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Theseareallcommonpropertiesofthecrawfish，thecarid，andthecrab；forthecrab，beitremembered，hastwoteeth。
Again，thecrawfishhasaductattachedallthewayfromthechesttotheanalvent；andthisductisconnectedwiththeovaryinthefemale，andwiththeseminalductsinthemale。Thispassageisattachedtotheconcavesurfaceofthefleshinsuchawaythatthefleshisinbetwixttheductandthegut；forthegutisrelatedtotheconvexityandthisducttotheconcavity，prettymuchasisobservedinquadrupeds。Andtheductisidenticalinboththesexes；
thatistosay，theductinbothisthinandwhite，andchargedwithasallow-colouredmoisture，andisattachedtothechest。
(Thefollowingarethepropertiesoftheeggandoftheconvolutesinthecarid。)
Themale，bytheway，differsfromthefemaleinregardtoitsflesh，inhavinginconnexionwiththechesttwoseparateanddistinctwhitesubstances，resemblingincolourandconformationthetentaclesofthecuttle-fish，andtheyareconvolutedlikethe\'poppy\'
orquasi-liverofthetrumpet-shell。Theseorganshavetheirstarting-pointin\'cotyledons\'orpapillae，whicharesituatedunderthehindmostfeet；andhereaboutsthefleshisredandblood-coloured，butisslipperytothetouchandinsofarunlikeflesh。Offfromtheconvoluteorganatthechestbranchesoffanothercoilaboutasthickasordinarytwine；andunderneaththerearetwogranularseminalbodiesinjuxta-positionwiththegut。Thesearetheorgansofthemale。Thefemalehasred-colouredeggs，whichareadjacenttothestomachandtoeachsideofthegutallalongtothefleshyparts，beingenvelopedinathinmembrane。
Sucharetheparts，internalandexternal，ofthecarid。
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Theinnerorgansofsanguineousanimalshappentohavespecificdesignations；fortheseanimalshaveinallcasestheinnerviscera，butthisisnotthecasewiththebloodlessanimals，butwhattheyhaveincommonwithred-bloodedanimalsisthestomach，theoesophagus，andthegut。
Withregardtothecrab，ithasalreadybeenstatedthatithasclawsandfeet，andtheirpositionhasbeensetforth；furthermore，forthemostparttheyhavetherightclawbiggerandstrongerthantheleft。Ithasalsobeenstated\'thatingeneraltheeyesofthecrablooksideways。Further，thetrunkofthecrab\'sbodyissingleandundivided，includingitsheadandanyotherpartitmaypossess。
Somecrabshaveeyesplacedsidewaysontheupperpart，immediatelyundertheback，andstandingalongwayapart，andsomehavetheireyesinthecentreandclosetogether，likethecrabsofHeracleotisandtheso-called\'grannies\'。Themouthliesunderneaththeeyes，andinsideittherearetwoteeth，asisthecasewiththecrawfish，onlythatinthecrabtheteetharenotroundedbutlong；andovertheteetharetwolids，andinbetwixtthemarestructuressuchasthecrawfishhasbesidesitsteeth。Thecrabtakesinwaternearbythemouth，usingthelidsasachecktotheinflow，anddischargesthewaterbytwopassagesabovethemouth，closingbymeansofthelidsthewaybywhichitentered；andthetwopassage-waysareunderneaththeeyes。Whenithastakeninwateritclosesitsmouthbymeansofbothlids，andejectsthewaterinthewayabovedescribed。Nextaftertheteethcomestheoesophagus，veryshort，soshortinfactthatthestomachseemstocomestraightwayafterthemouth。Nextaftertheoesophaguscomesthestomach，two-horned，tothecentreofwhichisattachedasimpleanddelicategut；andthegutterminatesoutwards，attheoperculum，ashasbeenpreviouslystated。(Thecrabhasthepartsinbetweenthelidsintheneighbourhoodoftheteethsimilartothesamepartsinthecrawfish。)Insidethetrunkisasallowjuiceandsomefewlittlebodies，longandwhite，andothersspottedred。Themalediffersfromthefemaleinsizeandbreadth，andinrespectoftheventralflap；forthisislargerinthefemalethaninthemale，andstandsoutfurtherfromthetrunk，andismorehairy(asisthecasealsowiththefemaleinthecrawfish)。
Somuch，then，fortheorgansofthemalacostracaorcrustacea。
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Withtheostracoderma，ortestaceans，suchastheland-snailsandthesea-snails，andallthe\'oysters\'so-called，andalsowiththesea-urchingenus，thefleshypart，insuchashaveflesh，issimilarlysituatedtothefleshypartinthecrustaceans；inotherwords，itisinsidetheanimal，andtheshellisoutside，andthereisnohardsubstanceintheinterior。Ascomparedwithoneanotherthetestaceanspresentmanydiversitiesbothinregardtotheirshellsandtothefleshwithin。Someofthemhavenofleshatall，asthesea-urchin；
othershaveflesh，butitisinsideandwhollyhidden，exceptthehead，asintheland-snails，andtheso-calledcocalia，and，amongpelagicanimals，inthepurplemurex，theceryxortrumpet-shell，thesea-snail，andthespiral-shapedtestaceansingeneral。Oftherest，somearebivalvedandsomeunivalved；andby\'bivalves\'Imeansuchasareenclosedwithintwoshells，andby\'univalved\'suchasareenclosedwithinasingleshell，andintheselastthefleshypartisexposed，asinthecaseofthelimpet。Ofthebivalves，somecanopenout，likethescallopandthemussel；forallsuchshellsaregrowntogetherononesideandareseparateontheother，soastoopenandshut。Otherbivalvesareclosedonbothsidesalike，likethesolenorrazor-fish。Sometestaceansthereare，thatareentirelyenvelopedinshellandexposenoportionoftheirfleshoutside，asthetethyaorascidians。
Again，inregardtotheshellsthemselves，thetestaceanspresentdifferenceswhencomparedwithoneanother。Somearesmooth-shelled，likethesolen，themussel，andsomeclams，viz。thosethatarenicknamed\'milkshells\'，whileothersarerough-shelled，suchasthepool-oysteroredibleoyster，thepinna，andcertainspeciesofcockles，andthetrumpetshells；andofthesesomeareribbed，suchasthescallopandacertainkindofclamorcockle，andsomearedevoidofribs，asthepinnaandanotherspeciesofclam。
Testaceansalsodifferfromoneanotherinregardtothethicknessorthinnessoftheirshell，bothasregardstheshellinitsentiretyandasregardsspecificpartsoftheshell，forinstance，thelips；forsomehavethin-lippedshells，likethemussel，andothershavethick-lippedshells，liketheoyster。Apropertycommontotheabovementioned，and，infact，toalltestaceans，isthesmoothnessoftheirshellsinside。Somealsoarecapableofmotion，likethescallop，andindeedsomeaverthatscallopscanactuallyfly，owingtothecircumstancethattheyoftenjumprightoutoftheapparatusbymeansofwhichtheyarecaught；othersareincapableofmotionandareattachedfasttosomeexternalobject，asisthecasewiththepinna。Allthespiral-shapedtestaceanscanmoveandcreep，andeventhelimpetrelaxesitsholdtogoinquestoffood。Inthecaseoftheunivalvesandthebivalves，thefleshysubstanceadherestotheshellsotenaciouslythatitcanonlyberemovedbyaneffort；inthecaseofthestromboids，itismorelooselyattached。Andapeculiarityofallthestromboidsisthespiraltwistoftheshellinthepartfarthestawayfromthehead；theyarealsofurnishedfrombirthwithanoperculum。And，further，allstromboidtestaceanshavetheirshellsontherighthandside，andmovenotinthedirectionofthespire，buttheoppositeway。Sucharethediversitiesobservedintheexternalpartsoftheseanimals。
Theinternalstructureisalmostthesameinallthesecreatures，andinthestromboidsespecially；foritisinsizethattheselatterdifferfromoneanother，andinaccidentsofthenatureofexcessordefect。Andthereisnotmuchdifferencebetweenmostoftheunivalvesandbivalves；but，whilethosethatopenandshutdifferfromoneanotherbutslightly，theydifferconsiderablyfromsuchasareincapableofmotion。Andthiswillbeillustratedmoresatisfactorilyhereafter。
Thespiral-shapedtestaceansareallsimilarlyconstructed，butdifferfromoneanother，ashasbeensaid，inthewayofexcessordefect(forthelargerspecieshavelargerandmoreconspicuousorgans，andthesmallerhavesmallerandlessconspicuous)，and，furthermore，inrelativehardnessorsoftness，andinothersuchaccidentsorproperties。Allthestromboids，forinstance，havethefleshthatextrudesfromthemouthoftheshell，hardandstiff；
somemore，andsomeless。Fromthemiddleofthisprotrudestheheadandtwohorns，andthesehornsarelargeinthelargespecies，butexceedinglyminuteinthesmallerones。Theheadprotrudesfromthemallinthesameway；and，iftheanimalbealarmed，theheaddrawsinagain。Someofthesecreatureshaveamouthandteeth，asthesnail；teethsharp，andsmall，anddelicate。Theyhavealsoaproboscisjustlikethatofthefly；andtheproboscisistongue-shaped。Theceryxandthepurplemurexhavethisorganfirmandsolid；andjustasthemyops，orhorse-fly，andtheoestrus，orgadfly，canpiercetheskinofaquadruped，soisthatproboscisproportionatelystrongerinthesetestaceans；fortheyborerightthroughtheshellsofothershell-fishonwhichtheyprey。Thestomachfollowscloseuponthemouth，and，bytheway，thisorganinthesnailresemblesabird\'scrop。Underneathcometwowhitefirmformations，mastoidorpapillaryinform；andsimilarformationsarefoundinthecuttle-fishalso，onlythattheyareofafirmerconsistencyinthecuttle-fish。Afterthestomachcomesanoesophagus，simpleandlong，extendingtothepoppyorquasi-liver，whichisintheinnermostrecessoftheshell。Allthesestatementsmaybeverifiedinthecaseofthepurplemurexandtheceryxbyobservationwithinthewhorloftheshell。Whatcomesnexttotheoesophagusisthegut；infact，thegutiscontinuouswiththeoesophagus，andrunsitswholelengthuncomplicatedtotheoutletoftheresiduum。Theguthasitspointoforiginintheregionofthecoilofthemecon，orso-called\'poppy\'，andiswiderhereabouts(forremember，themeconisforthemostpartasortofexcretioninalltestaceans)；itthentakesabendandrunsupagaintowardsthefleshypart，andterminatesbythesideofthehead，wheretheanimaldischargesitsresiduum；andthisholdsgoodinthecaseofallstromboidtestaceans，whetherterrestrialormarine。Fromthestomachthereisdrawninaparalleldirectionwiththeoesophagus，inthelargersnails，alongwhiteductenvelopedinamembrane，resemblingincolourthemastoidformationshigherup；andinitarenicksorinterruptions，asintheegg-massofthecrawfish，only，bytheway，theductofwhichwearetreatingiswhiteandtheegg-massofthecrawfishisred。Thisformationhasnooutletnorduct，butisenvelopedinathinmembranewithanarrowcavityinitsinterior。Andfromthegutdownwardextendblackandroughformations，incloseconnexion，somethingliketheformationsinthetortoise，onlynotsoblack。Marinesnails，also，havetheseformations，andthewhiteones，onlythattheformationsaresmallerinthesmallerspecies。
Thenon-spiralunivalvesandbivalvesareinsomerespectsimilarinconstruction，andinsomerespectsdissimilar，tothespiraltestaceans。Theyallhaveaheadandhorns，andamouth，andtheorganresemblingatongue；buttheseorgans，inthesmallerspecies，areindiscernibleowingtotheminutenessoftheseanimals，andsomeareindiscernibleeveninthelargerspecieswhendead，orwhenatrestandmotionless。Theyallhavethemecon，orpoppy，butnotallinthesameplace，norofequalsize，norsimilarlyopentoobservation；thus，thelimpetshavethisorgandeepdowninthebottomoftheshell，andthebivalvesatthehingeconnectingthetwovalves。
Theyalsohaveinallcasesthehairygrowthsorbeards，inacircularform，asinthescallops。And，withregardtotheso-called\'egg\'，inthosethathaveit，whentheyhaveit，itissituatedinoneofthesemi-circlesoftheperiphery，asisthecasewiththewhiteformationinthesnail；forthiswhiteformationinthesnailcorrespondstotheso-calledeggofwhichwearespeaking。Butalltheseorgans，ashasbeenstated，aredistinctlytraceableinthelargerspecies，whileinthesmallonestheyareinsomecasesalmost，andinothersaltogether，indiscernible。Hencetheyaremostplainlyvisibleinthelargescallops；andthesearethebivalvesthathaveonevalveflat-shaped，likethelidofapot。Theoutletoftheexcretionisinalltheseanimals(savefortheexceptiontobeafterwardsrelated)
ononeside；forthereisapassagewherebytheexcretionpassesout。(And，remember，themeconorpoppy，ashasbeenstated，isanexcretioninalltheseanimals-anexcretionenvelopedinamembrane。)Theso-calledegghasnooutletinanyofthesecreatures，butismerelyanexcrescenceinthefleshymass；anditisnotsituatedinthesameregionwiththegut，butthe\'egg\'issituatedontheright-handsideandthegutontheleft。Sucharetherelationsoftheanalventinmostoftheseanimals；butinthecaseofthewildlimpet(calledbysomethe\'sea-ear\')，theresiduumissuesbeneaththeshell，fortheshellisperforatedtogiveanoutlet。Inthisparticularlimpetthestomachisseencomingafterthemouth，andtheegg-shapedformationsarediscernible。ButfortherelativepositionsofthesepartsyouarereferredtomyTreatiseonAnatomy。
Theso-calledcarciniumorhermitcrabisinawayintermediatebetweenthecrustaceansandthetestaceans。Initsnatureitresemblesthecrawfishkind，anditisbornsimpleofitself，butbyitshabitofintroducingitselfintoashellandlivingthereitresemblesthetestaceans，andsoappearstopartakeofthecharactersofbothkinds。
Inshape，togiveasimpleillustration，itresemblesaspider，onlythatthepartbelowtheheadandthoraxislargerinthiscreaturethaninthespider。Ithastwothinredhorns，andunderneaththesehornstwolongeyes，notretreatinginwards，norturningsidewaysliketheeyesofthecrab，butprotrudingstraightout；andunderneaththeseeyesthemouth，androundaboutthemouthseveralhair-likegrowths，andnextafterthesetwobifurcatelegsorclaws，wherebyitdrawsinobjectstowardsitself，andtwootherlegsoneitherside，andathirdsmallone。Allbelowthethoraxissoft，andwhenopenedindissectionisfoundtobesallow-colouredwithin。Fromthemouththererunsasinglepassagerightontothestomach，butthepassagefortheexcretionsisnotdiscernible。Thelegsandthethoraxarehard，butnotsohardasthelegsandthethoraxofthecrab。Itdoesnotadheretoitsshelllikethepurplemurexandtheceryx，butcaneasilyslipoutofit。Itislongerwhenfoundintheshellofthestromboidsthanwhenfoundintheshelloftheneritae。
And，bytheway，theanimalfoundintheshelloftheneritaeisaseparatespecies，liketotheotherinmostrespects；butofitsbifurcatefeetorclaws，theright-handoneissmallandtheleft-handoneislarge，anditprogresseschieflybytheaidofthislatterandlargerone。(Intheshellsoftheseanimals，andincertainothers，thereisfoundaparasitewhosemodeofattachmentissimilar。
Theparticularonewhichwehavejustdescribedisnamedthecyllarus。)
Theneriteshasasmoothlargeroundshell，andresemblestheceryxinshape，onlythepoppy-juiceis，initscase，notblackbutred。Itclingswithgreatforcenearthemiddle。Incalmweather，then，theygofreeafield，butwhenthewindblowsthecarciniatakeshelteragainsttherocks:theneritaethemselvesclingfastlikelimpets；andthesameisthecasewiththehaemorrhoidoraporrhaidandallothersofthelikekind。And，bytheway，theyclingtotherock，whentheyturnbacktheiroperculum，forthisoperculumseemslikealid；infactthisstructurerepresentstheonepart，inthestromboids，ofthatwhichinthebivalvesisaduplicateshell。Theinterioroftheanimalisfleshy，andthemouthisinside。Anditisthesamewiththehaemorrhoid，thepurplemurex，andallsuchlikeanimals。
Suchofthelittlecrabsashavetheleftfootorclawthebiggerofthetwoarefoundintheneritae，butnotinthestromboids。
aresomesnail-shellswhichhaveinsidethemcreaturesresemblingthoselittlecrayfishthatarealsofoundinfreshwater。Thesecreatures，however，differinhavingthepartinsidetheshellsButastothecharacters，youarereferredtomyTreatiseonAnatomy。
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Theurchinsaredevoidofflesh，andthisisacharacterpeculiartothem；andwhiletheyareinallcasesemptyanddevoidofanyfleshwithin，theyareinallcasesfurnishedwiththeblackformations。Thereareseveralspeciesoftheurchin，andoneoftheseisthatwhichismadeuseofforfood；thisisthekindinwhicharefoundtheso-calledeggs，largeandedible，inthelargerandsmallerspecimensalike；forevenwhenasyetverysmalltheyareprovidedwiththem。Therearetwootherspecies，thespatangus，andtheso-calledbryssus，theseanimalsarepelagicandscarce。
Further，therearetheechinometrae，or\'mother-urchins\'，thelargestinsizeofallthespecies。Inadditiontothesethereisanotherspecies，smallinsize，butfurnishedwithlargehardspines；itlivesintheseaatadepthofseveralfathoms；andisusedbysomepeopleasaspecificforcasesofstrangury。IntheneighbourhoodofToronetherearesea-urchinsofawhitecolour，shells，spines，eggsandall，andthatarelongerthantheordinarysea-urchin。Thespineinthisspeciesisnotlargenorstrong，butratherlimp；andtheblackformationsinconnexionwiththemoutharemorethanusuallynumerous，andcommunicatewiththeexternalduct，butnotwithoneanother；inpointoffact，theanimalisinamannerdividedupbythem。Theedibleurchinmoveswithgreatestfreedomandmostoften；andthisisindicatedbythefactthattheseurchinshavealwayssomethingorotherontheirspines。
Allurchinsaresuppliedwitheggs，butinsomeofthespeciestheeggsareexceedinglysmallandunfitforfood。Singularlyenough，theurchinhaswhatwemaycallitsheadandmouthdownbelow，andaplacefortheissueoftheresiduumupabove；(andthissamepropertyiscommontoallstromboidsandtolimpets)。Forthefoodonwhichthecreaturelivesliesdownbelow；consequentlythemouthhasapositionwelladaptedforgettingatthefood，andtheexcretionisabove，neartothebackoftheshell。Theurchinhas，also，fivehollowteethinside，andinthemiddleoftheseteethafleshysubstanceservingtheofficeofatongue。Nexttothiscomestheoesophagus，andthenthestomach，dividedintofiveparts，andfilledwithexcretion，allthefivepartsunitingattheanalvent，wheretheshellisperforatedforanoutlet。Underneaththestomach，inanothermembrane，aretheso-calledeggs，identicalinnumberinallcases，andthatnumberisalwaysanoddnumber，towitfive。Upabove，theblackformationsareattachedtothestarting-pointoftheteeth，andtheyarebittertothetaste，andunfitforfood。A
similaroratleastananalogousformationisfoundinmanyanimals；
as，forinstance，inthetortoise，thetoad，thefrog，thestromboids，and，generally，inthemolluscs；buttheformationvarieshereandthereincolour，andinallcasesisaltogetheruneatable，ormoreorlessunpalatable。Inrealitythemouth-apparatusoftheurchiniscontinuousfromoneendtotheother，buttooutwardappearanceitisnotso，butlookslikeahornlanternwiththepanesofhornleftout。Theurchinusesitsspinesasfeet；foritrestsitsweightonthese，andthenmovingshiftsfromplacetoplace。
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Theso-calledtethyumorascidianhasofalltheseanimalsthemostremarkablecharacteristics。Itistheonlymolluscthathasitsentirebodyconcealedwithinitsshell，andtheshellisasubstanceintermediatebetweenhideandshell，sothatitcutslikeapieceofhardleather。Itisattachedtorocksbyitsshell，andisprovidedwithtwopassagesplacedatadistancefromoneanother，veryminuteandhardtosee，wherebyitadmitsanddischargesthesea-water；forithasnovisibleexcretion(whereasofshellfishingeneralsomeresembletheurchininthismatterofexcretion，andothersareprovidedwiththeso-calledmecon，orpoppy-juice)。Iftheanimalbeopened，itisfoundtohave，inthefirstplace，atendinousmembranerunningroundinsidetheshell-likesubstance，andwithinthismembraneistheflesh-likesubstanceoftheascidian，notresemblingthatinothermolluscs；butthisflesh，towhichInowallude，isthesameinallascidia。Andthissubstanceisattachedintwoplacestothemembraneandtheskin，obliquely；andatthepointofattachmentthespaceisnarrowedfromsidetoside，wherethefleshysubstancestretchestowardsthepassagesthatleadoutwardsthroughtheshell；andhereitdischargesandadmitsfoodandliquidmatter，justasitwouldifoneofthepassageswereamouthandtheotherananalvent；andoneofthepassagesissomewhatwiderthantheotherInsideithasapairofcavities，oneoneitherside，asmallpartitionseparatingthem；andoneofthesetwocavitiescontainstheliquid。Thecreaturehasnootherorganwhethermotororsensory，nor，aswassaidinthecaseoftheothers，isitfurnishedwithanyorganconnectedwithexcretion，asothershell-fishare。
Thecolouroftheascidianisinsomecasessallow，andinothercasesred。
Thereis，furthermore，thegenusofthesea-nettles，peculiarinitsway。Thesea-nettle，orsea-anemone，clingstorockslikecertainofthetestaceans，butattimesrelaxesitshold。Ithasnoshell，butitsentirebodyisfleshy。Itissensitivetotouch，and，ifyouputyourhandtoit，itwillseizeandclingtoit，asthecuttlefishwoulddowithitsfeelers，andinsuchawayastomakethefleshofyourhandswellup。Itsmouthisinthecentreofitsbody，anditlivesadheringtotherockasanoystertoitsshell。Ifanylittlefishcomeupagainstitititclingstoit；infact，justasIdescribeditaboveasdoingtoyourhand，soitdoestoanythingediblethatcomesinitsway；anditfeedsuponsea-urchinsandscallops。Anotherspeciesofthesea-nettleroamsfreelyabroad。Thesea-nettleappearstobedevoidaltogetherofexcretion，andinthisrespectitresemblesaplant。
Ofsea-nettlestherearetwospecies，thelesserandmoreedible，andthelargehardones，suchasarefoundintheneighbourhoodofChalcis。Inwintertimetheirfleshisfirm，andaccordinglytheyaresoughtafterasarticlesoffood，butinsummerweathertheyareworthless，fortheybecomethinandwatery，andifyoucatchatthemtheybreakatonceintobits，andcannotbetakenofftherocksentire；andbeingoppressedbytheheattheytendtoslipbackintothecrevicesoftherocks。
Somuchfortheexternalandtheinternalorgansofmolluscs，crustaceans，andtestaceans。
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Wenowproceedtotreatofinsectsinlikemanner。Thisgenuscomprisesmanyspecies，and，thoughseveralkindsareclearlyrelatedtooneanother，thesearenotclassifiedunderonecommondesignation，asinthecaseofthebee，thedrone，thewasp，andallsuchinsects，andagainasinthecaseofthosethathavetheirwingsinasheathorshard，likethecockchafer，thecarabusorstag-beetle，thecantharisorblister-beetle，andthelike。
Insectshavethreepartscommontothemall；thehead，thetrunkcontainingthestomach，andathirdpartinbetwixtthesetwo，correspondingtowhatinothercreaturesembraceschestandback。Inthemajorityofinsectsthisintermediatepartissingle；butinthelongandmultipedalinsectsithaspracticallythesamenumberofsegmentsasofnicks。
Allinsectswhencutintwocontinuetolive，exceptingsuchasarenaturallycoldbynature，orsuchasfromtheirminutesizechillrapidly；though，bytheway，waspsnotwithstandingtheirsmallsizecontinuelivingafterseverance。Inconjunctionwiththemiddleportioneithertheheadorthestomachcanlive，buttheheadcannotlivebyitself。Insectsthatarelonginshapeandmany-footedcanliveforalongwhileafterbeingcutintwain，andtheseveredportionscanmoveineitherdirection，backwardsorforwards；thus，thehinderportion，ifcutoff，cancrawleitherinthedirectionofthesectionorinthedirectionofthetail，asisobservedinthescolopendra。
Allinsectshaveeyes，butnootherorganofsensediscernible，exceptthatsomeinsectshaveakindofatonguecorrespondingtoasimilarorgancommontoalltestaceans；andbythisorgansuchinsectstasteandimbibetheirfood。Insomeinsectsthisorganissoft；inotherinsectsitisfirm；asitis，bytheway，inthepurple-fish，amongtestaceans。Inthehorseflyandthegadflythisorganishard，andindeeditishardinmostinsects。Inpointoffact，suchinsectsashavenostingintherearusethisorganasaweapon，(and，bytheway，suchinsectsasareprovidedwiththisorganareunprovidedwithteeth，withtheexceptionofafewinsects)；theflybyatouchcandrawbloodwiththisorgan，andthegnatcanprickorstingwithit。
Certaininsectsarefurnishedwithprickersorstings。Someinsectshavethestinginside，asthebeeandthewasp，othersoutside，asthescorpion；and，bytheway，thisistheonlyinsectfurnishedwithalongtail。And，further，thescorpionisfurnishedwithclaws，asisalsothecreatureresemblingascorpionfoundwithinthepagesofbooks。
Inadditiontotheirotherorgans，flyinginsectsarefurnishedwithwings。Someinsectsaredipterousordouble-winged，asthefly；
othersaretetrapterousorfurnishedwithfourwings，asthebee；and，bytheway，noinsectwithonlytwowingshasastingintherear。
Again，somewingedinsectshaveasheathorshardfortheirwings，asthecockchafer；whereasinothersthewingsareunsheathed，asinthebee。Butinthecaseofallalike，flightisinnowaymodifiedbytail-steerage，andthewingisdevoidofquill-structureordivisionofanykind。
Again，someinsectshaveantennaeinfrontoftheireyes，asthebutterflyandthehornedbeetle。Suchofthemashavethepowerofjumpinghavethehinderlegsthelonger；andtheselonghind-legswherebytheyjumpbendbackwardslikethehind-legsofquadrupeds。Allinsectshavethebellydifferentfromtheback；as，infact，isthecasewithallanimals。Thefleshofaninsect\'sbodyisneithershell-likenorisitliketheinternalsubstanceofshell-coveredanimals，norisitlikefleshintheordinarysenseoftheterm；butitisasomethingintermediateinquality。Whereforetheyhavenorspine，norbone，norsepia-bone，norenvelopingshell；buttheirbodybyitshardnessisitsownprotectionandrequiresnoextraneoussupport。However，insectshaveaskin；buttheskinisexceedinglythin。Theseandsuch-likearetheexternalorgansofinsects。
Internally，nextafterthemouth，comesagut，inthemajorityofcasesstraightandsimpledowntotheoutletoftheresiduum:butinafewcasesthegutiscoiled。Noinsectisprovidedwithanyviscera，orissuppliedwithfat；andthesestatementsapplytoallanimalsdevoidofblood。Somehaveastomachalso，andattachedtothistherestofthegut，eithersimpleorconvolutedasinthecaseoftheacrisorgrasshopper。
Thetettixorcicada，aloneofsuchcreatures(and，infact，aloneofallcreatures)，isunprovidedwithamouth，butitisprovidedwiththetongue-likeformationfoundininsectsfurnishedwithfrontwardstings；andthisformationinthecicadaislong，continuous，anddevoidofanysplit；andbytheaidofthisthecreaturefeedsondew，andondewonly，andinitsstomachnoexcretioniseverfound。Ofthecicadathereareseveralkinds，andtheydifferfromoneanotherinrelativemagnitude，andinthisrespectthattheachetesorchirperisprovidedwithacleftorapertureunderthehypozomaandhasinitamembranequitediscernible，whilstthemembraneisindiscernibleinthetettigonia。
Furthermore，therearesomestrangecreaturestobefoundinthesea，whichfromtheirrarityweareunabletoclassify。Experiencedfishermenaffirm，somethattheyhaveattimesseenintheseaanimalslikesticks，black，rounded，andofthesamethicknessthroughout；
othersthattheyhaveseencreaturesresemblingshields，redincolour，andfurnishedwithfinspackedclosetogether；andothersthattheyhaveseencreaturesresemblingthemaleorganinshapeandsize，withapairoffinsintheplaceofthetesticles，andtheyaverthatononeoccasionacreatureofthisdescriptionwasbroughtupontheendofanightline。
Somuchthenfortheparts，externalandinternal，exceptionalandcommon，ofallanimals。
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Wenowproceedtotreatofthesenses；fortherearediversitiesinanimalswithregardtothesenses，seeingthatsomeanimalshavetheuseofallthesenses，andotherstheuseofalimitednumberofthem。Thetotalnumberofthesenses(forwehavenoexperienceofanyspecialsensenothereincluded)，isfive:sight，hearing，smell，taste，andtouch。
Man，then，andallviviparathathavefeet，and，further，allred-bloodedovipara，appeartohavetheuseofallthefivesenses，exceptwheresomeisolatedspecieshasbeensubjectedtomutilation，asinthecaseofthemole。Forthisanimalisdeprivedofsight；ithasnoeyesvisible，butiftheskin-athickone，bytheway-bestrippedoffthehead，abouttheplaceintheexteriorwhereeyesusuallyare，theeyesarefoundinsideinastuntedcondition，furnishedwithallthepartsfoundinordinaryeyes；thatistosay，wefindtheretheblackrim，andthefattypartsurroundingit；butallthesepartsaresmallerthanthesamepartsinordinaryvisibleeyes。Thereisnoexternalsignoftheexistenceoftheseorgansinthemole，owingtothethicknessoftheskindrawnoverthem，sothatitwouldseemthatthenaturalcourseofdevelopmentwerecongenitallyarrested；(forextendingfromthebrainatitsjunctionwiththemarrowaretwostrongsinewyductsrunningpastthesocketsoftheeyes，andterminatingattheuppereye-teeth)。Alltheotheranimalsofthekindsabovementionedhaveaperceptionofcolourandofsound，andthesensesofsmellandtaste；thefifthsense，that，namely，oftouch，iscommontoallanimalswhatsoever。
Insomeanimalstheorgansofsenseareplainlydiscernible；andthisisespeciallythecasewiththeeyes。Foranimalshaveaspeciallocalityfortheeyes，andalsoaspeciallocalityforhearing:thatistosay，someanimalshaveears，whileothershavethepassageforsounddiscernible。Itisthesamewiththesenseofsmell；
thatistosay，someanimalshavenostrils，andothershaveonlythepassagesforsmell，suchasbirds。Itisthesamealsowiththeorganoftaste，thetongue。Ofaquaticred-bloodedanimals，fishespossesstheorganoftaste，namelythetongue，butitisinanimperfectandamorphousform，inotherwordsitisosseousandundetached。Insomefishthepalateisfleshy，asinthefresh-watercarp，sothatbyaninattentiveobserveritmightbemistakenforatongue。
Thereisnodoubtbutthatfisheshavethesenseoftaste，foragreatnumberofthemdelightinspecialflavours；andfishesfreelytakethehookifitbebaitedwithapieceoffleshfromatunnyorfromanyfatfish，obviouslyenjoyingthetasteandtheeatingoffoodofthiskind。Fisheshavenovisibleorgansforhearingorforsmell；forwhatmightappeartoindicateanorganforsmellintheregionofthenostrilhasnocommunicationwiththebrain。Theseindications，infact，insomecasesleadnowhere，likeblindalleys，andinothercasesleadonlytothegills；butforallthisfishesundoubtedlyhearandsmell。Fortheyareobservedtorunawayfromanyloudnoise，suchaswouldbemadebytherowingofagalley，soastobecomeeasyofcaptureintheirholes；for，bytheway，thoughasoundbeveryslightintheopenair，ithasaloudandalarmingresonancetocreaturesthathearunderwater。Andthisisshowninthecaptureofthedolphin；forwhenthehuntershaveenclosedashoalofthesefisheswitharingoftheircanoes，theysetupfrominsidethecanoesaloudsplashinginthewater，andbysodoinginducethecreaturestoruninashoalhighanddryuponthebeach，andsocapturethemwhilestupefiedwiththenoise。Andyet，forallthis，thedolphinhasnoorganofhearingdiscernible。Furthermore，whenengagedintheircraft，fishermenareparticularlycarefultomakenonoisewithoarornet；andaftertheyhavespiedashoal，theyletdowntheirnetsataspotsofaroffthattheycountuponnonoisebeinglikelytoreachtheshoal，occasionedeitherbyoarorbythesurgingoftheirboatsthroughthewater；andthecrewsarestrictlyenjoinedtopreservesilenceuntiltheshoalhasbeensurrounded。And，attimes，whentheywantthefishtocrowdtogether，theyadoptthestratagemofthedolphin-hunter；inotherwordstheyclatterstonestogether，thatthefishmay，intheirfright，gathercloseintoonespot，andsotheyenvelopthemwithintheirnets。(Beforesurroundingthem，then，theypreservesilence，aswassaid；but，afterhemmingtheshoalin，theycalloneverymantoshoutoutaloudandmakeanykindofnoise；foronhearingthenoiseandhubbubthefisharesuretotumbleintothenetsfromsheerfright。)Further，whenfishermenseeashoaloffishfeedingatadistance，disportingthemselvesincalmbrightweatheronthesurfaceofthewater，iftheyareanxioustodescrythesizeofthefishandtolearnwhatkindofafishitis，theymaysucceedincomingupontheshoalwhilstyetbaskingatthesurfaceiftheysailupwithouttheslightestnoise，butifanymanmakeanoisepreviously，theshoalwillbeseentoscurryawayinalarm。Again，thereisasmallriver-fishcalledthecottusorbullhead；thiscreatureburrowsunderarock，andfisherscatchitbyclatteringstonesagainsttherock，andthefish，bewilderedatthenoise，dartsoutofitshiding-place。Fromthesefactsitisquiteobviousthatfishescanhear；andindeedsomepeople，fromlivingneartheseaandfrequentlywitnessingsuchphenomena，affirmthatofalllivingcreaturesthefishisthequickestofhearing。And，bytheway，ofallfishesthequickestofhearingarethecestreusormullet，thechremps，thelabraxorbasse，thesalpeorsaupe，thechromisorsciaena，andsuchlike。
Otherfishesarelessquickofhearing，and，asmightbeexpected，aremoreapttobefoundlivingatthebottomofthesea。
Thecaseissimilarinregardtothesenseofsmell。Thus，asarule，fisheswillnottouchabaitthatisnotfresh，neitheraretheyallcaughtbyoneandthesamebait，buttheyareseverallycaughtbybaitssuitedtotheirseverallikings，andthesebaitstheydistinguishbytheirsenseofsmell；and，bytheway，somefishesareattractedbymalodorousbaits，asthesaupe，forinstance，isattractedbyexcrement。Again，anumberoffishesliveincaves；andaccordinglyfishermen，whentheywanttoenticethemout，smearthemouthofacavewithstrong-smellingpickles，andthefishareSoonattractedtothesmell。Andtheeeliscaughtinasimilarway；forthefishermanlaysdownanearthenpotthathasheldpickles，afterinsertinga\'weel\'intheneckthereof。Asageneralrule，fishesareespeciallyattractedbysavourysmells。Forthisreason，fishermenroastthefleshypartsofthecuttle-fishanduseitasbaitonaccountofitssmell，forfisharepeculiarlyattractedbyit；theyalsobaketheoctopusandbaittheirfish-basketsorweelswithit，entirely，astheysay，onaccountofitssmell。Furthermore，gregariousfishes，iffishwashingsorbilge-waterbethrownoverboard，areobservedtoscudofftoadistance，fromapparentdislikeofthesmell。Anditisassertedthattheycanatoncedetectbysmellthepresenceoftheirownblood；andthisfacultyismanifestedbytheirhurryingofftoagreatdistancewheneverfish-bloodisspiltinthesea。And，asageneralrule，ifyoubaityourweelwithastinkingbait，thefishrefusetoentertheweeloreventodrawnear；butifyoubaittheweelwithafreshandsavourybait，theycomeatoncefromlongdistancesandswimintoit。Andallthisisparticularlymanifestinthedolphin；for，aswasstated，ithasnovisibleorganofhearing，andyetitiscapturedwhenstupefiedwithnoise；andso，whileithasnovisibleorganforsmell，ithasthesenseofsmellremarkablykeen。Itismanifest，then，thattheanimalsabovementionedareinpossessionofallthefivesenses。
Allotheranimalsmay，withveryfewexceptions，becomprehendedwithinfourgenera:towit，molluscs，crustaceans，testaceans，andinsects。Ofthesefourgenera，themollusc，thecrustacean，andtheinsecthaveallthesenses:atallevents，theyhavesight，smell，andtaste。Asforinsects，bothwingedandwingless，theycandetectthepresenceofscentedobjectsafaroff，asforinstancebeesandsnipesdetectthepresenceofhoneyatadistance；anddosorecognizingitbysmell。Manyinsectsarekilledbythesmellofbrimstone；ants，iftheaperturestotheirdwellingsbesmearedwithpowderedoriganumandbrimstone，quittheirnests；andmostinsectsmaybebanishedwithburnthart\'shorn，orbetterstillbytheburningofthegumstyrax。Thecuttle-fish，theoctopus，andthecrawfishmaybecaughtbybait。Theoctopus，infact，clingssotightlytotherocksthatitcannotbepulledoff，butremainsattachedevenwhentheknifeisemployedtoseverit；andyet，ifyouapplyfleabanetothecreature，itdropsoffattheverysmellofit。Thefactsaresimilarinregardtotaste。Forthefoodthatinsectsgoinquestofisofdiversekinds，andtheydonotalldelightinthesameflavours:
forinstance，thebeeneversettlesonawitheredorwiltedflower，butonfreshandsweetones；andtheconopsorgnatsettlesonlyonacridsubstancesandnotonsweet。Thesenseoftouch，bytheway，ashasbeenremarked，iscommontoallanimals。Testaceanshavethesensesofsmellandtaste。Withregardtotheirpossessionofthesenseofsmell，thatisprovedbytheuseofbaits，e。g。inthecaseofthepurple-fish；forthiscreatureisenticedbybaitsofrancidmeat，whichitperceivesandisattractedtofromagreatdistance。
Theproofthatitpossessesasenseoftastehangsbytheproofofitssenseofsmell；forwheneverananimalisattractedtoathingbyperceivingitssmell，itissuretolikethetasteofit。Further，allanimalsfurnishedwithamouthderivepleasureorpainfromthetouchofsapidjuices。
Withregardtosightandhearing，wecannotmakestatementswiththoroughconfidenceoronirrefutableevidence。However，thesolenorrazor-fish，ifyoumakeanoise，appearstoburrowinthesand，andtohidehimselfdeeperwhenhehearstheapproachoftheironrod(fortheanimal，beitobserved，jutsalittleoutofitshole，whilethegreaterpartofthebodyremainswithin)，-andscallops，ifyoupresentyourfingerneartheiropenvalves，closethemtightagainasthoughtheycouldseewhatyouweredoing。Furthermore，whenfishermenarelayingbaitforneritae，theyalwaysgettoleewardofthem，andneverspeakawordwhilesoengaged，underthefirmimpressionthattheanimalcansmellandhear；andtheyassureusthat，ifanyonespeaksaloud，thecreaturemakeseffortstoescape。Withregardtotestaceans，ofthewalkingorcreepingspeciestheurchinappearstohavetheleastdevelopedsenseofsmell；and，ofthestationaryspecies，theascidianandthebarnacle。
Somuchfortheorgansofsenseinthegeneralrunofanimals。
Wenowproceedtotreatofvoice。
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Voiceandsoundaredifferentfromoneanother；andlanguagediffersfromvoiceandsound。Thefactisthatnoanimalcangiveutterancetovoiceexceptbytheactionofthepharynx，andconsequentlysuchanimalsasaredevoidoflunghavenovoice；andlanguageisthearticulationofvocalsoundsbytheinstrumentalityofthetongue。Thus，thevoiceandlarynxcanemitvocalorvowelsounds；
non-vocalorconsonantalsoundsaremadebythetongueandthelips；
andoutofthesevocalandnon-vocalsoundslanguageiscomposed。
Consequently，animalsthathavenotongueatallorthathaveatonguenotfreelydetached，haveneithervoicenorlanguage；although，bytheway，theymaybeenabledtomakenoisesorsoundsbyotherorgansthanthetongue。
Insects，forinstance，havenovoiceandnolanguage，buttheycanemitsoundbyinternalairorwind，thoughnotbytheemissionofairorwind；fornoinsectsarecapableofrespiration。Butsomeofthemmakeahummingnoise，likethebeeandtheotherwingedinsects；andothersaresaidtosing，asthecicada。Andalltheselatterinsectsmaketheirspecialnoisesbymeansofthemembranethatisunderneaththe\'hypozoma\'-thoseinsects，thatistosay，whosebodyisthusdivided；asforinstance，onespeciesofcicada，whichmakesthesoundbymeansofthefrictionoftheair。Fliesandbees，andthelike，producetheirspecialnoisebyopeningandshuttingtheirwingsintheactofflying；forthenoisemadeisbythefrictionofairbetweenthewingswheninmotion。Thenoisemadebygrasshoppersisproducedbyrubbingorreverberatingwiththeirlonghind-legs。
Nomolluscorcrustaceancanproduceanynaturalvoiceorsound。
Fishescanproducenovoice，fortheyhavenolungs，norwindpipeandpharynx；buttheyemitcertaininarticulatesoundsandsqueaks，whichiswhatiscalledtheir\'voice\'，asthelyraorgurnard，andthesciaena(forthesefishesmakeagruntingkindofnoise)andthecaprusorboar-fishintheriverAchelous，andthechalcisandthecuckoo-fish；forthechalcismakesasortpipingsound，andthecuckoo-fishmakesasoundgreatlylikethecryofthecuckoo，andisnicknamedfromthecircumstance。Theapparentvoiceinallthesefishesisasoundcausedinsomecasesbyarubbingmotionoftheirgills，whichbythewayareprickly，orinothercasesbyinternalpartsabouttheirbellies；fortheyallhaveairorwindinsidethem，byrubbingandmovingwhichtheyproducethesounds。Somecartilaginousfishseemtosqueak。
Butinthesecasestheterm\'voice\'isinappropriate；themorecorrectexpressionwouldbe\'sound\'。Forthescallop，whenitgoesalongsupportingitselfonthewater，whichistechnicallycalled\'flying\'，makesawhizzingsound；andsodoesthesea-swalloworflying-fish:forthisfishfliesintheair，cleanoutofthewater，beingfurnishedwithfinsbroadandlong。Justthenasintheflightofbirdsthesoundmadebytheirwingsisobviouslynotvoice，soisitinthecaseofalltheseothercreatures。
Thedolphin，whentakenoutofthewater，givesasqueakandmoansintheair，butthesenoisesdonotresemblethoseabovementioned。
Forthiscreaturehasavoice(andcanthereforeuttervocalorvowelsounds)，foritisfurnishedwithalungandawindpipe；butitstongueisnotloose，norhasitlips，soastogiveutterancetoanarticulatesound(orasoundofvowelandconsonantincombination。)
Ofanimalswhicharefurnishedwithtongueandlung，theoviparousquadrupedsproduceavoice，butafeebleone；insomecases，ashrillpipingsound，liketheserpent；inothers，athinfaintcry；inothers，alowhiss，likethetortoise。Theformationofthetongueinthefrogisexceptional。Thefrontpartofthetongue，whichinotheranimalsisdetached，istightlyfixedinthefrogasitisinallfishes；buttheparttowardsthepharynxisfreelydetached，andmay，sotospeak，bespatoutwards，anditiswiththisthatitmakesitspeculiarcroak。Thecroakingthatgoesoninthemarshisthecallofthemalestothefemalesatruttingtime；and，bytheway，allanimalshaveaspecialcryforthelikeendatthelikeseason，asisobservedinthecaseofgoats，swine，andsheep。(Thebull-frogmakesitscroakingnoisebyputtingitsunderjawonalevelwiththesurfaceofthewaterandextendingitsupperjawtoitsutmostcapacity。Thetensionissogreatthattheupperjawbecomestransparent，andtheanimal\'seyesshinethroughthejawlikelamps；
for，bytheway，thecommerceofthesexestakesplaceusuallyinthenighttime。)Birdscanuttervocalsounds；andsuchofthemcanarticulatebestashavethetonguemoderatelyflat，andalsosuchashavethindelicatetongues。Insomecases，themaleandthefemaleutterthesamenote；inothercases，differentnotes。Thesmallerbirdsaremorevocalandgiventochirpingthanthelargerones；butinthepairingseasoneveryspeciesofbirdbecomesparticularlyvocal。Someofthemcallwhenfighting，asthequail，otherscryorcrowwhenchallengingtocombat，asthepartridge，orwhenvictorious，asthebarn-doorcock。Insomecasescock-birdsandhenssingalike，asisobservedinthenightingale，onlythatthehenstopssingingwhenbroodingorrearingheryoung；inotherbirds，thecockssingmorethanthehens；infact，withbarn-doorfowlsandquails，thecocksingsandthehendoesnot。
Viviparousquadrupedsuttervocalsoundsofdifferentkinds，buttheyhavenopowerofconverse。Infact，thispower，orlanguage，ispeculiartoman。Forwhilethecapabilityoftalkingimpliesthecapabilityofutteringvocalsounds，theconversedoesnotholdgood。Menthatareborndeafareinallcasesalsodumb；thatis，theycanmakevocalsounds，buttheycannotspeak。Children，justastheyhavenocontroloverotherparts，sohavenocontrol，atfirst，overthetongue；butitissofarimperfect，andonlyfreesanddetachesitselfbydegrees，sothatintheintervalchildrenforthemostpartlispandstutter。
Vocalsoundsandmodesoflanguagedifferaccordingtolocality。
Vocalsoundsarecharacterizedchieflybytheirpitch，whetherhighorlow，andthekindsofsoundcapableofbeingproducedareidenticalwithinthelimitsofoneandthesamespecies；butarticulatesound，thatonemightreasonablydesignate\'language\'，differsbothinvariousanimals，andalsointhesamespeciesaccordingtodiversityoflocality；asforinstance，somepartridgescackle，andsomemakeashrilltwitteringnoise。Oflittlebirds，somesingadifferentnotefromtheparentbirds，iftheyhavebeenremovedfromthenestandhaveheardotherbirdssinging；andamother-nightingalehasbeenobservedtogivelessonsinsingingtoayoungbird，fromwhichspectaclewemightobviouslyinferthatthesongofthebirdwasnotequallycongenitalwithmerevoice，butwassomethingcapableofmodificationandofimprovement。Menhavethesamevoiceorvocalsounds，buttheydifferfromoneanotherinspeechorlanguage。
Theelephantmakesavocalsoundofawindlikesortbythemouthalone，unaidedbythetrunk，justlikethesoundofamanpantingorsighing；but，ifitemploythetrunkaswell，thesoundproducedislikethatofahoarsetrumpet。
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Withregardtothesleepingandwakingofanimals，allcreaturesthatarered-bloodedandprovidedwithlegsgivesensibleproofthattheygotosleepandthattheywakenupfromsleep；for，asamatteroffact，allanimalsthatarefurnishedwitheyelidsshutthemupwhentheygotosleep。Furthermore，itwouldappearthatnotonlydomendream，buthorsesalso，anddogs，andoxen；aye，andsheep，andgoats，andallviviparousquadrupeds；anddogsshowtheirdreamingbybarkingintheirsleep。Withregardtooviparousanimalswecannotbesurethattheydream，butmostundoubtedlytheysleep。Andthesamemaybesaidofwateranimals，suchasfishes，molluscs，crustaceans，towitcrawfishandthelike。Theseanimalssleepwithoutdoubt，althoughtheirsleepisofveryshortduration。Theproofoftheirsleepingcannotbegotfromtheconditionoftheireyes-fornoneofthesecreaturesarefurnishedwitheyelids-butcanbeobtainedonlyfromtheirmotionlessrepose。
Apartfromtheirritationcausedbyliceandwhatarenicknamedfleas，fisharemetwithinastatesomotionlessthatonemighteasilycatchthembyhand；and，asamatteroffact，theselittlecreatures，ifthefishremainlonginoneposition，willattacktheminmyriadsanddevourthem。Fortheseparasitesarefoundinthedepthsofthesea，andaresonumerousthattheydevouranybaitmadeoffish\'sfleshifitbeleftlongonthegroundatthebottom；
andfishermenoftendrawupaclusterofthem，allclingingontothebait。
Butitisfromthefollowingfactsthatwemaymorereasonablyinferthatfishessleep。Veryoftenitispossibletotakeafishoffitsguardsofarastocatchholdofitortogiveitablowunawares；andallthewhilethatyouarepreparingtocatchorstrikeit，thefishisquitestillbutforaslightmotionofthetail。Anditisquiteobviousthattheanimalissleeping，fromitsmovementsifanydisturbancebemadeduringitsrepose；foritmovesjustasyouwouldexpectinacreaturesuddenlyawakened。Further，owingtotheirbeingasleep，fishmaybecapturedbytorchlight。Thewatchmeninthetunny-fisheryoftentakeadvantageofthefishbeingasleeptoenveloptheminacircleofnets；anditisquiteobviousthattheywerethussleepingbytheirlyingstillandallowingtheglisteningunder-partsoftheirbodiestobecomevisible，whilethecaptureistakingPlace。Theysleepinthenight-timemorethanduringtheday；andsosoundlyatnightthatyoumaycastthenetwithoutmakingthemstir。Fish，asageneralrule，sleepclosetotheground，ortothesandortoastoneatthebottom，orafterconcealingthemselvesunderarockortheground。Flatfishgotosleepinthesand；andtheycanbedistinguishedbytheoutlinesoftheirshapesinthesand，andarecaughtinthispositionbybeingspearedwithprongedinstruments。Thebasse，thechrysophrysorgilt-head，themullet，andfishofthelikesortareoftencaughtinthedaytimebytheprongowingtotheirhavingbeensurprisedwhensleeping；foritisscarcelyprobablethatfishcouldbeprongedwhileawake。Cartilaginousfishsleepattimessosoundlythattheymaybecaughtbyhand。Thedolphinandthewhale，andallsuchasarefurnishedwithablow-hole，sleepwiththeblow-holeoverthesurfaceofthewater，andbreathethroughtheblow-holewhiletheykeepupaquietflappingoftheirfins；indeed，somemarinersassureusthattheyhaveactuallyheardthedolphinsnoring。
Molluscssleeplikefishes，andcrustaceansalso。Itisplainalsothatinsectssleep；fortherecanbenomistakingtheirconditionofmotionlessrepose。Inthebeethefactofitsbeingasleepisveryobvious；foratnight-timebeesareatrestandceasetohum。Butthefactthatinsectssleepmaybeverywellseeninthecaseofcommonevery-daycreatures；fornotonlydotheyrestatnight-timefromdimnessofvision(and，bytheway，allhard-eyedcreaturesseebutindistinctly)，butevenifalightedcandlebepresentedtheycontinuesleepingquiteassoundly。
Ofallanimalsmanismostgiventodreaming。Childrenandinfantsdonotdream，butinmostcasesdreamingcomesonattheageoffourorfiveyears。Instanceshavebeenknownoffull-grownmenandwomenthathaveneverdreamedatall；inexceptionalcasesofthiskind，ithasbeenobservedthatwhenadreamoccursinadvancedlifeitprognosticateseitheractualdissolutionorageneralbreak-upofthesystem。
Somuchthenforsensationandforthephenomenaofsleepingandofawakening。
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Withregardtosex，someanimalsaredividedintomaleandfemale，butothersarenotsodividedbutcanonlybesaidinacomparativewaytobringforthyoungandtobepregnant。Inanimalsthatliveconfinedtoonespotthereisnodualityofsex；noristheresuch，infact，inanytestaceans。Inmolluscsandincrustaceanswefindmaleandfemale:and，indeed，inallanimalsfurnishedwithfeet，bipedorquadruped；inshort，inallsuchasbycopulationengendereitherliveyoungoreggorgrub。Intheseveralgenera，withhowevercertainexceptions，thereeitherabsolutelyisorabsolutelyisnotadualityofsex。Thus，inquadrupedsthedualityisuniversal，whiletheabsenceofsuchdualityisuniversalintestaceans，andofthesecreatures，aswithplants，someindividualsarefruitfulandsomearenottheirlyingstillButamonginsectsandfishes，somecasesarefoundwhollydevoidofthisdualityofsex。Forinstance，theeelisneithermalenorfemale，andcanengendernothing。Infact，thosewhoassertthateelsareattimesfoundwithhair-likeorworm-likeprogenyattached，makeonlyrandomassertionsfromnothavingcarefullynoticedthelocalityofsuchattachments。Fornoeelnoranimalofthiskindiseverviviparousunlesspreviouslyoviparous；andnoeelwaseveryetseenwithanegg。Andanimalsthatareviviparoushavetheiryounginthewombandcloselyattached，andnotinthebelly；
for，iftheembryowerekeptinthebelly，itwouldbesubjectedtotheprocessofdigestionlikeordinaryfood。Whenpeoplerestdualityofsexintheeelontheassertionthattheheadofthemaleisbiggerandlonger，andtheheadofthefemalesmallerandmoresnubbed，theyaretakingdiversityofspeciesfordiversityofsex。
Therearecertainfishthatarenicknamedtheepitragiae，orcapon-fish，and，bytheway，fishofthisdescriptionarefoundinfreshwater，asthecarpandthebalagrus。Thissortoffishneverhaseitherroeormilt；buttheyarehardandfatallover，andarefurnishedwithasmallgut；andthesefishareregardedasofsuper-excellentquality。
Again，justasintestaceansandinplantsthereiswhatbearsandengenders，butnotwhatimpregnates，soisit，amongfishes，withthepsetta，theerythrinus，andthechanne；forthesefishareinallcasesfoundfurnishedwitheggs。
Asageneralrule，inred-bloodedanimalsfurnishedwithfeetandnotoviparous，themaleislargerandlonger-livedthanthefemale(exceptwiththemule，wherethefemaleislonger-livedandbiggerthanthemale)；whereasinoviparousandvermiparouscreatures，asinfishesandininsects，thefemaleislargerthanthemale；as，forinstance，withtheserpent，thephalangiumorvenom-spider，thegecko，andthefrog。Thesamedifferenceinsizeofthesexesisfoundinfishes，as，forinstance，inthesmallercartilaginousfishes，inthegreaterpartofthegregariousspecies，andinallthatliveinandaboutrocks。Thefactthatthefemaleislonger-livedthanthemaleisinferredfromthefactthatfemalefishesarecaughtolderthanmales。Furthermore，inallanimalstheupperandfrontpartsarebetter，stronger，andmorethoroughlyequippedinthemalethaninthefemale，whereasinthefemalethosepartsarethebetterthatmaybetermedhinder-partsorunderparts。Andthisstatementisapplicabletomanandtoallviviparathathavefeet。Again，thefemaleislessmuscularandlesscompactlyjointed，andmorethinanddelicateinthehair-thatis，wherehairisfound；and，wherethereisnohair，lessstronglyfurnishedinsomeanalogoussubstance。
Andthefemaleismoreflaccidintextureofflesh，andmoreknock-kneed，andtheshin-bonesarethinner；andthefeetaremorearchedandhollowinsuchanimalsasarefurnishedwithfeet。Andwithregardtovoice，thefemaleinallanimalsthatarevocalhasathinnerandsharpervoicethanthemale；except，bytheway，withkine，forthelowingandbellowingofthecowhasadeepernotethanthatofthebull。Withregardtoorgansofdefenceandoffence，suchasteeth，tusks，horns，spurs，andthelike，theseinsomespeciesthemalepossessesandthefemaledoesnot；as，forinstance，thehindhasnohorns，andwherethecock-birdhasaspurthehenisentirelydestituteoftheorgan；andinlikemannerthesowisdevoidoftusks。
Inotherspeciessuchorgansarefoundinbothsexes，butaremoreperfectlydevelopedinthemale；as，forinstance，thehornofthebullismorepowerfulthanthehornofthecow。
BookV
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Astothepartsinternalandexternalthatallanimalsarefurnishedwithal，andfurtherastothesenses，tovoice，andsleep，andthedualitysex，allthesetopicshavenowbeentouchedupon。Itnowremainsforustodiscuss，dulyandinorder，theirseveralmodesofpropagation。
Thesemodesaremanyanddiverse，andinsomerespectsarelike，andinotherrespectsareunliketooneanother。Aswecarriedonourpreviousdiscussiongenusbygenus，sowemustattempttofollowthesamedivisionsinourpresentargument；onlythatwhereasintheformercasewestartedwithaconsiderationofthepartsofman，inthepresentcaseitbehovesustotreatofmanlastofallbecauseheinvolvesmostdiscussion。Weshallcommence，then，withtestaceans，andthenproceedtocrustaceans，andthentotheothergeneraindueorder；andtheseothergeneraare，severally，molluscs，andinsects，thenfishesviviparousandfishesoviparous，andnextbirds；andafterwardsweshalltreatofanimalsprovidedwithfeet，bothsuchasareoviparousandsuchasareviviparous，andwemayobservethatsomequadrupedsareviviparous，butthattheonlyviviparousbipedisman。
Nowthereisonepropertythatanimalsarefoundtohaveincommonwithplants。Forsomeplantsaregeneratedfromtheseedofplants，whilstotherplantsareself-generatedthroughtheformationofsomeelementalprinciplesimilartoaseed；andoftheselatterplantssomederivetheirnutrimentfromtheground，whilstothersgrowinsideotherplants，asismentioned，bytheway，inmytreatiseonBotany。
Sowithanimals，somespringfromparentanimalsaccordingtotheirkind，whilstothersgrowspontaneouslyandnotfromkindredstock；andoftheseinstancesofspontaneousgenerationsomecomefromputrefyingearthorvegetablematter，asisthecasewithanumberofinsects，whileothersarespontaneouslygeneratedintheinsideofanimalsoutofthesecretionsoftheirseveralorgans。
Inanimalswheregenerationgoesbyheredity，whereverthereisdualityofsexgenerationisduetocopulation。Inthegroupoffishes，however，therearesomethatareneithermalenorfemale，andthese，whiletheyareidenticalgenericallywithotherfish，differfromthemspecifically；butthereareothersthatstandaltogetherisolatedandapartbythemselves。Otherfishestherearethatarealwaysfemaleandnevermale，andfromthemareconceivedwhatcorrespondtothewind-eggsinbirds。Sucheggs，bytheway，inbirdsareallunfruitful；butitistheirnaturetobeindependentlycapableofgenerationuptotheegg-stage，unlessindeedtherebesomeothermodethantheonefamiliartousofintercoursewiththemale；
butconcerningthesetopicsweshalltreatmorepreciselylateron。Inthecaseofcertainfishes，however，aftertheyhavespontaneouslygeneratedeggs，theseeggsdevelopintolivinganimals；onlythatincertainofthesecasesdevelopmentisspontaneous，andinothersisnotindependentofthemale；andthemethodofproceedinginregardtothesematterswillsetforthbyandby，forthemethodissomewhatliketothemethodfollowedinthecaseofbirds。Butwhensoevercreaturesarespontaneouslygenerated，eitherinotheranimals，inthesoil，oronplants，orinthepartsofthese，andwhensucharegeneratedmaleandfemale，thenfromthecopulationofsuchspontaneouslygeneratedmalesandfemalesthereisgeneratedasomething-asomethingneveridenticalinshapewiththeparents，butasomethingimperfect。Forinstance，theissueofcopulationinliceisnits；inflies，grubs；infleas，grubsegg-likeinshape；andfromtheseissuestheparent-speciesisneverreproduced，norisanyanimalproducedatall，butthelikenondescriptsonly。
First，then，wemustproceedtotreatof\'covering\'inregardtosuchanimalsascoverandarecovered；andthenafterthistotreatindueorderofothermatters，boththeexceptionalandthoseofgeneraloccurrence。
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Thoseanimals，then，coverandarecoveredinwhichthereisadualityofsex，andthemodesofcoveringinsuchanimalsarenotinallcasessimilarnoranalogous。Forthered-bloodedanimalsthatareviviparousandfurnishedwithfeethaveinallcasesorgansadaptedforprocreation，butthesexesdonotinallcasescometogetherinlikemanner。Thus，opisthureticanimalscopulatewitharearwardpresentment，asisthecasewiththelion，thehare，andthelynx；though，bytheway，inthecaseofthehare，thefemaleisoftenobservedtocoverthemale。
Thecaseissimilarinmostothersuchanimals；thatistosay，themajorityofquadrupedscopulateasbesttheycan，themalemountingthefemale；andthisistheonlymethodofcopulatingadoptedbybirds，thoughtherearecertaindiversitiesofmethodobservedeveninbirds。Forinsomecasesthefemalesquatsonthegroundandthemalemountsontopofher，asisthecasewiththecockandhenbustard，andthebarn-doorcockandhen；inothercases，themalemountswithoutthefemalesquatting，aswiththemaleandfemalecrane；for，withthesebirds，themalemountsontothebackofthefemaleandcoversher，andlikethecock-sparrowconsumesbutverylittletimeintheoperation。Ofquadrupeds，bearsperformtheoperationlyingproneononeanother，inthesamewayasotherquadrupedsdowhilestandingup；thatistosay，withthebellyofthemalepressedtothebackofthefemale。Hedgehogscopulateerect，bellytobelly。
Withregardtolarge-sizedvivipara，thehindonlyveryrarelysustainsthemountingofthestagtothefullconclusionoftheoperation，andthesameisthecasewiththecowasregardsthebull，owingtotherigidityofthepenisofthebull。Inpointoffact，thefemalesoftheseanimalselicitthespermofthemaleintheactofwithdrawingfromunderneathhim；and，bytheway，thisphenomenonhasbeenobservedinthecaseofthestagandhind，domesticated，ofcourse。Coveringwiththewolfisthesameaswiththedog。Catsdonotcopulatewitharearwardpresentmentonthepartofthefemale，butthemalestandserectandthefemaleputsherselfunderneathhim；and，bytheway，thefemalecatispeculiarlylecherous，andwheedlesthemaleontosexualcommerce，andcaterwaulsduringtheoperation。Camelscopulatewiththefemaleinasittingposture，andthemalestraddlesoverandcoversher，notwiththehinderpresentmentonthefemale\'spartbutliketheotherquadrupedsmentionedabove，andtheypassthewholedaylongintheoperation；whenthusengagedtheyretiretolonelyspots，andnonebuttheirkeeperdareapproachthem。And，beitobserved，thepenisofthecamelissosinewythatbow-stringsaremanufacturedoutofit。
Elephants，also，copulateinlonelyplaces，andespeciallybyriver-sidesintheirusualhaunts；thefemalesquatsdown，andstraddleswithherlegs，andthemalemountsandcoversher。Thesealcoverslikeallopisthureticanimals，andinthisspeciesthecopulationextendsoveralengthenedtime，asisthecasewiththedogandbitch；andthepenisinthemalesealisexceptionallylarge。
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Oviparousquadrupedscoveroneanotherinthesameway。Thatistosay，insomecasesthemalemountsthefemalepreciselyasintheviviparousanimals，asisobservedinboththelandandtheseatortoise……Andthesecreatureshaveanorganinwhichtheductsconverge，andwithwhichtheyperformtheactofcopulation，asisalsoobservedinthetoad，thefrog，andallotheranimalsofthesamegroup。
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Longanimalsdevoidoffeet，likeserpentsandmuraenae，intertwineincoition，bellytobelly。And，infact，serpentscoilroundoneanothersotightlyastopresenttheappearanceofasingleserpentwithapairofheads。Thesamemodeisfollowedbythesaurians；thatistosay，theycoilroundoneanotherintheactofcoition。
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Allfishes，withtheexceptionoftheflatselachians，liedownsidebyside，andcopulatebellytobelly。Fishes，however，thatareflatandfurnishedwithtails-astheray，thetrygon，andthelike-copulatenotonlyinthisway，butalso，wherethetailfromitsthinnessisnoimpediment，bymountingofthemaleuponthefemale，bellytoback。Buttherhinaorangel-fish，andotherlikefisheswherethetailislarge，copulateonlybyrubbingagainstoneanothersideways，bellytobelly。Somemenassureusthattheyhaveseensomeoftheselachiacopulatinghindways，dogandbitch。Inthecartilaginousspeciesthefemaleislargerthanthemale；andthesameisthecasewithotherfishesforthemostpart。Andamongcartilaginousfishesareincluded，besidesthosealreadynamed，thebos，thelamia，theaetos，thenarceortorpedo，thefishing-frog，andallthegaleodesorsharksanddogfish。Cartilaginousfishes，then，ofallkinds，haveinmanyinstancesbeenobservedcopulatinginthewayabovementioned；for，bytheway，inviviparousanimalstheprocessofcopulationisoflongerdurationthanintheovipara。
Itisthesamewiththedolphinandwithallcetaceans；thatistosay，theycomesidebyside，maleandfemale，andcopulate，andtheactextendsoveratimewhichisneithershortnorverylong。
Again，incartilaginousfishesthemale，insomespecies，differsfromthefemaleinthefactthatheisfurnishedwithtwoappendageshangingdownfromabouttheexitoftheresiduum，andthatthefemaleisnotsofurnished；andthisdistinctionbetweenthesexesisobservedinallthespeciesofthesharksanddog-fish。
Nowneitherfishesnoranyanimalsdevoidoffeetarefurnishedwithtesticles，butmaleserpentsandmalefisheshaveapairofductswhichfillwithmiltorspermattheruttingseason，anddischarge，inallcases，amilk-likejuice。Theseductsunite，asinbirds；forbirds，bytheway，havetheirtesticlesintheirinterior，andsohavealloviparathatarefurnishedwithfeet。Andthisunionoftheductsissofarcontinuedandofsuchextensionastoenterthereceptiveorganinthefemale。
Inviviparousanimalsfurnishedwithfeetthereisoutwardlyoneandthesameductforthespermandtheliquidresiduum；butthereareseparateductsinternally，ashasbeenobservedinthedifferentiationoftheorgans。Andwithsuchanimalsasarenotviviparousthesamepassageservesforthedischargealsoofthesolidresiduum；although，internally，therearetwopassages，separatebutneartooneanother。Andtheseremarksapplytobothmaleandfemale；fortheseanimalsareunprovidedwithabladderexceptinthecaseofthetortoise；andtheshe-tortoise，thoughfurnishedwithabladder，hasonlyonepassage；andtortoises，bytheway，belongtotheovipara。
Inthecaseofoviparousfishestheprocessofcoitionislessopentoobservation。Inpointoffact，someareledbythewantofactualobservationtosurmisethatthefemalebecomesimpregnatedbyswallowingtheseminalfluidofthemale。Andtherecanbenodoubtthatthisproceedingonthepartofthefemaleisoftenwitnessed；forattheruttingseasonthefemalesfollowthemalesandperformthisoperation，andstrikethemaleswiththeirmouthsunderthebelly，andthemalesaretherebyinducedtopartwiththespermsoonerandmoreplentifully。And，further，atthespawningseasonthemalesgoinpursuitofthefemales，and，asthefemalespawns，themalesswallowtheeggs；andthespeciesiscontinuedinexistencebythespawnthatsurvivesthisprocess。OnthecoastofPhoeniciatheytakeadvantageoftheseinstinctivepropensitiesofthetwosexestocatchbothoneandtheother:thatistosay，byusingthemaleofthegreymulletasadecoytheycollectandnetthefemale，andbyusingthefemale，themale。
Therepeatedobservationofthisphenomenonhasledtothenotionthattheprocesswasequivalenttocoition，butthefactisthatasimilarphenomenonisobservableinquadrupeds。Forattheruttingseasonsboththemalesandthefemalestaketorunningattheirgenitals，andthetwosexestaketosmellingeachotheratthoseparts。(Withpartridges，bytheway，ifthefemalegetstoleewardofthemale，shebecomestherebyimpregnated。Andoftenwhentheyhappentobeinheatsheisaffectedinthiswisebythevoiceofthemale，orbyhisbreathingdownonherashefliesoverhead；and，bytheway，boththemaleandthefemalepartridgekeepthemouthwideopenandprotrudethetongueintheprocessofcoition。)
Theactualprocessofcopulationonthepartofoviparousfishesisseldomaccuratelyobserved，owingtothefactthattheyverysoonfallasideandslipasunder。But，forallthat，theprocesshasbeenobservedtotakeplaceinthemannerabovedescribed。
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Molluscs，suchastheoctopus，thesepia，andthecalamary，havesexualintercourseallinthesameway；thatistosay，theyuniteatthemouth，byaninterlacingoftheirtentacles。When，then，theoctopusrestsitsso-calledheadagainstthegroundandspreadsabroaditstentacles，theothersexfitsintotheoutspreadingofthesetentacles，andthetwosexesthenbringtheirsuckersintomutualconnexion。
Someassertthatthemalehasakindofpenisinoneofhistentacles，theoneinwhicharethelargestsuckers；andtheyfurtherassertthattheorganistendinousincharacter，growingattachedrightuptothemiddleofthetentacle，andthatthelatterenablesittoenterthenostrilorfunnelofthefemale。
Nowcuttle-fishandcalamariesswimaboutcloselyintertwined，withmouthsandtentaclesfacingoneanotherandfittingcloselytogether，andswimthusinoppositedirections；andtheyfittheirso-callednostrilsintooneanother，andtheonesexswimsbackwardsandtheotherfrontwardsduringtheoperation。Andthefemalelaysitsspawnbytheso-called\'blow-hole\'；and，bytheway，somedeclarethatitisatthisorganthatthecoitionreallytakesplace。
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Crustaceanscopulate，asthecrawfish，thelobster，thecaridandthelike，justliketheopisthureticquadrupeds，whentheoneanimalturnsupitstailandtheotherputshistailontheother\'stail。Copulationtakesplaceintheearlyspring，neartotheshore；
and，infact，theprocesshasoftenbeenobservedinthecaseofalltheseanimals。Sometimesittakesplaceaboutthetimewhenthefigsbegintoripen。Lobstersandcaridscopulateinlikemanner。
Crabscopulateatthefrontpartsofoneanother，bellytobelly，throwingtheiroverlappingoperculatomeetoneanother:
firstthesmallercrabmountsthelargerattherear；afterhehasmounted，thelargeroneturnsononeside。Now，thefemalediffersinnorespectfromthemaleexceptinthecircumstancethatitsoperculumislarger，moreelevated，andmorehairy，andintothisoperculumitspawnsitseggsandinthesameneighbourhoodistheoutletoftheresiduum。Inthecopulativeprocessoftheseanimalsthereisnoprotrusionofamemberfromoneanimalintotheother。
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Insectscopulateatthehinderend，andthesmallerindividualsmountthelarger；andthesmallerindividualisIIisthemale。Thefemalepushesfromunderneathhersexualorganintothebodyofthemaleabove，thisbeingthereverseoftheoperationobservedinothercreatures；andthisorganinthecaseofsomeinsectsappearstobedisproportionatelylargewhencomparedtothesizeofthebody，andthattooinveryminutecreatures；insomeinsectsthedisproportionisnotsostriking。Thisphenomenonmaybewitnessedifanyonewillpullasunderfliesthatarecopulating；and，bytheway，thesecreaturesare，underthecircumstances，aversetoseparation；fortheintercourseofthesexesintheircaseisoflongduration，asmaybeobservedwithcommoneverydayinsects，suchastheflyandthecantharis。Theyallcopulateinthemannerabovedescribed，thefly，thecantharis，thesphondyle，(thephalangiumspider)anyothersofthekindthatcopulateatall。Thephalangia-thatistosay，suchofthespeciesasspinwebs-performtheoperationinthefollowingway:
thefemaletakesholdofthesuspendedwebatthemiddleandgivesapull，andthemalegivesacounterpull；thisoperationtheyrepeatuntiltheyaredrawnintogetherandinterlacedatthehinderends；
for，bytheway，thismodeofcopulationsuitstheminconsequenceoftherotundityoftheirstomachs。
Somuchforthemodesofsexualintercourseinallanimals；but，withregardtothesamephenomenon，therearedefinitelawsfollowedasregardstheseasonoftheyearandtheageoftheanimal。
Animalsingeneralseemnaturallydisposedtothisintercourseataboutthesameperiodoftheyear，andthatiswhenwinterischangingintosummer。Andthisistheseasonofspring，inwhichalmostallthingsthatflyorwalkorswimtaketopairing。Someanimalspairandbreedinautumnalsoandinwinter，asisthecasewithcertainaquaticanimalsandcertainbirds。Manpairsandbreedsatallseasons，asisthecasealsowithdomesticatedanimals，owingtotheshelterandgoodfeedingtheyenjoy:thatistosay，withthosewhoseperiodofgestationisalsocomparativelybrief，asthesowandthebitch，andwiththosebirdsthatbreedfrequently。Manyanimalstimetheseasonofintercoursewithaviewtotherightnurturesubsequentlyoftheiryoung。Inthehumanspecies，themaleismoreundersexualexcitementinwinter，andthefemaleinsummer。
Withbirdsthefargreaterpart，ashasbeensaid，pairandbreedduringthespringandearlysummer，withtheexceptionofthehalcyon。
Thehalcyonbreedsattheseasonofthewintersolstice。
Accordingly，whenthisseasonismarkedwithcalmweather，thenameof\'halcyondays\'isgiventothesevendayspreceding，andtoasmanyfollowing，thesolstice；asSimonidesthepoetsays:
GodlullsforfourteendaysthewindstosleepInwinter；andthistemperateinterludeMencalltheHolySeason，whenthedeepCradlesthemotherHalcyonandherbrood。
Andthesedaysarecalm，whensoutherlywindsprevailatthesolstice，northerlyoneshavingbeentheaccompanimentofthePleiads。
Thehalcyonissaidtotakesevendaysforbuildinghernest，andtheothersevenforlayingandhatchinghereggs。Inourcountrytherearenotalwayshalcyondaysaboutthetimeofthewintersolstice，butintheSicilianseasthisseasonofcalmisalmostperiodical。Thebirdlaysaboutfiveeggs。
