第30章

Twoimportantfactorsco-operatedtogivethecountryanexceptionallyprivilegedposition。EnglandwastheonlycountryinEuropewithafirmlyconstitutedgovernment。TheNormanConquesthadpowerfullyworkedinthesenseofsocialfeudalism，butithadarrestedthedisruptivetendenciesofpoliticalfeudalism。Theoppositionbetweenthetworaces，thenecessityforbothtokeeptogether，thecomplexityofpoliticalquestionswhicharosefromconquestandsettlementontheonehand，fromtheintercoursewithNormandyandFranceontheother，——alltheseagenciesworkingtogetheraccountforaremarkableintensityofactiononthepartofthecentripetalforcesofsociety，ifImayusetheexpression：therewasinEnglandaconstanttendencytowardstheconcentrationandorganisationofpoliticalpowerinsharpcontrastwiththerestofEuropewherethestatehadfallenapreytolocalandprivateinterests。OneoftheexternalresultsofsuchaconditionwasthegrowthofaroyalpowersupportedbythesympathyofthelowerEnglish-bornclasses，butarrangingsocietybythehelpofNormanprinciplesoffiscaladministration。Notlessmomentouswastheformationofanaristocracywhichwascompelledtoactasaclassinsteadofactingasamerecollectionofindividualseachstrivingforhisownparticularadvantage；asaclassithadtoreckonwith，andsometimesrepresent，theinterestsandrequirementsofotherclasses。InalltheserespectsEnglandwasmuchaheadofGermany，wheretribaldivisionsweremorepowerfulthannationalunity，andthestatehadtoformitselfonfeudalfoundationsinoppositiontoacosmopolitanImperialpower；itwasnotlessinadvanceofFrance，wheretheworkofunification，egotisticallyundertakenbytheking，hadhardlybeguntogettheupperhandinitsconflictwithlocaldynasties；notlessinadvanceofItaly，sowellsituatedforeconomicprogress，butpoliticallywreckedbyitsunhappyconnexionwithGermany，theanti-nationalinfluenceofthePapacy，andtheone-sideddevelopmentofmunicipalinstitutions。ByreasonofitspoliticaladvantagesEnglandhadthestartofotherEuropeancountriesbyawholecenturyandevenbytwocenturies。The’silverstreak’actedalreadyasaprotectionagainstforeigninroads，theexistenceofacentralpowerinsuredcivilorder，intercoursebetweenthedifferentpartsoftheislandopenedoutletstotrade，andreactedfavourablyontheexchangeofcommoditiesandthecirculationofmoney。

Anothersetofcausesoperatedinclosealliancewiththesepoliticalinfluences。ThepositionofEnglandinrelationtotheEuropeanmarketwasfromthefirstanadvantageousone。besidesthenaturaldevelopmentofseafaringpursuitswhichleadtointernationaltrade，andalwaystendtoquickentheeconomicprogress，thereweretwospecialreasonstoaccountforaspeedymovementinthenewdirection：thewoollentradewithFlandersbeginstoriseinthetwelfthcentury，andthisisthemostimportantcommercialfeatureinthelifeofNorth-WesternEurope；

thenagain，thepossessionofNormandyandtheoccupationofAquitaineandotherprovincesofFrancebytheEnglishopenedmarketsandroadsforaverybriskcommercialintercoursewiththeContinent。AsanoutcomeofallthesepoliticalandeconomicalconditionswefindtheEnglandofthethirteenthcenturyundoubtedlymovingfromnaturalhusbandrytothemoney-system。

Theconsequencesaretobeseenoneverysideinthearrangementsofstateandsociety。Themeansofgovernmentweremodifiedbytheeconomicchange。Hiredtroopstooktheplaceoffeudallevies；kingseasilyrenouncedthemilitaryserviceoftheirtenantsandtookscutageswhichgivethemthemeansofkeepingsubmissiveandwell-drilledsoldiers。Thesameprocesstookplaceallthroughthecountryonthelandofsecularandecclesiasticallords。Theyallpreferredtakingmoneywhichissoreadilyspentandsoeasytokeep，whichmaytransformitselfequallywellintogorgeouspageantsandintocapitalforcarryingonwork，insteadofexactingold-fashionedunwieldlyploughingsandreapingsorequallyclumsyrentsinkind。

Ontheotherhand，thepeasantswereequallyanxioustogetoutofthecustomarysystem：throughitsorganisationoflabouritinvolvednecessarilymanyannoyances，pettyexactionsandcoercion；itinvolvedagreatwasteoftimeandenergy。Thelandlordgainedbythechange，becausehereceivedaneconomicinstrumentofgreaterefficiency；thepeasantgainedbecausehegotridofpersonalsubjectiontocontrol；bothgained；forawholesystemofadministration，awholeclassofadministrators，stewards，bailiffs，reeves，awholemassofcumbrousaccountsandarchaicprocedurebecameunnecessary。

Inrealitythepeasantrygainedmuchmorethanthelord。Justbecausemoneyrentsdisplacedtheploughingsandreapingsverygradually，theyassumedthemostimportantcharacteristicoftheselatter——theircustomaryuniformity；traditionkeptthematacer