholdersandoffreeholdtenements；chartersandinstrumentsofconveyancemaybeconcernedwithit。Buttheprocessischieflyapparentinastandingcontradictionwiththelaw。Legallyanarrangementwithavillaineitheroughtnottobindthelordorelseoughttodestroyhispower。Eveninlawbooks，however，theintermediateformofabindingcovenantwiththevillainemerges，aswehaveseen，inoppositiontotheconsistenttheory。Inpracticethevillainsareconstantlyfoundpossessedof’soclands，’’forlands，’andfreeholds。Thepassagefromobligatorylab