第8章

12

Childrenareverycommonlysubjecttoconvulsions，moreespeciallysuchofthemasaremorethanordinarilywell-nourishedonrichorunusuallyplentifulmilkfromastoutnurse。Wineisbadforinfants，inthatittendstoexcitethismalady，andredwineisworsethanwhite，especiallywhentakenundiluted；andmostthingsthattendtoinduceflatulencyarealsobad，andconstipationtooisprejudicial。Themajorityofdeathsininfancyoccurbeforethechildisaweekold，henceitiscustomarytonamethechildatthatage，fromabeliefthatithasnowabetterchanceofsurvival。Thismaladyisworstatthefullofthemoon；andbytheway，itisadangeroussymptomwhenthespasmsbegininthechild\'sback。

BookVIII

1

WEhavenowdiscussedthephysicalcharacteristicsofanimalsandtheirmethodsofgeneration。Theirhabitsandtheirmodesoflivingvaryaccordingtotheircharacterandtheirfood。

Inthegreatmajorityofanimalstherearetracesofpsychicalqualitiesorattitudes，whichqualitiesaremoremarkedlydifferentiatedinthecaseofhumanbeings。Forjustaswepointedoutresemblancesinthephysicalorgans，soinanumberofanimalsweobservegentlenessorfierceness，mildnessorcrosstemper，courage，ortimidity，fearorconfidence，highspiritorlowcunning，and，withregardtointelligence，somethingequivalenttosagacity。Someofthesequalitiesinman，ascomparedwiththecorrespondingqualitiesinanimals，differonlyquantitatively:thatistosay，amanhasmoreorlessofthisquality，andananimalhasmoreorlessofsomeother；

otherqualitiesinmanarerepresentedbyanalogousandnotidenticalqualities:forinstance，justasinmanwefindknowledge，wisdom，andsagacity，soincertainanimalsthereexistssomeothernaturalpotentialityakintothese。Thetruthofthisstatementwillbethemoreclearlyapprehendedifwehaveregardtothephenomenaofchildhood:forinchildrenmaybeobservedthetracesandseedsofwhatwillonedaybesettledpsychologicalhabits，thoughpsychologicallyachildhardlydiffersforthetimebeingfromananimal；sothatoneisquitejustifiedinsayingthat，asregardsmanandanimals，certainpsychicalqualitiesareidenticalwithoneanother，whilstothersresemble，andothersareanalogousto，eachother。

Natureproceedslittlebylittlefromthingslifelesstoanimallifeinsuchawaythatitisimpossibletodeterminetheexactlineofdemarcation，noronwhichsidethereofanintermediateformshouldlie。Thus，nextafterlifelessthingsintheupwardscalecomestheplant，andofplantsonewilldifferfromanotherastoitsamountofapparentvitality；and，inaword，thewholegenusofplants，whilstitisdevoidoflifeascomparedwithananimal，isendowedwithlifeascomparedwithothercorporealentities。Indeed，aswejustremarked，thereisobservedinplantsacontinuousscaleofascenttowardstheanimal。So，inthesea，therearecertainobjectsconcerningwhichonewouldbeatalosstodeterminewhethertheybeanimalorvegetable。Forinstance，certainoftheseobjectsarefairlyrooted，andinseveralcasesperishifdetached；thusthepinnaisrootedtoaparticularspot，andthesolen(orrazor-shell)cannotsurvivewithdrawalfromitsburrow。Indeed，broadlyspeaking，theentiregenusoftestaceanshavearesemblancetovegetables，iftheybecontrastedwithsuchanimalsasarecapableofprogression。

Inregardtosensibility，someanimalsgivenoindicationwhatsoeverofit，whilstothersindicateitbutindistinctly。Further，thesubstanceofsomeoftheseintermediatecreaturesisfleshlike，asisthecasewiththeso-calledtethya(orascidians)andtheacalephae(orsea-anemones)；butthespongeisineveryrespectlikeavegetable。Andsothroughouttheentireanimalscalethereisagraduateddifferentiationinamountofvitalityandincapacityformotion。

Asimilarstatementholdsgoodwithregardtohabitsoflife。

Thusofplantsthatspringfromseedtheonefunctionseemstobethereproductionoftheirownparticularspecies，andthesphereofactionwithcertainanimalsissimilarlylimited。Thefacultyofreproduction，then，iscommontoallalike。Ifsensibilitybesuperadded，thentheirliveswilldifferfromoneanotherinrespecttosexualintercoursethroughthevaryingamountofpleasurederivedtherefrom，andalsoinregardtomodesofparturitionandwaysofrearingtheiryoung。Someanimals，likeplants，simplyprocreatetheirownspeciesatdefiniteseasons；otheranimalsbusythemselvesalsoinprocuringfoodfortheiryoung，andaftertheyarerearedquitthemandhavenofurtherdealingswiththem；otheranimalsaremoreintelligentandendowedwithmemory，andtheylivewiththeiroffspringforalongerperiodandonamoresocialfooting。

Thelifeofanimals，then，maybedividedintotwoacts-procreationandfeeding；foronthesetwoactsalltheirinterestsandlifeconcentrate。Theirfooddependschieflyonthesubstanceofwhichtheyareseverallyconstituted；forthesourceoftheirgrowthinallcaseswillbethissubstance。Andwhatsoeverisinconformitywithnatureispleasant，andallanimalspursuepleasureinkeepingwiththeirnature。

2

Animalsarealsodifferentiatedlocally:thatistosay，someliveupondryland，whileothersliveinthewater。Andthisdifferentiationmaybeinterpretedintwodifferentways。Thus，someanimalsaretermedterrestrialasinhalingair，andothersaquaticastakinginwater；andthereareotherswhichdonotactuallytakeintheseelements，butneverthelessareconstitutionallyadaptedtothecoolinginfluence，sofarasisneedfultothem，ofoneelementortheother，andhencearecalledterrestrialoraquaticthoughtheyneitherbreatheairnortakeinwater。Again，otheranimalsaresocalledfromtheirfindingtheirfoodandfixingtheirhabitatonlandorinwater:

formanyanimals，althoughtheyinhaleairandbreedonland，yetderivetheirfoodfromthewater，andliveinwaterforthegreaterpartoftheirlives；andthesearetheonlyanimalstowhichaslivinginandontwoelementstheterm\'amphibious\'isapplicable。Thereisnoanimaltakinginwaterthatisterrestrialoraerialorthatderivesitsfoodfromtheland，whereasofthegreatnumberoflandanimalsinhalingairmanygettheirfoodfromthewater；moreoversomearesopeculiarlyorganizedthatiftheybeshutoffaltogetherfromthewatertheycannotpossiblylive，asforinstance，theso-calledsea-turtle，thecrocodile，thehippopotamus，theseal，andsomeofthesmallercreatures，suchasthefresh-watertortoiseandthefrog:

nowalltheseanimalschokeordrowniftheydonotfromtimetotimebreatheatmosphericair:theybreedandreartheiryoungondryland，orneartheland，buttheypasstheirlivesinwater。

Butthedolphinisequippedinthemostremarkablewayofallanimals:thedolphinandothersimilaraquaticanimals，includingtheothercetaceanswhichresembleit；thatistosay，thewhale，andalltheothercreaturesthatarefurnishedwithablow-hole。Onecanhardlyallowthatsuchananimalisterrestrialandterrestrialonly，oraquaticandaquaticonly，ifbyterrestrialwemeanananimalthatinhalesair，andifbyaquaticwemeanananimalthattakesinwater。Forthefactisthedolphinperformsboththeseprocesses:hetakesinwateranddischargesitbyhisblow-hole，andhealsoinhalesairintohislungs；for，bytheway，thecreatureisfurnishedwiththisorganandrespiresthereby，andaccordingly，whencaughtinthenets，heisquicklysuffocatedforlackofair。Hecanalsoliveforaconsiderablewhileoutofthewater，butallthiswhilehekeepsupadullmoaningsoundcorrespondingtothenoisemadebyair-breathinganimalsingeneral；furthermore，whensleeping，theanimalkeepshisnoseabovewater，andhedoessothathemaybreathetheair。Nowitwouldbeunreasonabletoassignoneandthesameclassofanimalstobothcategories，terrestrialandaquatic，seeingthatthesecategoriesaremoreorlessexclusiveofoneanother；wemustaccordinglysupplementourdefinitionoftheterm\'aquatic\'or\'marine\'。Forthefactis，someaquaticanimalstakeinwateranddischargeitagain，forthesamereasonthatleadsair-breathinganimalstoinhaleair:inotherwords，withtheobjectofcoolingtheblood。Otherstakeinwaterasincidentaltotheirmodeoffeeding；forastheygettheirfoodinthewatertheycannotbuttakeinwateralongwiththeirfood，andiftheytakeinwatertheymustbeprovidedwithsomeorganfordischargingit。Thosebloodedanimals，then，thatusewaterforapurposeanalogoustorespirationareprovidedwithgills；andsuchastakeinwaterwhencatchingtheirprey，withtheblow-hole。Similarremarksareapplicabletomolluscsandcrustaceans；foragainitisbywayofprocuringfoodthatthesecreaturestakeinwater。

Aquaticindifferentways，thedifferencesdependingonbodilyrelationtoexternaltemperatureandonhabitoflife，aresuchanimalsontheonehandastakeinairbutliveinwater，andsuchontheotherhandastakeinwaterandarefurnishedwithgillsbutgoupondrylandandgettheirlivingthere。Atpresentonlyoneanimalofthelatterkindisknown，theso-calledcordylusorwater-newt；

thiscreatureisfurnishednotwithlungsbutwithgills，butforallthatitisaquadrupedandfittedforwalkingondryland。

Inthecaseofalltheseanimalstheirnatureappearsinsomekindofawaytohavegotwarped，justassomemaleanimalsgettoresemblethefemale，andsomefemaleanimalsthemale。Thefactisthatanimals，iftheybesubjectedtoamodificationinminuteorgans，areliabletoimmensemodificationsintheirgeneralconfiguration。

Thisphenomenonmaybeobservedinthecaseofgeldedanimals:onlyaminuteorganoftheanimalismutilated，andthecreaturepassesfromthemaletothefemaleform。Wemayinfer，then，thatifintheprimaryconformationoftheembryoaninfinitesimallyminutebutabsolutelyessentialorgansustainachangeofmagnitudeonewayortheother，theanimalwillinonecaseturntomaleandintheothertofemale；andalsothat，ifthesaidorganbeobliteratedaltogether，theanimalwillbeofneitheronesexnortheother。Andsobytheoccurrenceofmodificationinminuteorgansitcomestopassthatoneanimalisterrestrialandanotheraquatic，inbothsensesoftheseterms。And，again，someanimalsareamphibiouswhilstotheranimalsarenotamphibious，owingtothecircumstancethatintheirconformationwhileintheembryonicconditiontheregotintermixedintothemsomeportionofthematterofwhichtheirsubsequentfoodisconstituted；for，aswassaidabove，whatisinconformitywithnatureistoeverysingleanimalpleasantandagreeable。

Animalsthenhavebeencategorizedintoterrestrialandaquaticinthreeways，accordingtotheirassumptionofairorofwater，thetemperamentoftheirbodies，orthecharacteroftheirfood；andthemodeoflifeofananimalcorrespondstothecategoryinwhichitisfound。Thatistosay，insomecasestheanimaldependsforitsterrestrialoraquaticnatureontemperamentanddietcombined，aswellasuponitsmethodofrespiration；andsometimesontemperamentandhabitsalone。

Oftestaceans，some，thatareincapableofmotion，subsistonfreshwater，for，astheseawaterdissolvesintoitsconstituents，thefreshwaterfromitsgreaterthinnesspercolatesthroughthegrosserparts；infact，theyliveonfreshwaterjustastheywereoriginallyengenderedfromthesame。Nowthatfreshwateriscontainedintheseaandcanbestrainedofffromitcanbeprovedinathoroughlypracticalway。Takeathinvesselofmouldedwax，attachacordtoit，andletitdownquiteemptyintothesea:intwenty-fourhoursitwillbefoundtocontainaquantityofwater，andthewaterwillbefreshanddrinkable。

Sea-anemonesfeedonsuchsmallfishesascomeintheirway。Themouthofthiscreatureisinthemiddleofitsbody；andthisfactmaybeclearlyobservedinthecaseofthelargervarieties。Liketheoysterithasaductfortheoutletoftheresiduum；andthisductisatthetopoftheanimal。Inotherwords，thesea-anemonecorrespondstotheinnerfleshypartoftheoyster，andthestonetowhichtheonecreatureclingscorrespondstotheshellwhichencasestheother。

Thelimpetdetachesitselffromtherockandgoesaboutinquestoffood。Ofshell-fishthataremobile，somearecarnivorousandliveonlittlefishes，asforinstance，thepurplemurex-andtherecanbenodoubtthatthepurplemurexiscarnivorous，asitiscaughtbyabaitoffish；othersarecarnivorous，butfeedalsoonmarinevegetation。

Thesea-turtlesfeedonshell-fish-for，bytheway，theirmouthsareextraordinarilyhard；whateverobjectitseizes，stoneorother，itcrunchesintobits，butwhenitleavesthewaterfordrylanditbrowsesongrass)。Thesecreaturessuffergreatly，andoftentimesdiewhentheylieonthesurfaceofthewaterexposedtoascorchingsun；for，whenoncetheyhaverisentothesurface，theyfindadifficultyinsinkingagain。

Crustaceansfeedinlikemanner。Theyareomnivorous；thatistosay，theyliveonstones，slime，sea-weed，andexcrement-asforinstancetherock-crab-andarealsocarnivorous。Thecrawfishorspiny-lobstercangetthebetteroffishesevenofthelargerspecies，thoughinsomeofthemitoccasionallyfindsmorethanitsmatch。

Thus，thisanimalissoovermasteredandcowedbytheoctopusthatitdiesofterrorifitbecomeawareofanoctopusinthesamenetwithitself。Thecrawfishcanmastertheconger-eel，forowingtotheroughspinesofthecrawfishtheeelcannotslipawayandeludeitshold。Theconger-eel，however，devourstheoctopus，forowingtotheslipperinessofitsantagonisttheoctopuscanmakenothingofit。

Thecrawfishfeedsonlittlefish，capturingthembesideitsholeordwellingplace；for，bytheway，itisfoundoutatseaonroughandstonybottoms，andinsuchplacesitmakesitsden。Whateveritcatches，itputsintoitsmouthwithitspincer-likeclaws，likethecommoncrab。Itsnatureistowalkstraightforwardwhenithasnothingtofear，withitsfeelershangingsideways；ifitbefrightened，itmakesitsescapebackwards，dartingofftoagreatdistance。Theseanimalsfightoneanotherwiththeirclaws，justasramsfightwiththeirhorns，raisingthemandstrikingtheiropponents；theyareoftenalsoseencrowdedtogetherinherds。Somuchforthemodeoflifeofthecrustacean。

Molluscsareallcarnivorous；andofmolluscsthecalamaryandthesepiaaremorethanamatchforfishesevenofthelargespecies。Theoctopusforthemostpartgathersshellfish，extractstheflesh，andfeedsonthat；infact，fishermenrecognizetheirholesbythenumberofshellslyingabout。Somesaythattheoctopusdevoursitsownspecies，butthisstatementisincorrect；itisdoubtlessfoundedonthefactthatthecreatureisoftenfoundwithitstentaclesremoved，whichtentacleshavereallybeeneatenoffbytheconger。

Fishes，allwithoutexception，feedonspawninthespawningseason；butinotherrespectsthefoodvarieswiththevaryingspecies。Somefishesareexclusivelycarnivorous，asthecartilaginousgenus，theconger，thechannaorSerranus，thetunny，thebass，thesynodonorDentex，theamia，thesea-perch，andthemuraena。Theredmulletiscarnivorous，butfeedsalsoonsea-weed，onshell-fish，andonmud。Thegreymulletfeedsonmud，thedascyllusonmudandoffal，thescarusorparrot-fishandthemelanurusonsea-weed，thesaupeonoffalandsea-weed；thesaupefeedsalsoonzostera，andistheonlyfishthatiscapturedwithagourd。Allfishesdevourtheirownspecies，withthesingleexceptionofthecestreusormullet；

andthecongerisespeciallyravenousinthisrespect。Thecephalusandthemulletingeneralaretheonlyfishthateatnoflesh；thismaybeinferredfromthefactsthatwhencaughttheyareneverfoundwithfleshintheirintestines，andthatthebaitusedtocatchthemisnotfleshbutbarley-cake。Everyfishofthemullet-kindlivesonsea-weedandsand。Thecephalus，calledbysomethe\'chelon\'，keepsnearintotheshore，theperaeaskeepsoutatadistancefromit，andfeedsonamucoussubstanceexudingfromitself，andconsequentlyisalwaysinastarvedcondition。Thecephaluslivesinmud，andisinconsequenceheavyandslimy；itneverfeedsonanyotherfish。Asitlivesinmud，ithaseverynowandthentomakealeapupwardsoutofthemudsoastowashtheslimefromoffitsbody。Thereisnocreatureknowntopreyuponthespawnofthecephalus，sothatthespeciesisexceedinglynumerous；when，however，theisfull-grownitispreyeduponbyanumberoffishes，andespeciallybytheacharnasorbass。Ofallfishesthemulletisthemostvoraciousandinsatiable，andinconsequenceitsbellyiskeptatfullstretch；

wheneveritisnotstarving，itmaybeconsideredasoutofcondition。

Whenitisfrightened，ithidesitsheadinmud，underthenotionthatitishidingitswholebody。Thesynodoniscarnivorousandfeedsonmolluscs。Veryoftenthesynodonandthechannacastuptheirstomachswhilechasingsmallerfishes；for，beitremembered，fisheshavetheirstomachsclosetothemouth，andarenotfurnishedwithagullet。

Somefishesthen，ashasbeenstated，arecarnivorous，andcarnivorousonly，asthedolphin，thesynodon，thegilt-head，theselachians，andthemolluscs。Otherfishesfeedhabituallyonmudorsea-weedorsea-mossortheso-calledstalk-weedorgrowingplants；asforinstance，thephycis，thegoby，andtherock-fish；and，bytheway，theonlymeatthatthephyciswilltouchisthatofprawns。

Veryoften，however，ashasbeenstated，theydevouroneanother，andespeciallydothelargeronesdevourthesmaller。Theproofoftheirbeingcarnivorousisthefactthattheycanbecaughtwithfleshforabait。Themackerel，thetunny，andthebassareforthemostpartcarnivorous，buttheydooccasionallyfeedonsea-weed。Thesarguefeedsontheleavingsofthetrigleorredmullet。Theredmulletburrowsinthemud，whenitsetsthemudinmotionandquitsitshaunt，thesarguesettlesdownintotheplaceandfeedsonwhatisleftbehind，andpreventsanysmallerfishfromsettlingintheimmediatevicinity。

Ofallfishestheso-calledscarus，orparrot，wrasse，istheonlyoneknowntochewthecudlikeaquadruped。

Asageneralrulethelargerfishescatchthesmalleronesintheirmouthswhilstswimmingstraightafterthemintheordinaryposition；buttheselachians，thedolphin，andallthecetaceamustfirstturnoverontheirbacks，astheirmouthsareplaceddownbelow；

thisallowsafairchanceofescapetothesmallerfishes，and，indeed，ifitwerenotso，therewouldbeveryfewofthelittlefishesleft，forthespeedandvoracityofthedolphinissomethingmarvellous。

Ofeelsafewhereandtherefeedonmudandonchancemorselsoffoodthrowntothem；thegreaterpartofthemsubsistonfreshwater。Eel-breedersareparticularlycarefultohavethewaterkeptperfectlyclear，byitsperpetuallyflowingontoflatslabsofstoneandthenflowingoffagain；sometimestheycoattheeel-tankswithplaster。Thefactisthattheeelwillsoonchokeifthewaterisnotclearashisgillsarepeculiarlysmall。Onthisaccount，whenfishingforeels，theydisturbthewater。IntheriverStrymoneel-fishingtakesplaceattherisingofthePleiads，becauseatthisperiodthewateristroubledandthemudraisedupbycontrarywinds；unlessthewaterbeinthiscondition，itisaswelltoleavetheeelsalone。Whendeadtheeel，unlikethemajorityoffishes，neitherfloatsonnorrisestothesurface；andthisisowingtothesmallnessofthestomach。Afeweelsaresuppliedwithfat，butthegreaterparthavenofatwhatsoever。Whenremovedfromthewatertheycanliveforfiveorsixdays；foralongerperiodifnorthwindsprevail，forashorterifsouthwinds。Iftheyareremovedinsummerfromthepoolstothetankstheywilldie；butnotsoifremovedinthewinter。Theyarenotcapableofholdingoutagainstanyabruptchange；consequentlytheyoftendieinlargenumberswhenmenengagedintransportingthemfromoneplacetoanotherdipthemintowaterparticularlycold。Theywillalsodieofsuffocationiftheybekeptinascantysupplyofwater。Thissameremarkwillholdgoodforfishesingeneral；fortheyaresuffocatediftheybelongconfinedinashortsupplyofwater，withthewaterkeptunchanged-justasanimalsthatrespirearesuffocatediftheybeshutupwithascantysupplyofair。Theeelinsomecaseslivesforsevenoreightyears。Theriver-eelfeedsonhisownspecies，ongrass，oronroots，oronanychancefoodfoundinthemud。Theirusualfeeding-timeisatnight，andduringtheday-timetheyretreatintodeepwater。Andsomuchforthefoodoffishes。

3

Ofbirds，suchashavecrookedtalonsarecarnivorouswithoutexception，andcannotswallowcornorbread-foodevenifitbeputintotheirbillsintit-bits；asforinstance，theeagleofeveryvariety，thekite，thetwospeciesofhawks，towit，thedove-hawkandthesparrow-hawk-and，bytheway，thesetwohawksdiffergreatlyinsizefromoneanother-andthebuzzard。Thebuzzardisofthesamesizeasthekite，andisvisibleatallseasonsoftheyear。Thereisalsothephene(orlammergeier)andthevulture。Thepheneislargerthanthecommoneagleandisashenincolour。Ofthevulturetherearetwovarieties:onesmallandwhitish，theothercomparativelylargeandrathermoreashen-colouredthanwhite。Further，ofbirdsthatflybynight，somehavecrookedtalons，suchasthenight-raven，theowl，andtheeagle-owl。Theeagle-owlresemblesthecommonowlinshape，butitisquiteaslargeastheeagle。Again，thereistheeleus，theAegolianowl，andthelittlehornedowl。Ofthesebirds，theeleusissomewhatlargerthanthebarn-doorcock，andtheAegolianowlisofaboutthesamesizeastheeleus，andboththesebirdshuntthejay；thelittlehornedowlissmallerthanthecommonowl。

Allthesethreebirdsarealikeinappearance，andallthreearecarnivorous。

Again，ofbirdsthathavenotcrookedtalonssomearecarnivorous，suchastheswallow。Othersfeedongrubs，suchasthechaffinch，thesparrow，the\'batis\'，thegreenlinnet，andthetitmouse。Ofthetitmousetherearethreevarieties。Thelargestisthefinch-titmouse——foritisaboutthesizeofafinch；thesecondhasalongtail，andfromitshabitatiscalledthehill-titmouse；thethirdresemblestheothertwoinappearance，butislessinsizethaneitherofthem。Thencomethebecca-fico，theblack-cap，thebull-finch，therobin，theepilais，themidget-bird，andthegolden-crestedwren。Thiswrenislittlelargerthanalocust，hasacrestofbrightredgold，andisineverywayabeautifulandgracefullittlebird。Thentheanthus，abirdaboutthesizeofafinch；andthemountain-finch，whichresemblesafinchandisofmuchthesamesize，butitsneckisblue，anditisnamedfromitshabitat；andlastlythewrenandtherook。Theabove-enumeratedbirdsandthelikeofthemfeedeitherwhollyorforthemostpartongrubs，butthefollowingandthelikefeedonthistles；towit，thelinnet，thethraupis，andthegoldfinch。Allthesebirdsfeedonthistles，butneverongrubsoranylivingthingwhatever；theyliveandroostalsoontheplantsfromwhichtheyderivetheirfood。

Thereareotherbirdswhosefavouritefoodconsistsofinsectsfoundbeneaththebarkoftrees；asforinstance，thegreatandthesmallpie，whicharenicknamedthewoodpeckers。Thesetwobirdsresembleoneanotherinplumageandinnote，onlythatthenoteofthelargerbirdisthelouderofthetwo；theybothfrequentthetrunksoftreesinquestoffood。Thereisalsothegreenpie，abirdaboutthesizeofaturtle-dove，green-colouredallover，thatpecksatthebarkoftreeswithextraordinaryvigour，livesgenerallyonthebranchofatree，hasaloudnote，andismostlyfoundinthePeloponnese。Thereisanotherbirdcalledthe\'grub-picker\'(ortree-creeper)，aboutassmallasthependulinetitmouse，withspeckledplumageofanashencolour，andwithapoornote；itisavarietyofthewoodpecker。

Thereareotherbirdsthatliveonfruitandherbage，suchasthewildpigeonorringdove，thecommonpigeon，therock-dove，andtheturtle-dove。Thering-doveandthecommonpigeonarevisibleatallseasons；theturtledoveonlyinthesummer，forinwinteritlurksinsomeholeorotherandisneverseen。Therock-doveischieflyvisibleintheautumn，andiscaughtatthatseason；itislargerthanthecommonpigeonbutsmallerthanthewildone；itisgenerallycaughtwhiledrinking。Thesepigeonsbringtheiryoungoneswiththemwhentheyvisitthiscountry。Allourotherbirdscometousintheearlysummerandbuildtheirnestshere，andthegreaterpartofthemreartheiryoungonanimalfood，withthesoleexceptionofthepigeonanditsvarieties。

Thewholegenusofbirdsmaybeprettywelldividedintosuchasprocuretheirfoodondryland，suchasfrequentriversandlakes，andsuchasliveonorbythesea。

Ofwater-birdssuchasareweb-footedliveactuallyonthewater，whilesuchasaresplit-footedlivebytheedgeofit-and，bytheway，water-birdsthatarenotcarnivorousliveonwater-plants，(butmostofthemliveonfish)，liketheheronandthespoonbillthatfrequentthebanksoflakesandrivers；andthespoonbill，bytheway，islessthanthecommonheron，andhasalongflatbill。Therearefurthermorethestorkandtheseamew；andtheseamew，bytheway，isashen-coloured。Thereisalsotheschoenilus，thecinclus，andthewhite-rump。Ofthesesmallerbirdsthelastmentionedisthelargest，beingaboutthesizeofthecommonthrush；allthreemaybedescribedas\'wag-tails\'。Thenthereisthescalidris，withplumageashen-grey，butspeckled。Moreover，thefamilyofthehalcyonsorkingfisherslivebythewaterside。Ofkingfisherstherearetwovarieties；onethatsitsonreedsandsings；theother，thelargerofthetwo，iswithoutanote。Boththesevarietiesareblueontheback。Thereisalsothetrochilus(orsandpiper)。Thehalcyonalso，includingavarietytermedthecerylus，isfoundneartheseaside。Thecrowalsofeedsonsuchanimallifeasiscastuponthebeach，forthebirdisomnivorous。Therearealsothewhitegull，thecepphus，theaethyia，andthecharadrius。

Ofweb-footedbirds，thelargerspeciesliveonthebanksofriversandlakes；astheswan，theduck，thecoot，thegrebe，andtheteal-abirdresemblingtheduckbutlessinsize-andthewater-ravenorcormorant。Thisbirdisthesizeofastork，onlythatitslegsareshorter；itisweb-footedandisagoodswimmer；itsplumageisblack。Itroostsontrees，andistheonlyoneofallsuchbirdsasthesethatisfoundtobuilditsnestinatree。Furtherthereisthelargegoose，thelittlegregariousgoose，thevulpanser，thehornedgrebe，andthepenelops。Thesea-eaglelivesintheneighbourhoodoftheseaandseeksitsquarryinlagoons。

Agreatnumberofbirdsareomnivorous。Birdsofpreyfeedonanyanimalorbird，otherthanabirdofprey，thattheymaycatch。

Thesebirdsnevertouchoneoftheirowngenus，whereasfishesoftendevourmembersactuallyoftheirownspecies。

Birds，asarule，areverysparedrinkers。Infactbirdsofpreyneverdrinkatall，exceptingaveryfew，andthesedrinkveryrarely；

andthislastobservationispeculiarlyapplicabletothekestrel。Thekitehasbeenseentodrink，buthecertainlydrinksveryseldom。

4

Animalsthatarecoatedwithtessellates-suchasthelizardandtheotherquadrupeds，andtheserpents-areomnivorous:atalleventstheyarecarnivorousandgraminivorous；andserpents，bytheway，areofallanimalsthegreatestgluttons。

Tessellatedanimalsaresparedrinkers，asarealsoallsuchanimalsashaveaspongylung，andsuchalung，scantilysuppliedwithblood，isfoundinalloviparousanimals。Serpents，bytheby，haveaninsatiateappetiteforwine；consequently，attimesmenhuntforsnakesbypouringwineintosaucersandputtingthemintotheintersticesofwalls，andthecreaturesarecaughtwheninebriated。

Serpentsarecarnivorous，andwhenevertheycatchananimaltheyextractallitsjuicesandejectthecreaturewhole。And，bytheway，thisisdonebyallothercreaturesofsimilarhabits，asforinstancethespider；onlythatthespidersucksoutthejuicesofitspreyoutside，andtheserpentdoessoinitsbelly。Theserpenttakesanyfoodpresentedtohim，eatsbirdsandanimals，andswallowseggsentire。Butaftertakinghispreyhestretcheshimselfuntilhestandsstraightouttotheverytip，andthenhecontractsandsqueezeshimselfintolittlecompass，sothattheswallowedmassmaypassdownhisoutstretchedbody；andthisactiononhispartisduetothetenuityandlengthofhisgullet。Spidersandsnakescanbothgowithoutfoodforalongtime；andthisremarkmaybeverifiedbyobservationofspecimenskeptaliveintheshopsoftheapothecaries。

5

Ofviviparousquadrupedssuchasarefierceandjag-toothedarewithoutexceptioncarnivorous；though，bytheway，itisstatedofthewolf，butofnootheranimal，thatinextremityofhungeritwilleatacertainkindofearth。Thesecarnivorousanimalsnevereatgrassexceptwhentheyaresick，justasdogsbringonavomitbyeatinggrassandtherebypurgethemselves。

Thesolitarywolfismoreapttoattackmanthanthewolfthatgoeswithapack。

Theanimalcalled\'glanus\'bysomeand\'hyaena\'byothersisaslargeasawolf，withamanelikeahorse，onlythatthehairisstifferandlongerandextendsovertheentirelengthofthechine。Itwilllieinwaitforamanandchasehim，andwillinveigleadogwithinitsreachbymakinganoisethatresemblestheretchingnoiseofamanvomiting。Itisexceedinglyfondofputrefiedflesh，andwillburrowinagraveyardtogratifythispropensity。

Thebearisomnivorous。Iteatsfruit，andisenabledbythesupplenessofitsbodytoclimbatree；italsoeatsvegetables，anditwillbreakupahivetogetatthehoney；iteatscrabsandantsalso，andisinageneralwaycarnivorous。Itissopowerfulthatitwillattacknotonlythedeerbutthewildboar，ifitcantakeitunawares，andalsothebull。Aftercomingtoclosequarterswiththebullitfallsonitsbackinfrontoftheanimal，and，whenthebullproceedstobutt，thebearseizesholdofthebull\'shornswithitsfrontpaws，fastensitsteethintohisshoulder，anddragshimdowntotheground。Forashorttimetogetheritcanwalkerectonitshindlegs。Allthefleshiteatsitfirstallowstobecomecarrion。

Thelion，likeallothersavageandjag-toothedanimals，iscarnivorous。Itdevoursitsfoodgreedilyandfiercely，andoftenswallowsitspreyentirewithoutrendingitatall；itwillthengofastingfortwoorthreedaystogether，beingrenderedcapableofthisabstinencebyitsprevioussurfeit。Itisasparedrinker。Itdischargesthesolidresiduuminsmallquantities，abouteveryotherdayoratirregularintervals，andthesubstanceofitishardanddryliketheexcrementofadog。Thewinddischargedfromoffitsstomachispungent，anditsurineemitsastrongodour，aphenomenonwhich，inthecaseofdogs，accountsfortheirhabitofsniffingattrees；for，bytheway，thelion，likethedog，liftsitslegtovoiditsurine。Itinfectsthefooditeatswithastrongsmellbybreathingonit，andwhentheanimaliscutopenanoverpoweringvapourexhalesfromitsinside。

Somewildquadrupedsfeedinlakesandrivers；thesealistheonlyonethatgetsitslivingonthesea。Totheformerclassofanimalsbelongtheso-calledcastor，thesatyrium，theotter，andtheso-calledlatax，orbeaver。Thebeaverisflatterthantheotterandhasstrongteeth；itoftenatnight-timeemergesfromthewaterandgoesnibblingatthebarkoftheaspensthatfringetheriversides。Theotterwillbiteaman，anditissaidthatwheneveritbitesitwillneverletgountilithearsabonecrack。Thehairofthebeaverisrough，intermediateinappearancebetweenthehairofthesealandthehairofthedeer。

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Jag-toothedanimalsdrinkbylapping，asdoalsosomeanimalswithteethdifferentlyformed，asthemouse。Animalswhoseupperandlowerteethmeetevenlydrinkbysuction，asthehorseandtheox；thebearneitherlapsnorsucks，butgulpsdownhisdrink。Birds，arule，drinkbysuction，butthelongneckedbirdsstopandelevatetheirheadsatintervals；thepurplecootistheonlyone(ofthelong-neckedbirds)thatswallowswaterbygulps。

Hornedanimals，domesticatedorwild，andallsuchasarenotjag-toothed，areallfrugivorousandgraminivorous，saveundergreatstressofhunger。Thepigisanexception，itcareslittleforgrassorfruit，butofallanimalsitisthefondestofroots，owingtothefactthatitssnoutispeculiarlyadaptedfordiggingthemoutoftheground；itisalsoofallanimalsthemosteasilypleasedinthematteroffood。Ittakesonfatmorerapidlyinproportiontoitssizethananyotheranimal；infact，apigcanbefattenedforthemarketinsixtydays。Pig-dealerscantelltheamountoffleshtakenon，byhavingfirstweighedtheanimalwhileitwasbeingstarved。

Beforethefatteningprocessbegins，thecreaturemustbestarvedforthreedays；and，bytheway，animalsingeneralwilltakeonfatifsubjectedpreviouslytoacourseofstarvation；afterthethreedaysofstarvation，pig-breedersfeedtheanimallavishly。BreedersinThrace，whenfatteningpigs，givethemadrinkonthefirstday；

thentheymissone，andthentwodays，thenthreeandfour，untiltheintervalextendsoversevendays。Thepigs\'meatusedforfatteningiscomposedofbarley，millet，figs，acorns，wildpears，andcucumbers。Theseanimals-andotheranimalsthathavewarmbellies-arefattenedbyrepose。(Pigsalsofattenthebetterbybeingallowedtowallowinmud。Theyliketofeedinbatchesofthesameage。Apigwillgivebattleeventoawolf。)Ifapigbeweighedwhenliving，youmaycalculatethatafterdeathitsfleshwillweighfive-sixthsofthatweight，andthehair，theblood，andtherestwillweightheothersixth。Whensucklingtheiryoung，swinelikeallotheranimals-getattenuated。Somuchfortheseanimals。

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Cattlefeedoncornandgrass，andfattenonvegetablesthattendtocauseflatulency，suchasbittervetchorbruisedbeansorbean-stalks。Theolderonesalsowillfatteniftheybefedupafteranincisionhasbeenmadeintotheirhide，andairblownthereinto。

Cattlewillfattenalsoonbarleyinitsnaturalstateoronbarleyfinelywinnowed，oronsweetfood，suchasfigs，orpulpfromthewine-press，oronelm-leaves。Butnothingissofatteningastheheatofthesunandwallowinginwarmwaters。Ifthehornsofyoungcattlebesmearedwithhotwax，youmaymoldthemtoanyshapeyouplease，andcattlearelesssubjecttodiseaseofthehoofifyousmearthehornypartswithwax，pitch，oroliveoil。Herdedcattlesuffermorewhentheyareforcedtochangetheirpasturegroundbyfrostthanwhensnowisthecauseofchange。Cattlegrowallthemoreinsizewhentheyarekeptfromsexualcommerceoveranumberofyears；anditiswithaviewtogrowthinsizethatinEpirustheso-calledPyrrhickinearenotallowedintercoursewiththebulluntiltheyarenineyearsold；fromwhichcircumstancetheyarenicknamedthe\'unbulled\'kine。OfthesePyrrhiccattle，bytheway，theysaythatthereareonlyaboutfourhundredintheworld，thattheyaretheprivatepropertyoftheEpiroteroyalfamily，thattheycannotthriveoutofEpirus，andthatpeopleelsewherehavetriedtorearthem，butwithoutsuccess。

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Horses，mules，andassesfeedoncornandgrass，butarefattenedchieflybydrink。Justinproportionasbeastsofburdendrinkwater，sowilltheymoreorlessenjoytheirfood，andaplacewillgivegoodorbadfeedingaccordingasthewaterisgoodorbad。

Greencorn，whileripening，willgiveasmoothcoat；butsuchcornisinjuriousifthespikesaretoostiffandsharp。Thefirstcropofcloverisunwholesome，andsoiscloveroverwhichill-scentedwaterruns；forthecloverissuretogetthetaintofthewater。

Cattlelikeclearwaterfordrinking；butthehorseinthisrespectresemblesthecamel，forthecamellikesturbidandthickwater，andwillneverdrinkfromastreamuntilhehastrampleditintoaturbidcondition。And，bytheway，thecamelcangowithoutwaterforasmuchasfourdays，butafterthatwhenhedrinks，hedrinksinimmensequantities。

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TheelephantatthemostcaneatnineMacedonianmedimnioffodderatonemeal；butsolargeanamountisunwholesome。Asageneralruleitcantakesixorsevenmedimnioffodder，fivemedimniofwheat，andfivemareisofwine-sixcotylaegoingtothemaris。AnelephanthasbeenknowntodrinkrightofffourteenMacedonianmetretaeofwater，andanothermetretaelaterintheday。

Camelsliveforaboutthirtyyears；insomeexceptionalcasestheylivemuchlonger，andinstanceshavebeenknownoftheirlivingtotheageofahundred。Theelephantissaidbysometoliveforabouttwohundredyears；byothers，forthreehundred。

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Sheepandgoatsaregraminivorous，butsheepbrowseassiduouslyandsteadily，whereasgoatsshifttheirgroundrapidly，andbrowseonlyonthetipsoftheherbage。Sheeparemuchimprovedinconditionbydrinking，andaccordinglytheygivetheflockssalteveryfivedaysinsummer，totheextentofonemedimnustothehundredsheep，andthisisfoundtorenderaflockhealthierandfatter。Infacttheymixsaltwiththegreaterpartoftheirfood；alargeamountofsaltismixedintotheirbran(forthereasonthattheydrinkmorewhenthirsty)，andinautumntheygetcucumberswithasprinklingofsaltonthem；thisadmixtureofsaltintheirfoodtendsalsotoincreasethequantityofmilkintheewes。Ifsheepbekeptonthemoveatmiddaytheywilldrinkmorecopiouslytowardsevening；andiftheewesbefedwithsaltedfoodasthelambingseasondrawsneartheywillgetlargerudders。Sheeparefattenedbytwigsoftheoliveoroftheoleaster，byvetch，andbranofeverykind；andthesearticlesoffoodfattenallthemoreiftheybefirstsprinkledwithbrine。Sheepwilltakeonfleshallthebetteriftheybefirstputforthreedaysthroughaprocessofstarving。Inautumn，waterfromthenorthismorewholesomeforsheepthanwaterfromthesouth。Pasturegroundsareallthebetteriftheyhaveawesterlyaspect。

Sheepwilllosefleshiftheybekeptovermuchonthemoveorbesubjectedtoanyhardship。Inwintertimeshepherdscaneasilydistinguishthevigoroussheepfromtheweakly，fromthefactthatthevigoroussheeparecoveredwithhoar-frostwhiletheweaklyonesarequitefreeofit；thefactbeingthattheweaklyonesfeelingoppressedwiththeburdenshakethemselvesandsogetridofit。Thefleshofallquadrupedsdeterioratesinmarshypastures，andisthebetteronhighgrounds。Sheepthathaveflattailscanstandthewinterbetterthanlong-tailedsheep，andshort-fleecedsheepthantheshaggy-fleeced；andsheepwithcrispwoolstandtherigourofwinterverypoorly。Sheeparehealthierthangoats，butgoatsarestrongerthansheep。(Thefleecesandthewoolofsheepthathavebeenkilledbywolves，asalsotheclothesmadefromthem，areexceptionallyinfestedwithlice。)

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Ofinsects，suchashaveteethareomnivorous；suchashaveatonguefeedonliquidsonly，extractingwiththatorganjuicesfromallquarters。Andoftheselattersomemaybecalledomnivorous，inasmuchastheyfeedoneverykindofjuice，asforinstance，thecommonfly；othersareblood-suckers，suchasthegadflyandthehorse-fly，othersagainliveonthejuicesoffruitsandplants。Thebeeistheonlyinsectthatinvariablyeschewswhateverisrotten；

itwilltouchnoarticleoffoodunlessithaveasweet-tastingjuice，anditisparticularlyfondofdrinkingwaterifitbefoundbubblingupclearfromaspringunderground。

Somuchforthefoodofanimalsoftheleadinggenera。

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Thehabitsofanimalsareallconnectedwitheitherbreedingandtherearingofyoung，orwiththeprocuringaduesupplyoffood；

andthesehabitsaremodifiedsoastosuitcoldandheatandthevariationsoftheseasons。Forallanimalshaveaninstinctiveperceptionofthechangesoftemperature，and，justasmenseekshelterinhousesinwinter，orasmenofgreatpossessionsspendtheirsummerincoolplacesandtheirwinterinsunnyones，soalsoallanimalsthatcandososhifttheirhabitatatvariousseasons。

Somecreaturescanmakeprovisionagainstchangewithoutstirringfromtheirordinaryhaunts；othersmigrate，quittingPontusandthecoldcountriesaftertheautumnalequinoxtoavoidtheapproachingwinter，andafterthespringequinoxmigratingfromwarmlandstocoollandstoavoidthecomingheat。Insomecasestheymigratefromplacesnearathand，inotherstheymaybesaidtocomefromtheendsoftheworld，asinthecaseofthecrane；forthesebirdsmigratefromthesteppesofScythiatothemarshlandssouthofEgyptwheretheNilehasitssource。Anditishere，bytheway，thattheyaresaidtofightwiththepygmies；andthestoryisnotfabulous，butthereisinrealityaraceofdwarfishmen，andthehorsesarelittleinproportion，andthemenliveincavesunderground。Pelicansalsomigrate，andflyfromtheStrymontotheIster，andbreedonthebanksofthisriver。Theydepartinflocks，andthebirdsinfrontwaitforthoseintherear，owingtothefactthatwhentheflockispassingovertheinterveningmountainrange，thebirdsintherearlosesightoftheircompanionsinthevan。

FishesalsoinasimilarmannershifttheirhabitatnowoutoftheEuxineandnowintoit。Inwintertheymovefromtheouterseaintowardslandinquestofheat；insummertheyshiftfromshallowwaterstothedeepseatoescapetheheat。

Weaklybirdsinwinterandinfrostyweathercomedowntotheplainsforwarmth，andinsummermigratetothehillsforcoolness。

Themoreweaklyananimalisthegreaterhurrywillitbeintomigrateonaccountofextremesoftemperature，eitherhotorcold；

thusthemackerelmigratesinadvanceofthetunnies，andthequailinadvanceofthecranes。TheformermigratesinthemonthofBoedromion，andthelatterinthemonthofMaemacterion。Allcreaturesarefatterinmigratingfromcoldtoheatthaninmigratingfromheattocold；thusthequailisfatterwhenheemigratesinautumnthanwhenhearrivesinspring。Themigrationfromcoldcountriesiscontemporaneouswiththecloseofthehotseason。Animalsareinbettertrimforbreedingpurposesinspring-time，whentheychangefromhottocoollands。

Ofbirds，thecrane，ashasbeensaid，migratesfromoneendoftheworldtotheother；theyflyagainstthewind。Thestorytoldaboutthestoneisuntrue:towit，thatthebird，sothestorygoes，carriesinitsinsideastonebywayofballast，andthatthestonewhenvomitedupisatouchstoneforgold。

Thecushatandtherock-dovemigrate，andneverwinterinourcountry，asisthecasealsowiththeturtle-dove；thecommonpigeon，however，staysbehind。Thequailalsomigrates；only，bytheway，afewquailsandturtle-dovesmaystaybehindhereandthereinsunnydistricts。Cushatsandturtle-dovesflocktogether，bothwhentheyarriveandwhentheseasonformigrationcomesroundagain。

Whenquailscometoland，ifitbefairweatherorifanorthwindisblowing，theywillpairoffandmanageprettycomfortably；butifasoutherlywindprevailtheyaregreatlydistressedowingtothedifficultiesinthewayofflight，forasoutherlywindiswetandviolent。Forthisreasonbird-catchersareneveronthealertforthesebirdsduringfineweather，butonlyduringtheprevalenceofsoutherlywinds，whenthebirdfromtheviolenceofthewindisunabletofly。And，bytheway，itisowingtothedistressoccasionedbythebulkinessofitsbodythatthebirdalwaysscreamswhileflying:forthelabourissevere。Whenthequailscomefromabroadtheyhavenoleaders，butwhentheymigratehence，theglottisflitsalongwiththem，asdoesalsothelandrail，andtheearedowl，andthecorncrake。

Thecorncrakecallstheminthenight，andwhenthebirdcatchershearthecroakofthebirdinthenighttimetheyknowthatthequailsareonthemove。Thelandrailislikeamarshbird，andtheglottishasatonguethatcanprojectfaroutofitsbeak。Theearedowlislikeanordinaryowl，onlythatithasfeathersaboutitsears；

bysomeitiscalledthenight-raven。Itisagreatrogueofabird，andisacapitalmimic；abird-catcherwilldancebeforeitand，whilethebirdismimickinghisgestures，theaccomplicecomesbehindandcatchesit。Thecommonowliscaughtbyasimilartrick。

Asageneralruleallbirdswithcrookedtalonsareshort-necked，flat-tongued，anddisposedtomimicry。TheIndianbird，theparrot，whichissaidtohaveaman\'stongue，answerstothisdescription；and，bytheway，afterdrinkingwine，theparrotbecomesmoresaucythanever。

Ofbirds，thefollowingaremigratory-thecrane，theswan，thepelican，andthelessergoose。

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Offishes，some，ashasbeenobserved，migratefromtheouterseasintowardsshore，andfromtheshoretowardstheouterseas，toavoidtheextremesofcoldandheat。

Fishlivingneartotheshorearebettereatingthandeep-seafish。Thefactistheyhavemoreabundantandbetterfeeding，forwhereverthesun\'sheatcanreachvegetationismoreabundant，betterinquality，andmoredelicate，asisseeninanyordinarygarden。Further，theblackshore-weedgrowsneartoshore；theothershore-weedislikewildweed。Besides，thepartsoftheseaneartoshorearesubjectedtoamoreequabletemperature；andconsequentlythefleshofshallow-waterfishesisfirmandconsistent，whereasthefleshofdeep-waterfishesisflaccidandwatery。

Thefollowingfishesarefoundnearintotheshore-thesynodon，theblackbream，themerou，thegilthead，themullet，theredmullet，thewrasse，theweaver，thecallionymus，thegoby，androck-fishesofallkinds。Thefollowingaredeep-seafishes——thetrygon，thecartilaginousfishes，thewhiteconger，theserranus，theerythrinus，andtheglaucus。Thebraize，thesea-scorpion，theblackconger，themuraena，andthepiperorsea-cuckooarefoundalikeinshallowanddeepwaters。Thesefishes，however，varyforvariouslocalities；forinstance，thegobyandallrock-fisharefatoffthecoastofCrete。Again，thetunnyisoutofseasoninsummer，whenitisbeingpreyedonbyitsownpeculiarlouse-parasite，butaftertherisingofArcturus，whentheparasitehasleftit，itcomesintoseasonagain。Anumberoffishalsoarefoundinsea-estuaries；suchasthesaupe，thegilthead，theredmullet，and，inpointoffact，thegreaterpartofthegregariousfishes。Thebonitoalsoisfoundinsuchwaters，as，forinstance，offthecoastofAlopeconnesus；andmostspeciesoffishesarefoundinLakeBistonis。Thecoly-mackerelasaruledoesnotentertheEuxine，butpassesthesummerinthePropontis，whereitspawns，andwintersintheAegean。Thetunnyproper，thepelamys，andthebonitopenetrateintotheEuxineinsummerandpassthesummerthere；asdoalsothegreaterpartofsuchfishasswiminshoalswiththecurrents，orcongregateinshoalstogether。Andmostfishcongregateinshoals，andshoal-fishesinallcaseshaveleaders。

FishpenetrateintotheEuxinefortworeasons，andfirstlyforfood。Forthefeedingismoreabundantandbetterinqualityowingtotheamountoffreshriver-waterthatdischargesintothesea，andmoreover，thelargefishesofthisinlandseaaresmallerthanthelargefishesoftheoutersea。Inpointoffact，thereisnolargefishintheEuxineexceptingthedolphinandtheporpoise，andthedolphinisasmallvariety；butassoonasyougetintotheouterseathebigfishesareonthebigscale。Furthermore，fishpenetrateintothisseaforthepurposeofbreeding；fortherearerecessestherefavourableforspawning，andthefreshandexceptionallysweetwaterhasaninvigoratingeffectuponthespawn。Afterspawning，whentheyoungfisheshaveattainedsomesize，theparentfishswimoutoftheEuxineimmediatelyaftertherisingofthePleiads。Ifwintercomesinwithasoutherlywind，theyswimoutwithmoreorlessofdeliberation；but，ifanorthwindbeblowing，theyswimoutwithgreaterrapidity，fromthefactthatthebreezeisfavourabletotheirowncourse。And，bytheway，theyoungfisharecaughtaboutthistimeintheneighbourhoodofByzantiumverysmallinsize，asmighthavebeenexpectedfromtheshortnessoftheirsojournintheEuxine。TheshoalsingeneralarevisiblebothastheyquitandentertheEuxine。Thetrichiae，however，onlycanbecaughtduringtheirentry，butarenevervisibleduringtheirexit；inpointoffact，whenatrichiaiscaughtrunningoutwardsintheneighbourhoodofByzantium，thefishermenareparticularlycarefultocleansetheirnets，asthecircumstanceissosingularandexceptional。Thewayofaccountingforthisphenomenonisthatthisfish，andthisoneonly，swimsnorthwardsintotheDanube，andthenatthepointofitsbifurcationswimsdownsouthwardsintotheAdriatic。And，asaproofthatthistheoryiscorrect，theveryoppositephenomenonpresentsitselfintheAdriatic；thatistosay，theyarenotcaughtinthatseaduringtheirentry，butarecaughtduringtheirexit。

Tunny-fishswimintotheEuxinekeepingtheshoreontheirright，andswimoutofitwiththeshoreupontheirleft。Itisstatedthattheydosoasbeingnaturallyweak-sighted，andseeingbetterwiththerighteye。

Duringthedaytimeshoal-fishcontinueontheirway，butduringthenighttheyrestandfeed。Butiftherebemoonlight，theycontinuetheirjourneywithoutrestingatall。Somepeopleaccustomedtosea-lifeassertthatshoal-fishattheperiodofthewintersolsticenevermoveatall，butkeepperfectlystillwherevertheymayhappentohavebeenovertakenbythesolstice，andthislastsuntiltheequinox。

Thecoly-mackereliscaughtmorefrequentlyonenteringthanonquittingtheEuxine。AndinthePropontisthefishisatitsbestbeforethespawningseason。Shoal-fish，asarule，arecaughtingreaterquantitiesastheyleavetheEuxine，andatthatseasontheyareinthebestcondition。Atthetimeoftheirentrancetheyarecaughtinveryplumpconditionclosetoshore，butthoseareincomparativelypoorconditionthatarecaughtfartherouttosea。

Veryoften，whenthecoly-mackerelandthemackerelaremetbyasouthwindintheirexit，therearebettercatchestothesouthwardthanintheneighbourhoodofByzantium。Somuchthenforthephenomenonofmigrationoffishes。

Nowthesamephenomenonisobservedinfishesasinterrestrialanimalsinregardtohibernation:inotherwords，duringwinterfishestaketoconcealingthemselvesinoutofthewayplaces，andquittheirplacesofconcealmentinthewarmerseason。

But，bytheway，animalsgointoconcealmentbywayofrefugeagainstextremeheat，aswellasagainstextremecold。Sometimesanentiregenuswillthusseekconcealment；inothercasessomespecieswilldosoandotherswillnot。Forinstance，theshell-fishseekconcealmentwithoutexception，asisseeninthecaseofthosedwellinginthesea，thepurplemurex，theceryx，andallsuchlike；

butthoughinthecaseofthedetachedspeciesthephenomenonisobvious-fortheyhidethemselves，asisseeninthescallop，ortheyareprovidedwithanoperculumonthefreesurface，asinthecaseoflandsnails-inthecaseofthenon-detachedtheconcealmentisnotsoclearlyobserved。Theydonotgointohidingatoneandthesameseason；butthesnailsgoinwinter，thepurplemurexandtheceryxforaboutthirtydaysattherisingoftheDog-star，andthescallopataboutthesameperiod。Butforthemostparttheygointoconcealmentwhentheweatheriseitherextremelycoldorextremelyhot。

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Insectsalmostallgointohiding，withtheexceptionofsuchofthemasliveinhumanhabitationsorperishbeforethecompletionoftheyear。Theyhideinthewinter；someofthemforseveraldays，othersforonlythecoldestdays，asthebee。Forthebeealsogoesintohiding:andtheproofthatitdoessoisthatduringacertainperiodbeesnevertouchthefoodsetbeforethem，andifabeecreepsoutofthehive，itisquitetransparent，withnothingwhatsoeverinitsstomach；andtheperiodofitsrestandhidinglastsfromthesettingofthePleiadsuntilspringtime。

Animalstaketheirwinter-sleeporsummer-sleepbyconcealingthemselvesinwarmplaces，orinplaceswheretheyhavebeenusedtolieconcealed。

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Severalbloodedanimalstakethissleep，suchasthepholidotesortessellates，namely，theserpent，thelizard，thegecko，andtheriver。crocodile，allofwhichgointohidingforfourmonthsinthedepthofwinter，andduringthattimeeatnothing。Serpentsingeneralburrowundergroundforthispurpose；theviperconcealsitselfunderastone。

Agreatnumberoffishesalsotakethissleep，andnotably，thehippurusandcoracinusinwintertime；for，whereasfishingeneralmaybecaughtatallperiodsoftheyearmoreorless，thereisthissingularityobservedinthesefishes，thattheyarecaughtwithinacertainfixedperiodoftheyear，andneverbyanychanceoutofit。Themuraenaalsohides，andtheorphusorsea-perch，andtheconger。Rock-fishpairoff，maleandfemale，forhiding(justasforbreeding)；asisobservedinthecaseofthespeciesofwrassecalledthethrushandtheowzel，andintheperch。

Thetunnyalsotakesasleepinwinterindeepwaters，andgetsexceedinglyfatafterthesleep。ThefishingseasonforthetunnybeginsattherisingofthePleiadsandlasts，atthelongest，downtothesettingofArcturus；duringtherestoftheyeartheyarehidandenjoyingimmunity。Aboutthetimeofhibernationafewtunniesorotherhibernatingfishesarecaughtwhileswimmingabout，inparticularlywarmlocalitiesandinexceptionallyfineweather，oronnightsoffullmoon；forthefishesareinduced(bythewarmthorthelight)toemergeforawhilefromtheirlairinquestoffood。

Mostfishesareattheirbestforthetableduringthesummerorwintersleep。

Theprimas-tunnyconcealsitselfinthemud；thismaybeinferredfromthefactthatduringaparticularperiodthefishisnevercaught，andthat，whenitiscaughtafterthatperiod，itiscoveredwithmudandhasitsfinsdamaged。Inthespringthesetunniesgetinmotionandproceedtowardsthecoast，couplingandbreeding，andthefemalesarenowcaughtfullofspawn。Atthistimetheyareconsideredasinseason，butinautumnandinwinterasofinferiorquality；atthistimealsothemalesarefullofmilt。Whenthespawnissmall，thefishishardtocatch，butitiseasilycaughtwhenthespawngetslarge，asthefishistheninfestedbyitsparasite。Somefishburrowforsleepinthesandandsomeinmud，justkeepingtheirmouthsoutside。

Mostfisheshide，then，duringthewinteronly，butcrustaceans，therock-fish，theray，andthecartilaginousspecieshideonlyduringextremelysevereweather，andthismaybeinferredfromthefactthatthesefishesareneverbyanychancecaughtwhentheweatherisextremelycold。Somefishes，however，hideduringthesummer，astheglaucusorgrey-back；thisfishhidesinsummerforaboutsixtydays。Thehakealsoandthegiltheadhide；andweinferthatthehakehidesoveralengthenedperiodfromthefactthatitisonlycaughtatlongintervals。Weareledalsotoinferthatfisheshideinsummerfromthecircumstancethatthetakesofcertainfisharemadebetweentheriseandsettingofcertainconstellations:oftheDog-starinparticular，theseaatthisperiodbeingupturnedfromthelowerdepths。ThisphenomenonmaybeobservedtobestadvantageintheBosporus；forthemudistherebroughtuptothesurfaceandthefisharebroughtupalongwithit。Theysayalsothatveryoften，whenthesea-bottomisdredged，morefishwillbecaughtbythesecondhaulthanbythefirstone。Furthermore，afterveryheavyrainsnumerousspecimensbecomevisibleofcreaturesthatatothertimesareneverseenatallorseenonlyatintervals。

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Agreatnumberofbirdsalsogointohiding；theydonotallmigrate，asisgenerallysupposed，towarmercountries。Thus，certainbirds(asthekiteandtheswallow)whentheyarenotfarofffromplacesofthiskind，inwhichtheyhavetheirpermanentabode，betakethemselvesthither；others，thatareatadistancefromsuchplaces，declinethetroubleofmigrationandsimplyhidethemselveswheretheyare。Swallows，forinstance，havebeenoftenfoundinholes，quitedenudedoftheirfeathers，andthekiteonitsfirstemergencefromtorpidityhasbeenseentoflyfromoutsomesuchhiding-place。Andwithregardtothisphenomenonofperiodictorporthereisnodistinctionobserved，whetherthetalonsofabirdbecrookedorstraight；forinstance，thestork，theowzel，theturtle-dove，andthelark，allgointohiding。Thecaseoftheturtledoveisthemostnotoriousofall，forwewoulddefyanyonetoassertthathehadanywhereseenaturtle-doveinwinter-time；atthebeginningofthehidingtimeitisexceedinglyplump，andduringthisperioditmoults，butretainsitsplumpness。Somecushatshide；

others，insteadofhiding，migrateatthesametimeastheswallow。

Thethrushandthestarlinghide；andofbirdswithcrookedtalonsthekiteandtheowlhideforafewdays。

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Ofviviparousquadrupedstheporcupineandthebearretireintoconcealment。Thefactthatthebearhidesiswellestablished，buttherearedoubtsastoitsmotiveforsodoing，whetheritbebyreasonofthecoldorfromsomeothercause。Aboutthisperiodthemaleandthefemalebecomesofatastobehardlycapableofmotion。

Thefemalebringsforthheryoungatthistime，andremainsinconcealmentuntilitistimetobringthecubsout；andshebringsthemoutinspring，aboutthreemonthsafterthewintersolstice。

Thebearhidesforatleastfortydays；duringfourteenofthesedaysitissaidnottomoveatall，butduringmostofthesubsequentdaysitmoves，andfromtimetotimewakesup。Ashe-bearinpregnancyhaseitherneverbeencaughtatallorhasbeencaughtveryseldom。Therecanbenodoubtbutthatduringthisperiodtheyeatnothing；forinthefirstplacetheyneveremergefromtheirhiding-place，andfurther，whentheyarecaught，theirbellyandintestinesarefoundtobequiteempty。Itisalsosaidthatfromnofoodbeingtakenthegutalmostclosesup，andthatinconsequencetheanimalonfirstemergingtakestoeatingarumwiththeviewofopeningupanddistendingthegut。

Thedormouseactuallyhidesinatree，andgetsveryfatatthatperiod；asdoesalsothewhitemouseofPontus。

(Ofanimalsthathideorgotorpidsomesloughoffwhatiscalledtheir\'old-age\'。Thisnameisappliedtotheoutermostskin，andtothecasingthatenvelopsthedevelopingorganism。)

Indiscussingthecaseofterrestrialviviparawestatedthatthereasonforthebear\'sseekingconcealmentisanopenquestion。

Wenowproceedtotreatofthetessellates。Thetessellatesforthemostpartgointohiding，andiftheirskinissofttheysloughofftheir\'old-age\'，butnotiftheskinisshell-like，asistheshellofthetortoise-for，bytheway，thetortoiseandthefreshwatertortoisebelongtothetessellates。Thus，theold-ageissloughedoffbythegecko，thelizard，andaboveall，byserpents；andtheysloughofftheskininspringtimewhenemergingfromtheirtorpor，andagainintheautumn。Vipersalsosloughofftheirskinbothinspringandinautumn，anditisnotthecase，assomeaver，thatthisspeciesoftheserpentfamilyisexceptionalinnotsloughing。

Whentheserpentbeginstoslough，theskinpeelsoffatfirstfromtheeyes，sothatanyoneignorantofthephenomenonwouldsupposetheanimalweregoingblind；afterthatitpeelsoffthehead，andsoon，untilthecreaturepresentstoviewonlyawhitesurfaceallover。

Thesloughinggoesonforadayandanight，beginningwiththeheadandendingwiththetail。Duringthesloughingoftheskinaninnerlayercomestothesurface，forthecreatureemergesjustastheembryofromitsafterbirth。

Allinsectsthatsloughatallsloughinthesameway；asthesilphe，andtheempisormidge，andallthecoleoptera，asforinstancethecantharus-beetle。Theyallsloughaftertheperiodofdevelopment；forjustastheafterbirthbreaksfromofftheyoungoftheviviparasotheouterhuskbreaksofffromaroundtheyoungofthevermipara，inthesamewaybothwiththebeeandthegrasshopper。

Thecicadathemomentafterissuingfromthehuskgoesandsitsuponanolivetreeorareed；afterthebreakingupofthehuskthecreatureissuesout，leavingalittlemoisturebehind，andafterashortintervalfliesupintotheairandsetsa。chirping。

Ofmarineanimalsthecrawfishandthelobstersloughsometimesinthespring，andsometimesinautumnafterparturition。Lobstershavebeencaughtoccasionallywiththepartsaboutthethoraxsoft，fromtheshellhavingtherepeeledoff，andthelowerpartshard，fromtheshellhavingnotyetpeeledoffthere；for，bytheway，theydonotsloughinthesamemannerastheserpent。Thecrawfishhidesforaboutfivemonths。Crabsalsosloughofftheirold-age；thisisgenerallyallowedwithregardtothesoft-shelledcrabs，anditissaidtobethecasewiththetestaceouskind，asforinstancewiththelarge\'granny\'crab。Whentheseanimalssloughtheirshellbecomessoftallover，andasforthecrab，itcanscarcelycrawl。Theseanimalsalsodonotcasttheirskinsonceandforall，butoverandoveragain。

Somuchfortheanimalsthatgointohidingortorpidity，forthetimesatwhich，andthewaysinwhich，theygo；andsomuchalsofortheanimalsthatsloughofftheirold-age，andforthetimesatwhichtheyundergotheprocess。

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Animalsdonotallthriveatthesameseasons，nordotheythrivealikeduringallextremesofweather。Furtheranimalsofdiversespeciesareinadiversewayhealthyorsicklyatcertainseasons；and，inpointoffact，someanimalshaveailmentsthatareunknowntoothers。Birdsthriveintimesofdrought，bothintheirgeneralhealthandinregardtoparturition，andthisisespeciallythecasewiththecushat；fishes，however，withafewexceptions，thrivebestinrainyweather；onthecontraryrainyseasonsarebadforbirds-andsobythewayismuchdrinking-anddroughtisbadforfishes。Birdsofprey，ashasbeenalreadystated，mayinageneralwaybesaidnevertodrinkatall，thoughHesiodappearstohavebeenignorantofthefact，forinhisstoryaboutthesiegeofNinusherepresentstheeaglethatpresidedovertheauguriesasintheactofdrinking；allotherbirdsdrink，butdrinksparingly，asisthecasealsowithallotherspongy-lungedoviparousanimals。Sicknessinbirdsmaybediagnosedfromtheirplumage，whichisruffledwhentheyaresicklyinsteadoflyingsmoothaswhentheyarewell。

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Themajorityoffishes，ashasbeenstated，thrivebestinrainyseasons。Notonlyhavetheyfoodingreaterabundanceatthistime，butinageneralwayrainiswholesomeforthemjustasitisforvegetation-for，bytheway，kitchenvegetables，thoughartificiallywatered，derivebenefitfromrain；andthesameremarkapplieseventoreedsthatgrowinmarshes，astheyhardlygrowatallwithoutarainfall。ThatrainisgoodforfishesmaybeinferredfromthefactthatmostfishesmigratetotheEuxineforthesummer；forowingtothenumberoftheriversthatdischargeintothisseaitswaterisexceptionallyfresh，andtheriversbringdownalargesupplyoffood。

Besides，agreatnumberoffishes，suchasthebonitoandthemullet，swimuptheriversandthriveintheriversandmarshes。Thesea-gudgeonalsofattensintherivers，and，asarule，countriesaboundinginlagoonsfurnishunusuallyexcellentfish。Whilemostfishes，then，arebenefitedbyrain，theyarechieflybenefitedbysummerrain；orwemaystatethecasethus，thatrainisgoodforfishesinspring，summer，andautumn，andfinedryweatherinwinter。Asageneralrulewhatisgoodformenisgoodforfishesalso。

Fishesdonotthriveincoldplaces，andthosefishessuffermostinseverewintersthathaveastoneintheirhead，asthechromis，thebasse，thesciaena，andthebraize；forowingtothestonetheygetfrozenwiththecold，andarethrownuponshore。

Whilstrainiswholesomeformostfishes，itis，onthecontrary，unwholesomeforthemullet，thecephalus，andtheso-calledmarinus，forrainsuperinducesblindnessinmostofthesefishes，andallthemorerapidlyiftherainfallbesuperabundant。Thecephalusispeculiarlysubjecttothismaladyinseverewinters；theireyesgrowwhite，andwhencaughttheyareinpoorcondition，andeventuallythediseasekillsthem。Itwouldappearthatthisdiseaseisduetoextremecoldevenmorethantoanexcessiverainfall；forinstance，inmanyplacesandmoreespeciallyinshallowsoffthecoastofNauplia，intheArgolid，anumberoffisheshavebeenknowntobecaughtoutatseainseasonsofseverecold。Thegiltheadalsosuffersinwinter；theacharnassuffersinsummer，andlosescondition。Thecoracineisexceptionalamongfishesinderivingbenefitfromdrought，andthisisduetothefactthatheatanddroughtareapttocometogether。

Particularplacessuitparticularfishes；somearenaturallyfishesoftheshore，andsomeofthedeepsea，andsomeareathomeinoneortheotheroftheseregions，andothersarecommontothetwoandareathomeinboth。Somefisheswillthriveinoneparticularspot，andinthatspotonly。Asageneralruleitmaybesaidthatplacesaboundinginweedsarewholesome；atallevents，fishescaughtinsuchplacesareexceptionallyfat:thatis，suchfishesaahabitallsortsoflocalitiesaswell。Thefactisthatweed-eatingfishesfindabundanceoftheirspecialfoodinsuchlocalities，andcarnivorousfishfindanunusuallylargenumberofsmallerfish。Itmattersalsowhetherthewindbefromthenorthorsouth:thelongerfishthrivebetterwhenanorthwindprevails，andinsummeratoneandthesamespotmorelongfishwillbecaughtthanflatfishwithanorthwindblowing。

Thetunnyandthesword-fishareinfestedwithaparasiteabouttherisingoftheDog-star；thatistosay，aboutthistimeboththesefisheshaveagrubbesidetheirfinsthatisnicknamedthe\'gadfly\'。Itresemblesthescorpioninshape，andisaboutthesizeofthespider。Soacuteisthepainitinflictsthatthesword-fishwilloftenleapashighoutofthewaterasadolphin；infact，itsometimesleapsoverthebulwarksofavesselandfallsbackonthedeck。Thetunnydelightsmorethananyotherfishintheheatofthesun。Itwillburrowforwarmthinthesandinshallowwatersneartoshore，orwill，becauseitiswarm，disportitselfonthesurfaceofthesea。

Thefryoflittlefishesescapebybeingoverlooked，foritisonlythelargeronesofthesmallspeciesthatfishesofthelargespecieswillpursue。Thegreaterpartofthespawnandthefryoffishesisdestroyedbytheheatofthesun，forwhateverofthemthesunreachesitspoils。

Fishesarecaughtingreatestabundancebeforesunriseandaftersunset，or，speakinggenerally，justaboutsunsetandsunrise。

Fishermenhauluptheirnetsatthesetimes，andspeakofthehaulsthenmadeasthe\'nick-of-time\'hauls。Thefactis，thatatthesetimesfishesareparticularlyweak-sighted；atnighttheyareatrest，andasthelightgrowsstrongertheyseecomparativelywell。

Weknowofnopestilentialmaladyattackingfishes，suchasthosewhichattackman，andhorsesandoxenamongthequadrupedalvivipara，andcertainspeciesofothergenera，domesticatedandwild；butfishesdoseemtosufferfromsickness；andfishermeninferthisfromthefactthatattimesfishesinpoorcondition，andlookingasthoughtheyweresick，andofalteredcolour，arecaughtinalargehaulofwell-conditionedfishoftheirownspecies。Somuchforsea-fishes。

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River-fishandlake-fishalsoareexemptfromdiseasesofapestilentialcharacter，butcertainspeciesaresubjecttospecialandpeculiarmaladies。Forinstance，thesheat-fishjustbeforetherisingoftheDog-star，owingtoitsswimmingnearthesurfaceofthewater，isliabletosunstroke，andisparalysedbyaloudpealofthunder。Thecarpissubjecttothesameeventualitiesbutinalesserdegree。Thesheatfishisdestroyedingreatquantitiesinshallowwatersbytheserpentcalledthedragon。InthebalerusandtilonawormisengenderedabouttherisingoftheDog-star，thatsickensthesefishandcausesthemtorisetowardsthesurface，wheretheyarekilledbytheexcessiveheat。Thechalcisissubjecttoaveryviolentmalady；liceareengenderedunderneaththeirgillsingreatnumbers，andcausedestructionamongthem；butnootherspeciesoffishissubjecttoanysuchmalady。

Ifmulleinbeintroducedintowateritwillkillfishinitsvicinity。Itisusedextensivelyforcatchingfishinriversandponds；bythePhoeniciansitismadeuseofalsointhesea。

Therearetwoothermethodsemployedforcatch-fish。Itisaknownfactthatinwinterfishesemergefromthedeeppartsofriversand，bytheway，atallseasonsfreshwateristolerablycold。Atrenchaccordinglyisdugleadingintoariver，andwattledattheriverendwithreedsandstones，anaperturebeingleftinthewattlingthroughwhichtheriverwaterflowsintothetrench；whenthefrostcomesonthefishcanbetakenoutofthetrenchinweels。

Anothermethodisadoptedinsummerandwinteralike。Theyrunacrossastreamadamcomposedofbrushwoodandstonesleavingasmallopenspace，andinthisspacetheyinsertaweel；theythencoopthefishintowardsthisplace，anddrawthemupintheweelastheyswimthroughtheopenspace。

Shell-fish，asarule，arebenefitedbyrainyweather。Thepurplemurexisanexception；ifitbeplacedonashoreneartowhereariverdischarges，itwilldiewithinadayaftertastingthefreshwater。Themurexlivesforaboutfiftydaysaftercapture；duringthisperiodtheyfeedoffoneanother，astheregrowsontheshellakindofsea-weedorsea-moss；ifanyfoodisthrowntothemduringthisperiod，itissaidtobedonenottokeepthemalive，buttomakethemweighmore。

Toshell-fishingeneraldroughtisunwholesome。Duringdryweathertheydecreaseinsizeanddegenerateinquality；anditisduringsuchweatherthattheredscallopisfoundinmorethanusualabundance。InthePyrrhaeanStraittheclamwasexterminated，partlybythedredging-machineusedintheircapture，andpartlybylong-continueddroughts。Rainyweatheriswholesometothegeneralityofshellfishowingtothefactthatthesea-waterthenbecomesexceptionallysweet。IntheEuxine，owingtothecoldnessoftheclimate，shellfisharenotfound:noryetinrivers，exceptingafewbivalveshereandthere。Univalves，bytheway，areveryapttofreezetodeathinextremelycoldweather。Somuchforanimalsthatliveinwater。