第2章

Themovementsofanimals，quadrupedandmultiped，arecrosswise，orindiagonals，andtheirequilibriuminstandingpostureismaintainedcrosswise；anditisalwaysthelimbontheright-handsidethatisthefirsttomove。Thelion，however，andthetwospeciesofcamels，boththeBactrianandtheArabian，progressbyanamble；andtheactionsocallediswhentheanimalneveroverpassestherightwiththeleft，butalwaysfollowscloseuponit。

Whateverpartsmenhaveinfront，thesepartsquadrupedshavebelow，inoronthebelly；andwhateverpartsmenhavebehind，thesepartsquadrupedshaveaboveontheirbacks。Mostquadrupedshaveatail；foreventhesealhasatinyoneresemblingthatofthestag。

RegardingthetailsofthepithecoidswemustgivetheirdistinctivepropertiesbyandbyanimalAllviviparousquadrupedsarehair-coated，whereasmanhasonlyafewshorthairsexceptingonthehead，but，sofarastheheadisconcerned，heishairierthananyotheranimal。Further，ofhair-coatedanimals，thebackishairierthanthebelly，whichlatteriseithercomparativelyvoidofhairorsmoothandvoidofhairaltogether。Withmanthereverseisthecase。

Manalsohasupperandlowereyelashes，andhairunderthearmpitsandonthepubes。Nootheranimalhashairineitheroftheselocalities，orhasanundereyelash；thoughinthecaseofsomeanimalsafewstragglinghairsgrowundertheeyelid。

Ofhair-coatedquadrupedssomearehairyalloverthebody，asthepig，thebear，andthedog；othersareespeciallyhairyontheneckandallroundaboutit，asisthecasewithanimalsthathaveashaggymane，suchasthelion；othersagainareespeciallyhairyontheuppersurfaceoftheneckfromtheheadasfarasthewithers，namely，suchashaveacrestedmane，asinthecasewiththehorse，themule，and，amongtheundomesticatedhornedanimals，thebison。

Theso-calledhippelaphusalsohasamaneonitswithers，andtheanimalcalledpardion，ineithercaseathinmaneextendingfromtheheadtothewithers；thehippelaphushas，exceptionally，abeardbythelarynx。Boththeseanimalshavehornsandarecloven-footed；thefemale，however，ofthehippelaphushasnohorns。Thislatteranimalresemblesthestaginsize；itisfoundintheterritoryoftheArachotae，wherethewildcattlealsoarefound。Wildcattledifferfromtheirdomesticatedcongenersjustasthewildboardiffersfromthedomesticatedone。Thatistosaytheyareblack，stronglooking，withahook-nosedmuzzle，andwithhornslyingmoreovertheback。Thehornsofthehippelaphusresemblethoseofthegazelle。

Theelephant，bytheway，istheleasthairyofallquadrupeds。

Withanimals，asageneralrule，thetailcorrespondswiththebodyasregardsthicknessorthinnessofhair-coating；thatis，withanimalsthathavelongtails，forsomecreatureshavetailsofaltogetherinsignificantsize。

Camelshaveanexceptionalorganwhereintheydifferfromallotheranimals，andthatistheso-called\'hump\'ontheirback。TheBactriancameldiffersfromtheArabian；fortheformerhastwohumpsandthelatteronlyone，thoughithas，bytheway，akindofahumpbelowliketheoneabove，onwhich，whenitkneels，theweightofthewholebodyrests。Thecamelhasfourteatslikethecow，ataillikethatofanass，andtheprivypartsofthemalearedirectedbackwards。Ithasonekneeineachleg，andtheflexuresofthelimbarenotmanifold，assomesay，althoughtheyappeartobesofromtheconstrictedshapeoftheregionofthebelly。Ithasahuckle-bonelikethatofkine，butmeagreandsmallinproportiontoitsbulk。Itiscloven-footed，andhasnotgotteethinbothjaws；anditisclovenfootedinthefollowingway:atthebackthereisaslightcleftextendingasfarupasthesecondjointofthetoes；

andinfronttherearesmallhoovesonthetipofthefirstjointofthetoes；andasortofwebpassesacrossthecleft，asingeese。

Thefootisfleshyunderneath，likethatofthebear；sothat，whentheanimalgoestowar，theyprotectitsfeet，whentheygetsore，withsandals。

Thelegsofallquadrupedsarebony，sinewy，andfleshless；andinpointoffactsuchisthecasewithallanimalsthatarefurnishedwithfeet，withtheexceptionofman。Theyarealsounfurnishedwithbuttocks；andthislastpointisplaininanespecialdegreeinbirds。Itisthereversewithman；forthereisscarcelyanypartofthebodyinwhichmanissofleshyasinthebuttock，thethigh，andthecalf；forthepartofthelegcalledgastroenemiaorisfleshy。

Ofbloodedandviviparousquadrupedssomehavethefootclovenintomanyparts，asisthecasewiththehandsandfeetofman(forsomeanimals，bytheway，aremany-toed，asthelion，thedog，andthepard)；othershavefeetclovenintwain，andinsteadofnailshavehooves，asthesheep，thegoat，thedeer，andthehippopotamus；othersareunclovenoffoot，suchforinstanceasthesolid-hoovedanimals，thehorseandthemule。Swineareeithercloven-footedoruncloven-footed；forthereareinIllyriaandinPaeoniaandelsewheresolid-hoovedswine。Thecloven-footedanimalshavetwocleftsbehind；inthesolid-hoovedthispartiscontinuousandundivided。

Furthermore，ofanimalssomearehorned，andsomearenotso。

Thegreatmajorityofthehornedanimalsarecloven-footed，astheox，thestag，thegoat；andasolid-hoovedanimalwithapairofhornshasneveryetbeenmetwith。Butafewanimalsareknowntobesingled-hornedandsingle-hooved，astheIndianass；andone，towittheoryx，issinglehornedandcloven-hooved。

Ofallsolid-hoovedanimalstheIndianassalonehasanastragalusorhuckle-bone；forthepig，aswassaidabove，iseithersolid-hoovedorcloven-footed，andconsequentlyhasnowell-formedhuckle-bone。

Oftheclovenfootedmanyareprovidedwithahuckle-bone。Ofthemany-fingeredormany-toed，nosingleonehasbeenobservedtohaveahuckle-bone，noneoftheothersanymorethanman。Thelynx，however，hassomethinglikeahemiastragal，andthelionsomethingresemblingthesculptor\'s\'labyrinth\'。Alltheanimalsthathaveahuckle-bonehaveitinthehinderlegs。Theyhavealsotheboneplacedstraightupinthejoint；theupperpart，outside；thelowerpart，inside；thesidescalledCoaturnedtowardsoneanother，thesidescalledChiaoutside，andthekeraiaeor\'horns\'onthetop。This，then，isthepositionofthehuckleboneinthecaseofallanimalsprovidedwiththepart。

Someanimalsare，atoneandthesametime，furnishedwithamaneandfurnishedalsowithapairofhornsbentintowardsoneanother，asisthebison(oraurochs)，whichisfoundinPaeoniaandMaedica。

Butallanimalsthatarehornedarequadrupedal，exceptincaseswhereacreatureissaidmetaphorically，orbyafigureofspeech，tohavehorns；justastheEgyptiansdescribetheserpentsfoundintheneighbourhoodofThebes，whileinpointoffactthecreatureshavemerelyprotuberancesontheheadsufficientlylargetosuggestsuchanepithet。

Ofhornedanimalsthedeeralonehasahorn，orantler，hardandsolidthroughout。Thehornsofotheranimalsarehollowforacertaindistance，andsolidtowardstheextremity。Thehollowpartisderivedfromtheskin，butthecoreroundwhichthisiswrapped-thehardpart-isderivedfromthebones；asisthecasewiththehornsofoxen。Thedeeristheonlyanimalthatshedsitshorns，anditdoessoannually，afterreachingtheageoftwoyears，andagainrenewsthem。Allotheranimalsretaintheirhornspermanently，unlessthehornsbedamagedbyaccident。

Again，withregardtothebreastsandthegenerativeorgans，animalsdifferwidelyfromoneanotherandfromman。Forinstance，thebreastsofsomeanimalsaresituatedinfront，eitherinthechestorneartoit，andthereareinsuchcasestwobreastsandtwoteats，asisthecasewithmanandtheelephant，aspreviouslystated。

Fortheelephanthastwobreastsintheregionoftheaxillae；andthefemaleelephanthastwobreastsinsignificantinsizeandinnowayproportionatetothebulkoftheentireframe，infact，soinsignificantastobeinvisibleinasidewaysview；themalesalsohavebreasts，likethefemales，exceedinglysmall。Theshe-bearhasfourbreasts。Someanimalshavetwobreasts，butsituatednearthethighs，andteats，likewisetwoinnumber，asthesheep；othershavefourteats，asthecow。Somehavebreastsneitherinthechestnoratthethighs，butinthebelly，asthedogandpig；andtheyhaveaconsiderablenumberofbreastsordugs，butnotallofequalsize。

Thustheshepardhasfourdugsinthebelly，thelionesstwo，andothersmore。Theshe-camel，also，hastwodugsandfourteats，likethecow。Ofsolid-hoovedanimalsthemaleshavenodugs，exceptinginthecaseofmalesthattakeafterthemother，whichphenomenonisobservableinhorses。

Ofmaleanimalsthegenitalsofsomeareexternal，asisthecasewithman，thehorse，andmostothercreatures；someareinternal，aswiththedolphin。Withthosethathavetheorganexternallyplaced，theorganinsomecasesissituatedinfront，asinthecasesalreadymentioned，andofthesesomehavetheorgandetached，bothpenisandtesticles，asman；othershavepenisandtesticlescloselyattachedtothebelly，somemoreclosely，someless；forthisorganisnotdetachedinthewildboarnorinthehorse。

Thepenisoftheelephantresemblesthatofthehorse；comparedwiththesizeoftheanimalitisdisproportionatelysmall；thetesticlesarenotvisible，butareconcealedinsideinthevicinityofthekidneys；andforthisreasonthemalespeedilygivesoverintheactofintercourse。Thegenitalsofthefemalearesituatedwheretheudderisinsheep；whensheisinheat，shedrawstheorganbackandexposesitexternally，tofacilitatetheactofintercourseforthemale；andtheorganopensouttoaconsiderableextent。

Withmostanimalsthegenitalshavethepositionaboveassigned；butsomeanimalsdischargetheirurinebackwards，asthelynx，thelion，thecamel，andthehare。Maleanimalsdifferfromoneanother，ashasbeensaid，inthisparticular，butallfemaleanimalsareretromingent:eventhefemaleelephantlikeotheranimals，thoughshehastheprivypartbelowthethighs。

Inthemaleorganitselfthereisagreatdiversity。Forinsomecasestheorganiscomposedoffleshandgristle，asinman；insuchcases，thefleshypartdoesnotbecomeinflated，butthegristlypartissubjecttoenlargement。Inothercases，theorganiscomposedoffibroustissue，aswiththecamelandthedeer；inothercasesitisbony，aswiththefox，thewolf，themarten，andtheweasel；forthisorganintheweaselhasabone。

Whenmanhasarrivedatmaturity，hisupperpartissmallerthanthelowerone，butwithallotherbloodedanimalsthereverseholdsgood。Bythe\'upper\'partwemeanallextendingfromtheheaddowntothepartsusedforexcretionofresiduum，andbythe\'lower\'

partelse。Withanimalsthathavefeetthehindlegsaretoberatedasthelowerpartinourcomparisonofmagnitudes，andwithanimalsdevoidoffeet，thetail，andthelike。

Whenanimalsarriveatmaturity，theirpropertiesareasabovestated；buttheydiffergreatlyfromoneanotherintheirgrowthtowardsmaturity。Forinstance，man，whenyoung，hashisupperpartlargerthanthelower，butincourseofgrowthhecomestoreversethiscondition；anditisowingtothiscircumstancethat-anexceptionalinstance，bytheway-hedoesnotprogressinearlylifeashedoesatmaturity，butininfancycreepsonallfours；butsomeanimals，ingrowth，retaintherelativeproportionoftheparts，asthedog。Someanimalsatfirsthavetheupperpartsmallerandthelowerpartlarger，andincourseofgrowththeupperpartgetstobethelarger，asisthecasewiththebushy-tailedanimalssuchasthehorse；forintheircasethereisnever，subsequentlytobirth，anyincreaseinthepartextendingfromthehooftothehaunch。

Again，inrespecttotheteeth，animalsdiffergreatlybothfromoneanotherandfromman。Allanimalsthatarequadrupedal，bloodedandviviparous，arefurnishedwithteeth；but，tobeginwith，somearedouble-toothed(orfullyfurnishedwithteethinbothjaws)，andsomearenot。Forinstance，hornedquadrupedsarenotdouble-toothed；fortheyhavenotgotthefrontteethintheupperjaw；andsomehornlessanimals，also，arenotdoubletoothed，asthecamel。Someanimalshavetusks，liketheboar，andsomehavenot。

Further，someanimalsaresaw-toothed，suchasthelion，thepard，andthedog；andsomehaveteeththatdonotinterlockbuthaveflatopposingcrowns，asthehorseandtheox；andby\'saw-toothed\'wemeansuchanimalsasinterlockthesharp-pointedteethinonejawbetweenthesharp-pointedonesintheother。Noanimalistherethatpossessesbothtusksandhorns，noryetdoeitherofthesestructuresexistinanyanimalpossessedof\'saw-teeth\'。Thefrontteethareusuallysharp，andthebackonesblunt。Thesealissaw-toothedthroughout，inasmuchasheisasortoflinkwiththeclassoffishes；forfishesarealmostallsaw-toothed。

Noanimalofthesegeneraisprovidedwithdoublerowsofteeth。Thereis，however，ananimalofthesort，ifwearetobelieveCtesias。HeassuresusthattheIndianwildbeastcalledthe\'martichoras\'hasatriplerowofteethinbothupperandlowerjaw；

thatitisasbigasalionandequallyhairy，andthatitsfeetresemblethoseofthelion；thatitresemblesmaninitsfaceandears；thatitseyesareblue，anditscolourvermilion；thatitstailislikethatoftheland-scorpion；thatithasastinginthetail，andhasthefacultyofshootingoffarrow-wisethespinesthatareattachedtothetail；thatthesoundofitsvoiceisasomethingbetweenthesoundofapan-pipeandthatofatrumpet；thatitcanrunasswiftlyasdeer，andthatitissavageandaman-eater。

Manshedshisteeth，andsodootheranimals，asthehorse，themule，andtheass。Andmanshedshisfrontteeth；butthereisnoinstanceofananimalthatshedsitsmolars。Thepigshedsnoneofitsteethatall。

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Withregardtodogssomedoubtsareentertained，assomecontendthattheyshednoteethwhatever，andothersthattheyshedthecanines，butthosealone；thefactbeing，thattheydoshedtheirteethlikeman，butthatthecircumstanceescapesobservation，owingtothefactthattheynevershedthemuntilequivalentteethhavegrownwithinthegumstotaketheplaceoftheshedones。Weshallbejustifiedinsupposingthatthecaseissimilarwithwildbeastsingeneral；fortheyaresaidtoshedtheircaninesonly。Dogscanbedistinguishedfromoneanother，theyoungfromtheold，bytheirteeth；fortheteethinyoungdogsarewhiteandsharp-pointed；inolddogs，blackandblunt。

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Inthisparticular，thehorsediffersentirelyfromanimalsingeneral:for，generallyspeaking，asanimalsgrowoldertheirteethgetblacker，butthehorse\'steethgrowwhiterwithage。

Theso-called\'canines\'comeinbetweenthesharpteethandthebroadorbluntones，partakingoftheformofbothkinds；fortheyarebroadatthebaseandsharpatthetip。

Maleshavemoreteeththanfemalesinthecaseofmen，sheep，goats，andswine；inthecaseofotheranimalsobservationshavenotyetbeenmade:butthemoreteeththeyhavethemorelong-livedarethey，asarule，whilethoseareshort-livedinproportionthathaveteethfewerinnumberandthinlyset。

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Thelastteethtocomeinmanaremolarscalled\'wisdom-teeth\'，whichcomeattheageoftwentyyears，inthecaseofbothsexes。

Caseshavebeenknowninwomenupwards。ofeightyyearsoldwhereattheverycloseoflifethewisdom-teethhavecomeup，causinggreatpainintheircoming；andcaseshavebeenknownofthelikephenomenoninmentoo。Thishappens，whenitdoeshappen，inthecaseofpeoplewherethewisdom-teethhavenotcomeupinearlyyears。

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Theelephanthasfourteethoneitherside，bywhichitmunchesitsfood，grindingitlikesomuchbarley-meal，and，quiteapartfromthese，ithasitsgreatteeth，ortusks，twoinnumber。Inthemalethesetusksarecomparativelylargeandcurvedupwards；inthefemale，theyarecomparativelysmallandpointintheoppositedirection；thatis，theylookdownwardstowardstheground。Theelephantisfurnishedwithteethatbirth，butthetusksarenotthenvisible。

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Thetongueoftheelephantisexceedinglysmall，andsituatedfarbackinthemouth，sothatitisdifficulttogetasightofit。

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Furthermore，animalsdifferfromoneanotherintherelativesizeoftheirmouths。Insomeanimalsthemouthopenswide，asisthecasewiththedog，thelion，andwithallthesaw-toothedanimals；

otheranimalshavesmallmouths，asman；andothershavemouthsofmediumcapacity，asthepigandhiscongeners。

(TheEgyptianhippopotamushasamanelikeahorse，iscloven-footedlikeanox，andissnub-nosed。Ithasahuckle-bonelikecloven-footedanimals，andtusksjustvisible；ithasthetailofapig，theneighofahorse，andthedimensionsofanass。Thehideissothickthatspearsaremadeoutofit。Initsinternalorgansitresemblesthehorseandtheass。)

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Someanimalssharethepropertiesofmanandthequadrupeds，astheape，themonkey，andthebaboon。Themonkeyisatailedape。Thebaboonresemblestheapeinform，onlythatitisbiggerandstronger，morelikeadoginface，andismoresavageinitshabits，anditsteetharemoredog-likeandmorepowerful。

Apesarehairyonthebackinkeepingwiththeirquadrupedalnature，andhairyonthebellyinkeepingwiththeirhumanform-for，aswassaidabove，thischaracteristicisreversedinmanandthequadruped-onlythatthehairiscoarse，sothattheapeisthicklycoatedbothonthebellyandontheback。Itsfaceresemblesthatofmaninmanyrespects；inotherwords，ithassimilarnostrilsandears，andteethlikethoseofman，bothfrontteethandmolars。

Further，whereasquadrupedsingeneralarenotfurnishedwithlashesononeofthetwoeyelids，thiscreaturehasthemonboth，onlyverythinlyset，especiallytheunderones；infacttheyareveryinsignificantindeed。Andwemustbearinmindthatallotherquadrupedshavenoundereyelashatall。

Theapehasalsoinitschesttwoteatsuponpoorlydevelopedbreasts。Ithasalsoarmslikeman，onlycoveredwithhair，anditbendstheselegslikeman，withtheconvexitiesofbothlimbsfacingoneanother。Inaddition，ithashandsandfingersandnailslikeman，onlythatallthesepartsaresomewhatmorebeast-likeinappearance。Itsfeetareexceptionalinkind。Thatis，theyarelikelargehands，andthetoesarelikefingers，withthemiddleonethelongestofall，andtheunderpartofthefootislikeahandexceptforitslength，andstretchesouttowardstheextremitieslikethepalmofthehand；andthispalmattheafterendisunusuallyhard，andinaclumsyobscurekindofwayresemblesaheel。Thecreatureusesitsfeeteitherashandsorfeet，anddoublesthemupasonedoublesafist。Itsupper-armandthighareshortinproportiontotheforearmandtheshin。Ithasnoprojectingnavel，butonlyahardnessintheordinarylocalityofthenavel。Itsupperpartismuchlargerthanitslowerpart，asisthecasewithquadrupeds；infact，theproportionoftheformertothelatterisaboutasfivetothree。Owingtothiscircumstanceandtothefactthatitsfeetresemblehandsandarecomposedinamannerofhandandoffoot:offootintheheelextremity，ofthehandinallelse-foreventhetoeshavewhatiscalleda\'palm\':-forthesereasonstheanimalisoftenertobefoundonallfoursthanupright。Ithasneitherhips，inasmuchasitisaquadruped，noryetatail，inasmuchasitisabiped，exceptnoryetatalbythewaythatithasatailassmallassmallcanbe，justasortofindicationofatail。Thegenitalsofthefemaleresemblethoseofthefemaleinthehumanspecies；thoseofthemalearemorelikethoseofadogthanarethoseofaman。

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Themonkey，ashasbeenobserved，isfurnishedwithatail。Inallsuchcreaturestheinternalorgansarefoundunderdissectiontocorrespondtothoseofman。

Somuchthenforthepropertiesoftheorgansofsuchanimalsasbringforththeiryoungintotheworldalive。

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Oviparousandbloodedquadrupeds-and，bytheway，noterrestrialbloodedanimalisoviparousunlessitisquadrupedalorisdevoidoffeetaltogether-arefurnishedwithahead，aneck，aback，upperandunderparts，thefrontlegsandhindlegs，andthepartanalogoustothechest，allasinthecaseofviviparousquadrupeds，andwithatail，usuallylarge，inexceptionalcasessmall。Andallthesecreaturesaremany-toed，andtheseveraltoesareclovenapart。

Furthermore，theyallhavetheordinaryorgansofsensation，includingatongue，withtheexceptionoftheEgyptiancrocodile。

Thislatteranimal，bytheway，resemblescertainfishes。For，asageneralrule，fisheshaveapricklytongue，notfreeinitsmovements；thoughtherearesomefishesthatpresentasmoothundifferentiatedsurfacewherethetongueshouldbe，untilyouopentheirmouthswideandmakeacloseinspection。

Again，oviparousbloodedquadrupedsareunprovidedwithears，butpossessonlythepassageforhearing；neitherhavetheybreasts，noracopulatoryorgan，norexternaltesticles，butinternalonesonly；

neitheraretheyhaircoated，butareinallcasescoveredwithscalyplates。Moreover，theyarewithoutexceptionsaw-toothed。

Rivercrocodileshavepigs\'eyes，largeteethandtusks，andstrongnails，andanimpenetrableskincomposedofscalyplates。

Theyseebutpoorlyunderwater，butabovethesurfaceofitwithremarkableacuteness。Asarule，theypasstheday-timeonlandandthenighttimeinthewater；forthetemperatureofthewaterisatnight-timemoregenialthanthatoftheopenair。

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Thechameleonresemblesthelizardinthegeneralconfigurationofitsbody，buttheribsstretchdownwardsandmeettogetherunderthebellyasisthecasewithfishes，andthespinesticksupaswiththefish。Itsfaceresemblesthatofthebaboon。Itstailisexceedinglylong，terminatesinasharppoint，andisforthemostpartcoiledup，likeastrapofleather。Itstandshigheroffthegroundthanthelizard，buttheflexureofthelegsisthesameinbothcreatures。Eachofitsfeetisdividedintotwoparts，whichbearthesamerelationtooneanotherthatthethumbandtherestofthehandbeartooneanotherinman。Eachofthesepartsisforashortdistancedividedafterafashionintotoes；onthefrontfeettheinsidepartisdividedintothreeandtheoutsideintotwo，onthehindfeettheinsidepartintotwoandtheoutsideintothree；ithasclawsalsoonthesepartsresemblingthoseofbirdsofprey。Itsbodyisroughallover，likethatofthecrocodile。Itseyesaresituatedinahollowrecess，andareverylargeandround，andareenvelopedinaskinresemblingthatwhichcoverstheentirebody；

andinthemiddleaslightapertureisleftforvision，throughwhichtheanimalsees，foritnevercoversupthisaperturewiththecutaneousenvelope。Itkeepstwistingitseyesroundandshiftingitslineofvisionineverydirection，andthuscontrivestogetasightofanyobjectthatitwantstosee。Thechangeinitscolourtakesplacewhenitisinflatedwithair；itisthenblack，notunlikethecrocodile，orgreenlikethelizardbutblack-spottedlikethepard。Thischangeofcolourtakesplaceoverthewholebodyalike，fortheeyesandthetailcomealikeunderitsinfluence。Initsmovementsitisverysluggish，likethetortoise。Itassumesagreenishhueindying，andretainsthishueafterdeath。Itresemblesthelizardinthepositionoftheoesophagusandthewindpipe。Ithasnofleshanywhereexceptafewscrapsoffleshontheheadandonthejawsandneartotherootofthetail。Ithasbloodonlyroundabouttheheart，theeyes，theregionabovetheheart，andinalltheveinsextendingfromtheseparts；andinallthesethereisbutlittlebloodafterall。Thebrainissituatedalittleabovetheeyes，butconnectedwiththem。Whentheouterskinisdrawnasidefromofftheeye，asomethingisfoundsurroundingtheeye，thatgleamsthroughlikeathinringofcopper。Membranesextendwellnighoveritsentireframe，numerousandstrong，andsurpassinginrespectofnumberandrelativestrengththosefoundinanyotheranimal。Afterbeingcutopenalongitsentirelengthitcontinuestobreatheforaconsiderabletime；averyslightmotiongoesonintheregionoftheheart，and，whilecontractionisespeciallymanifestedintheneighbourhoodoftheribs，asimilarmotionismoreorlessdiscernibleoverthewholebody。Ithasnospleenvisible。Ithibernates，likethelizard。

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Birdsalsoinsomepartsresembletheabovementionedanimals；

thatistosay，theyhaveinallcasesahead，aneck，aback，abelly，andwhatisanalogoustothechest。Thebirdisremarkableamonganimalsashavingtwofeet，likeman；only，bytheway，itbendsthembackwardsasquadrupedsbendtheirhindlegs，aswasnoticedpreviously。Ithasneitherhandsnorfrontfeet，butwings-anexceptionalstructureascomparedwithotheranimals。Itshaunch-boneislong，likeathigh，andisattachedtothebodyasfarasthemiddleofthebelly；soliketoathighisitthatwhenviewedseparatelyitlookslikearealone，whiletherealthighisaseparatestructurebetwixtitandtheshin。Ofallbirdsthosethathavecrookedtalonshavethebiggestthighsandthestrongestbreasts。Allbirdsarefurnishedwithmanyclaws，andallhavethetoesseparatedmoreorlessasunder；thatistosay，inthegreaterpartthetoesareclearlydistinctfromoneanother，foreventheswimmingbirds，althoughtheyareweb-footed，havestilltheirclawsfullyarticulatedanddistinctlydifferentiatedfromoneanother。

Birdsthatflyhighinairareinallcasesfour-toed:thatis，thegreaterparthavethreetoesinfrontandonebehindinplaceofaheel；somefewhavetwoinfrontandtwobehind，asthewryneck。

Thislatterbirdissomewhatbiggerthanthechaffinch，andismottledinappearance。Itispeculiarinthearrangementofitstoes，andresemblesthesnakeinthestructureofitstongue；forthecreaturecanprotrudeitstonguetotheextentoffourfinger-breadths，andthendrawitbackagain。Moreover，itcantwistitsheadbackwardswhilekeepingalltherestofitsbodystill，liketheserpent。Ithasbigclaws，somewhatresemblingthoseofthewoodpecker。Itsnoteisashrillchirp。

Birdsarefurnishedwithamouth，butwithanexceptionalone，fortheyhaveneitherlipsnorteeth，butabeak。Neitherhavetheyearsnoranose，butonlypassagesforthesensationsconnectedwiththeseorgans:thatforthenostrilsinthebeak，andthatforhearinginthehead。Likeallotheranimalstheyallhavetwoeyes，andthesearedevoidoflashes。Theheavy-bodied(orgallinaceous)

birdsclosetheeyebymeansofthelowerlid，andallbirdsblinkbymeansofaskinextendingovertheeyefromtheinnercorner；theowlanditscongenersalsoclosetheeyebymeansoftheupperlid。

Thesamephenomenonisobservableintheanimalsthatareprotectedbyhornyscutes，asinthelizardanditscongeners；fortheyallwithoutexceptionclosetheeyewiththelowerlid，buttheydonotblinklikebirds。Further，birdshaveneitherscutesnorhair，butfeathers；

andthefeathersareinvariablyfurnishedwithquills。Theyhavenotail，butarumpwithtail-feathers，shortinsuchasarelong-leggedandweb-footed，largeinothers。Theselatterkindsofbirdsflywiththeirfeettuckedupclosetothebelly；butthesmallrumpedorshort-tailedbirdsflywiththeirlegsstretchedoutatfulllength。Allarefurnishedwithatongue，buttheorganisvariable，beinglonginsomebirdsandbroadinothers。Certainspeciesofbirdsaboveallotheranimals，andnextafterman，possessthefacultyofutteringarticulatesounds；andthisfacultyischieflydevelopedinbroad-tonguedbirds。Nooviparouscreaturehasanepiglottisoverthewindpipe，buttheseanimalssomanagetheopeningandshuttingofthewindpipeasnottoallowanysolidsubstancetogetdownintothelung。

Somespeciesofbirdsarefurnishedadditionallywithspurs，butnobirdwithcrookedtalonsisfoundsoprovided。Thebirdswithtalonsareamongthosethatflywell，butthosethathavespursareamongtheheavy-bodied。

Again，somebirdshaveacrest。Asageneralrulethecreststicksup，andiscomposedoffeathersonly；butthecrestofthebarn-doorcockisexceptionalinkind，for，whereasitisnotjustexactlyflesh，atthesametimeitisnoteasytosaywhatelseitis。

13

Ofwateranimalsthegenusoffishesconstitutesasinglegroupapartfromtherest，andincludingmanydiverseforms。

Inthefirstplace，thefishhasahead，aback，abelly，intheneighbourhoodofwhichlastareplacedthestomachandviscera；andbehindithasatailofcontinuous，undividedshape，butnot，bytheway，inallcasesalike。Nofishhasaneck，oranylimb，ortesticlesatall，withinorwithout，orbreasts。But，bythewaythisabsenceofbreastsmaypredicatedofallnon-viviparousanimals；andinpointoffactviviparousanimalsarenotinallcasesprovidedwiththeorgan，exceptingsuchasaredirectlyviviparouswithoutbeingfirstoviparous。Thusthedolphinisdirectlyviviparous，andaccordinglywefinditfurnishedwithtwobreasts，notsituatedhighup，butintheneighbourhoodofthegenitals。Andthiscreatureisnotprovided，likequadrupeds，withvisibleteats，buthastwovents，oneoneachflank，fromwhichthemilkflows；anditsyounghavetofollowafterittogetsuckled，andthisphenomenonhasbeenactuallywitnessed。

Fishes，then，ashasbeenobserved，havenobreastsandnopassageforthegenitalsvisibleexternally。Buttheyhaveanexceptionalorganinthegills，whereby，aftertakingthewaterinthemouth，theydischargeitagain；andinthefins，ofwhichthegreaterparthavefour，andthelankyonestwo，as，forinstance，theeel，andthesetwosituatedneartothegills。Inlikemannerthegreymullet-as，forinstance，themulletfoundinthelakeatSiphae-haveonlytwofins；andthesameisthecasewiththefishcalledRibbon-fish。Someofthelankyfisheshavenofinsatall，suchasthemuraena，norgillsarticulatedlikethoseofotherfish。

Andofthosefishthatareprovidedwithgills，somehavecoveringsforthisorgan，whereasalltheselachianshavetheorganunprotectedbyacover。Andthosefishesthathavecoveringsoroperculaforthegillshaveinallcasestheirgillsplacedsideways；whereas，amongselachians，thebroadoneshavethegillsdownbelowonthebelly，asthetorpedoandtheray，whilethelankyoneshavetheorganplacedsideways，asisthecaseinallthedog-fish。

Thefishing-froghasgillsplacedsideways，andcoverednotwithaspinyoperculum，asinallbuttheselachianfishes，butwithoneofskin。

Morever，withfishesfurnishedwithgills，thegillsinsomecasesaresimpleinothersduplicate；andthelastgillinthedirectionofthebodyisalwayssimple。And，again，somefisheshavefewgills，andothershaveagreatnumber；butallalikehavethesamenumberonbothsides。Thosethathavetheleastnumberhaveonegilloneitherside，andthisoneduplicate，liketheboar-fish；othershavetwooneitherside，onesimpleandtheotherduplicate，likethecongerandthescarus；othershavefouroneitherside，simple，astheelops，thesynagris，themuraena，andtheeel；othershavefour，all，withtheexceptionofthehindmostone，indoublerows，asthewrasse，theperch，thesheat-fish，andthecarp。Thedog-fishhavealltheirgillsdouble，fiveonaside；andthesword-fishhaseightdoublegills。Somuchforthenumberofgillsasfoundinfishes。

Again，fishesdifferfromotheranimalsinmorewaysthanasregardsthegills。Fortheyarenotcoveredwithhairsasareviviparouslandanimals，nor，asisthecasewithcertainoviparousquadrupeds，withtessellatedscutes，nor，likebirds，withfeathers；

butforthemostparttheyarecoveredwithscales。Somefewarerough-skinned，whilethesmooth-skinnedareveryfewindeed。OftheSelachiasomearerough-skinnedandsomesmooth-skinned；andamongthesmooth-skinnedfishesareincludedtheconger，theeel，andthetunny。

Allfishesaresaw-toothedexceptingthescarus；andtheteethinallcasesaresharpandsetinmanyrows，andinsomecasesareplacedonthetongue。Thetongueishardandspiny，andsofirmlyattachedthatfishesinmanyinstancesseemtobedevoidoftheorganaltogether。Themouthinsomecasesiswide-stretched，asitiswithsomeviviparousquadrupeds……

Withregardtoorgansofsense，allsaveeyes，fishespossessnoneofthem，neithertheorgansnortheirpassages，neitherearsnornostrils；butallfishesarefurnishedwitheyes，andtheeyesdevoidoflids，thoughtheeyesarenothard；withregardtotheorgansconnectedwiththeothersenses，hearingandsmell，theyaredevoidalikeoftheorgansthemselvesandofpassagesindicativeofthem。

Fisheswithoutexceptionaresuppliedwithblood。Someofthemareoviparous，andsomeviviparous；scalyfishareinvariablyoviparous，butcartilaginousfishesareallviviparous，withthesingleexceptionofthefishing-frog。

14

Ofbloodedanimalstherenowremainstheserpentgenus。Thisgenusiscommontobothelements，for，whilemostspeciescomprehendedthereinarelandanimals，asmallminority，towittheaquaticspecies，passtheirlivesinfreshwater。Therearealsosea-serpents，inshapetoagreatextentresemblingtheircongenersoftheland，withthisexceptionthattheheadintheircaseissomewhatliketheheadoftheconger；andthereareseveralkindsofsea-serpent，andthedifferentkindsdifferincolour；theseanimalsarenotfoundinverydeepwater。Serpents，likefish，aredevoidoffeet。

Therearealsosea-scolopendras，resemblinginshapetheirlandcongeners，butsomewhatlessinregardtomagnitude。Thesecreaturesarefoundintheneighbourhoodofrocks；ascomparedwiththeirlandcongenerstheyareredderincolour，arefurnishedwithfeetingreaternumbersandwithlegsofmoredelicatestructure。Andthesameremarkappliestothemastothesea-serpents，thattheyarenotfoundinverydeepwater。

Offisheswhosehabitatisinthevicinityofrocksthereisatinyone，whichsomecalltheEcheneis，or\'ship-holder\'，andwhichisbysomepeopleusedasacharmtobringluckinaffairsoflawandlove。Thecreatureisunfitforeating。Somepeopleassertthatithasfeet，butthisisnotthecase:itappears，however，tobefurnishedwithfeetfromthefactthatitsfinsresemblethoseorgans。

Somuch，then，fortheexternalpartsofbloodedanimals，asregardstheirnumbers，theirproperties，andtheirrelativediversities。

15

Asforthepropertiesoftheinternalorgans，thesewemustfirstdiscussinthecaseoftheanimalsthataresuppliedwithblood。Fortheprincipalgeneradifferfromtherestofanimals，inthattheformeraresuppliedwithbloodandthelatterarenot；andtheformerincludeman，viviparousandoviparousquadrupeds，birds，fishes，cetaceans，andalltheothersthatcomeundernogeneraldesignationbyreasonoftheirnotforminggenera，butgroupsofwhichsimplythespecificnameispredicable，aswhenwesay\'theserpent，\'the\'crocodile\'。

Allviviparousquadrupeds，then，arefurnishedwithanoesophagusandawindpipe，situatedasinman；thesamestatementisapplicabletooviparousquadrupedsandtobirds，onlythatthelatterpresentdiversitiesintheshapesoftheseorgans。Asageneralrule，allanimalsthattakeupairandbreatheitinandoutarefurnishedwithalung，awindpipe，andanoesophagus，withthewindpipeandoesophagusnotadmittingofdiversityinsituationbutadmittingofdiversityinproperties，andwiththelungadmittingofdiversityinboththeserespects。Further，allbloodedanimalshaveaheartandadiaphragmormidriff；butinsmallanimalstheexistenceofthelatterorganisnotsoobviousowingtoitsdelicacyandminutesize。

Inregardtotheheartthereisanexceptionalphenomenonobservableinoxen。Inotherwords，thereisonespeciesofoxwhere，thoughnotinallcases，aboneisfoundinsidetheheart。And，bytheway，thehorse\'sheartalsohasaboneinsideit。

Thegenerareferredtoabovearenotinallcasesfurnishedwithalung:forinstance，thefishisdevoidoftheorgan，asisalsoeveryanimalfurnishedwithgills。Allbloodedanimalsarefurnishedwithaliver。Asageneralrulebloodedanimalsarefurnishedwithaspleen；butwiththegreatmajorityofnon-viviparousbutoviparousanimalsthespleenissosmallasallbuttoescapeobservation；andthisisthecasewithalmostallbirds，aswiththepigeon，thekite，thefalcon，theowl:inpointoffact，theaegocephalusisdevoidoftheorganaltogether。Withoviparousquadrupedsthecaseismuchthesameaswiththeviviparous；thatistosay，theyalsohavethespleenexceedinglyminute，asthetortoise，thefreshwatertortoise，thetoad，thelizard，thecrocodile，andthefrog。

Someanimalshaveagall-bladderclosetotheliver，andothershavenot。Ofviviparousquadrupedsthedeeriswithouttheorgan，asalsotheroe，thehorse，themule，theass，theseal，andsomekindsofpigs。OfdeerthosethatarecalledAchainaeappeartohavegallintheirtail，butwhatissocalleddoesresemblegallincolour，thoughitisnotsocompletelyfluid，andtheorganinternallyresemblesaspleen。

However，withoutanyexception，stagsarefoundtohavemaggotslivinginsidethehead，andthehabitatofthesecreaturesisinthehollowunderneaththerootofthetongueandintheneighbourhoodofthevertebratowhichtheheadisattached。Thesecreaturesareaslargeasthelargestgrubs；theygrowalltogetherinacluster，andtheyareusuallyabouttwentyinnumber。

Deerthen，ashasbeenobserved，arewithoutagall-bladder；

theirgut，however，issobitterthatevenhoundsrefusetoeatitunlesstheanimalisexceptionallyfat。Withtheelephantalsotheliverisunfurnishedwithagall-bladder，butwhentheanimaliscutintheregionwheretheorganisfoundinanimalsfurnishedwithit，thereoozesoutafluidresemblinggall，ingreaterorlessquantities。Ofanimalsthattakeinsea-waterandarefurnishedwithalung，thedolphinisunprovidedwithagall-bladder。Birdsandfishesallhavetheorgan，asalsooviparousquadrupeds，alltoagreateroralesserextent。Butoffishessomehavetheorganclosetotheliver，asthedogfishes，thesheat-fish，therhineorangel-fish，thesmoothskate，thetorpedo，and，ofthelankyfishes，theeel，thepipe-fish，andthehammer-headedshark。Thecallionymus，also，hasthegall-bladderclosetotheliver，andinnootherfishdoestheorganattainsogreatarelativesize。Otherfisheshavetheorganclosetothegut，attachedtotheliverbycertainextremelyfineducts。Thebonitohasthegall-bladderstretchedalongsidethegutandequallingitinlength，andoftenadoublefoldofit。othershavetheorganintheregionofthegut；

insomecasesfaroff，inothersnear；asthefishing-frog，theelops，thesynagris，themuraena，andthesword-fish。Oftenanimalsofthesamespeciesshowthisdiversityofposition；as，forinstance，somecongersarefoundwiththeorganattachedclosetotheliver，andotherswithitdetachedfromandbelowit。Thecaseismuchthesamewithbirds:thatis，somehavethegall-bladderclosetothestomach，andothersclosetothegut，asthepigeon，theraven，thequail，theswallow，andthesparrow；somehaveitnearatoncetotheliverandtothestomachastheaegocephalus；othershaveitnearatoncetotheliverandthegut，asthefalconandthekite。

16

Again，allviviparousquadrupedsarefurnishedwithkidneysandabladder。Oftheoviparathatarenotquadrupedalthereisnoinstanceknownofananimal，whetherfishorbird，providedwiththeseorgans。Oftheoviparathatarequadrupedal，theturtlealoneisprovidedwiththeseorgansofamagnitudetocorrespondwiththeotherorgansoftheanimal。Intheturtlethekidneyresemblesthesameorganintheox；thatistosay，itlooksonesingleorgancomposedofanumberofsmallones。(Thebisonalsoresemblestheoxinallitsinternalparts)。

17

Withallanimalsthatarefurnishedwiththeseparts，thepartsaresimilarlysituated，andwiththeexceptionofman，theheartisinthemiddle；inman，however，ashasbeenobserved，theheartisplacedalittletotheleft-handside。Inallanimalsthepointedendoftheheartturnsfrontwards；onlyinfishitwouldatfirstsightseemotherwise，forthepointedendisturnednottowardsthebreast，buttowardstheheadandthemouth。And(infish)theapexisattachedtoatubejustwheretherightandleftgillsmeettogether。Thereareotherductsextendingfromthehearttoeachofthegills，greaterinthegreaterfish，lesserinthelesser；butinthelargefishestheductatthepointedendoftheheartisatube，white-colouredandexceedinglythick。Fishesinsomefewcaseshaveanoesophagus，asthecongerandtheeel；andinthesetheorganissmall。

Infishesthatarefurnishedwithanundividedliver，theorganliesentirelyontherightside；wheretheliverisclovenfromtheroot，thelargerhalfoftheorganisontherightside:forinsomefishesthetwopartsaredetachedfromoneanother，withoutanycoalescenceattheroot，asisthecasewiththedogfish。AndthereisalsoaspeciesofhareinwhatisnamedtheFigdistrict，nearLakeBolbe，andelsewhere，whichanimalmightbetakentohavetwoliversowingtothelengthoftheconnectingducts，similartothestructureinthelungofbirds。

Thespleeninallcases，whennormallyplaced，isontheleft-handside，andthekidneysalsolieinthesamepositioninallcreaturesthatpossessthem。Therehavebeenknowninstancesofquadrupedsunderdissection，wherethespleenwasontherighthandandtheliverontheleft；butallsuchcasesareregardedassupernatural。

Inallanimalsthewind-pipeextendstothelung，andthemannerhow，weshalldiscusshereafter；andtheoesophagus，inallthathavetheorgan，extendsthroughthemidriffintothestomach。

For，bytheway，ashasbeenobserved，mostfisheshavenooesophagus，butthestomachisuniteddirectlywiththemouth，sothatinsomecaseswhenbigfisharepursuinglittleones，thestomachtumblesforwardintothemouth。

Alltheafore-mentionedanimalshaveastomach，andonesimilarlysituated，thatistosay，situateddirectlyunderthemidriff；andtheyhaveagutconnectedtherewithandclosingattheoutletoftheresiduumandatwhatistermedthe\'rectum\'。However，animalspresentdiversitiesinthestructureoftheirstomachs。Inthefirstplace，oftheviviparousquadrupeds，suchofthehornedanimalsasarenotequallyfurnishedwithteethinbothjawsarefurnishedwithfoursuchchambers。Theseanimals，bytheway，arethosethataresaidtochewthecud。Intheseanimalstheoesophagusextendsfromthemouthdownwardsalongthelung，fromthemidrifftothebigstomach(orpaunch)；andthisstomachisroughinsideandsemi-partitioned。Andconnectedwithitneartotheentryoftheoesophagusiswhatfromitsappearanceistermedthe\'reticulum\'(orhoneycombbag)；foroutsideitislikethestomach，butinsideitresemblesanettedcap；andthereticulumisagreatdealsmallerthanthestomach。Connectedwiththisisthe\'echinus\'(ormany-plies)，roughinsideandlaminated，andofaboutthesamesizeasthereticulum。Nextafterthiscomeswhatiscalledthe\'enystrum\'(orabomasum)，largeranlongerthantheechinus，furnishedinsidewithnumerousfoldsorridges，largeandsmooth。Afterallthiscomesthegut。

Suchisthestomachofthosequadrupedsthatarehornedandhaveanunsymmetricaldentition；andtheseanimalsdifferonefromanotherintheshapeandsizeoftheparts，andinthefactoftheoesophagusreachingthestomachcentralwiseinsomecasesandsidewaysinothers。Animalsthatarefurnishedequallywithteethinbothjawshaveonestomach；asman，thepig，thedog，thebear，thelion，thewolf。(TheThos，bytheby，hasallitsinternalorganssimilartothewolf\'s。)

Allthese，thenhaveasinglestomach，andafterthatthegut；

butthestomachinsomeiscomparativelylarge，asinthepigandbear，andthestomachofthepighasafewsmoothfoldsorridges；

othershaveamuchsmallerstomach，notmuchbiggerthanthegut，asthelion，thedog，andman。Intheotheranimalstheshapeofthestomachvariesinthedirectionofoneorotherofthosealreadymentioned；thatis，thestomachinsomeanimalsresemblesthatofthepig；inothersthatofthedog，alikewiththelargeranimalsandthesmallerones。Inalltheseanimalsdiversitiesoccurinregardtothesize，theshape，thethicknessorthethinnessofthestomach，andalsoinregardtotheplacewheretheoesophagusopensintoit。

Thereisalsoadifferenceinstructureinthegutofthetwogroupsofanimalsabovementioned(thosewithunsymmetricalandthosewithsymmetricaldentition)insize，inthickness，andinfoldings。

Theintestinesinthoseanimalswhosejawsareunequallyfurnishedwithteethareinallcasesthelarger，fortheanimalsthemselvesarelargerthanthoseintheothercategory；forveryfewofthemaresmall，andnosingleoneofthehornedanimalsisverysmall。Andsomepossessappendages(orcaeca)tothegut，butnoanimalthathasnotincisorsinbothjawshasastraightgut。

Theelephanthasagutconstrictedintochambers，soconstructedthattheanimalappearstohavefourstomachs；initthefoodisfound，butthereisnodistinctandseparatereceptacle。Itsvisceraresemblethoseofthepig，onlythattheliverisfourtimesthesizeofthatoftheox，andtheotherviscerainlikeproportion，whilethespleeniscomparativelysmall。

Muchthesamemaybepredicatedofthepropertiesofthestomachandthegutinoviparousquadrupeds，asinthelandtortoise，theturtle，thelizard，bothcrocodiles，and，infact，inallanimalsofthelikekind；thatistosay，theirstomachisoneandsimple，resemblinginsomecasesthatofthepig，andinothercasesthatofthedog。

Theserpentgenusissimilarandinalmostallrespectsfurnishedsimilarlytothesauriansamonglandanimals，ifonecouldonlyimaginethesesaurianstobeincreasedinlengthandtobedevoidoflegs。Thatistosay，theserpentiscoatedwithtessellatedscutes，andresemblesthesaurianinitsbackandbelly；only，bytheway，ithasnotesticles，but，likefishes，hastwoductsconvergingintoone，andanovarylongandbifurcate。Therestofitsinternalorgansareidenticalwiththoseofthesaurians，exceptthat，owingtothenarrownessandlengthoftheanimal，thevisceraarecorrespondinglynarrowandelongated，sothattheyareapttoescaperecognitionfromthesimilaritiesinshape。Thus，thewindpipeofthecreatureisexceptionallylong，andtheoesophagusislongerstill，andthewindpipecommencessoclosetothemouththatthetongueappearstobeunderneathit；andthewindpipeseemstoprojectoverthetongue，owingtothefactthatthetonguedrawsbackintoasheathanddoesnotremaininitsplaceasinotheranimals。Thetongue，moreover，isthinandlongandblack，andcanbeprotrudedtoagreatdistance。Andbothserpentsandsaurianshavethisaltogetherexceptionalpropertyinthetongue，thatitisforkedattheouterextremity，andthispropertyisthemoremarkedintheserpent，forthetipsofhistongueareasthinashairs。Theseal，also，bytheway，hasasplittongue。

Thestomachoftheserpentislikeamorespaciousgut，resemblingthestomachofthedog；thencomesthegut，long，narrow，andsingletotheend。Theheartissituatedclosetothepharynx，smallandkidney-shaped；andforthisreasontheorganmightinsomecasesappearnottohavethepointedendturnedtowardsthebreast。

Thencomesthelung，single，andarticulatedwithamembranouspassage，verylong，andquitedetachedfromtheheart。Theliverislongandsimple；thespleenisshortandround:asisthecaseinbothrespectswiththesaurians。Itsgallresemblesthatofthefish；thewater-snakeshaveitbesidetheliver，andtheothersnakeshaveitusuallybesidethegut。Thesecreaturesareallsaw-toothed。Theirribsareasnumerousasthedaysofthemonth；inotherwords，theyarethirtyinnumber。

Someaffirmthatthesamephenomenonisobservablewithserpentsaswithswallowchicks；inotherwords，theysaythatifyouprickoutaserpent\'seyestheywillgrowagain。Andfurther，thetailsofsauriansandofserpents，iftheybecutoff，willgrowagain。

Withfishesthepropertiesofthegutandstomacharesimilar；

thatis，theyhaveastomachsingleandsimple，butvariableinshapeaccordingtospecies。Forinsomecasesthestomachisgut-shaped，aswiththescarus，orparrot-fish；whichfish，bytheway，appearstobetheonlyfishthatchewsthecud。Andthewholelengthofthegutissimple，andifithaveareduplicationorkinkitloosensoutagainintoasimpleform。

Anexceptionalpropertyinfishesandinbirdsforthemostpartisthebeingfurnishedwithgut-appendagesorcaeca。Birdshavethemlowdownandfewinnumber。Fisheshavethemhighupaboutthestomach，andsometimesnumerous，asinthegoby，thegaleos，theperch，thescorpaena，thecitharus，theredmullet，andthesparus；

thecestreusorgreymullethasseveralofthemononesideofthebelly，andontheothersideonlyone。Somefishpossesstheseappendagesbutonlyinsmallnumbers，asthehepatusandtheglaucus；and，bytheway，theyarefewalsointhedorado。Thesefishesdifferalsofromoneanotherwithinthesamespecies，forinthedoradooneindividualhasmanyandanotherfew。Somefishesareentirelywithoutthepart，asthemajorityoftheselachians。Asforalltherest，someofthemhaveafewandsomeagreatmany。Andinallcaseswherethegut-appendagesarefoundinfish，theyarefoundcloseuptothestomach。

Inregardtotheirinternalpartsbirdsdifferfromotheranimalsandfromoneanother。Somebirds，forinstance，haveacropinfrontofthestomach，asthebarn-doorcock，thecushat，thepigeon，andthepartridge；andthecropconsistsofalargehollowskin，intowhichthefoodfirstentersandwhereitliesingested。Justwherethecropleavestheoesophagusitissomewhatnarrow；byandbyitbroadensout，butwhereitcommunicateswiththestomachitnarrowsdownagain。Thestomach(orgizzard)inmostbirdsisfleshyandhard，andinsideisastrongskinwhichcomesawayfromthefleshypart。

Otherbirdshavenocrop，butinsteadofitanoesophaguswideandroomy，eitherallthewayorinthepartleadingtothestomach，aswiththedaw，theraven，andthecarrion-crow。Thequailalsohastheoesophaguswidenedoutatthelowerextremity，andintheaegocephalusandtheowltheorganisslightlybroaderatthebottomthanatthetop。Theduck，thegoose，thegull，thecatarrhactes，andthegreatbustardhavetheoesophaguswideandroomyfromoneendtotheother，andthesameappliestoagreatmanyotherbirds。Insomebirdsthereisaportionofthestomachthatresemblesacrop，asinthekestrel。Inthecaseofsmallbirdsliketheswallowandthesparrowneithertheoesophagusnorthecropiswide，butthestomachislong。Somefewhaveneitheracropnoradilatedoesophagus，butthelatterisexceedinglylong，asinlongneckedbirds，suchastheporphyrio，and，bytheway，inthecaseofallthesebirdstheexcrementisunusuallymoist。Thequailisexceptionalinregardtotheseorgans，ascomparedwithotherbirds；inotherwords，ithasacrop，andatthesametimeitsoesophagusiswideandspaciousinfrontofthestomach，andthecropisatsomedistance，relativelytoitssize，fromtheoesophagusatthatpart。

Further，inmostbirds，thegutisthin，andsimplewhenloosenedout。Thegut-appendagesorcaecainbirds，ashasbeenobserved，arefewinnumber，andarenotsituatedhighup，asinfishes，butlowdowntowardstheextremityofthegut。Birds，then，havecaeca-notall，butthegreaterpartofthem，suchasthebarn-doorcock，thepartridge，theduck，thenight-raven，(thelocalus，)theascalaphus，thegoose，theswan，thegreatbustard，andtheowl。Someofthelittlebirdsalsohavetheseappendages；butthecaecaintheircaseareexceedinglyminute，asinthesparrow。

BookIII

1

Nowthatwehavestatedthemagnitudes，theproperties，andtherelativedifferencesoftheotherinternalorgans，itremainsforustotreatoftheorgansthatcontributetogeneration。Theseorgansinthefemaleareinallcasesinternal；inthemaletheypresentnumerousdiversities。

Inthebloodedanimalssomemalesarealtogetherdevoidoftesticles，andsomehavetheorganbutsituatedinternally；andofthosemalesthathavetheorganinternallysituated，somehaveitclosetotheloinintheneighbourhoodofthekidneyandothersclosetothebelly。Othermaleshavetheorgansituatedexternally。Inthecaseoftheselast，thepenisisinsomecasesattachedtothebelly，whilstinothersitislooselysuspended，asisthecasealsowiththetesticles；and，inthecaseswherethepenisisattachedtothebelly，theattachmentvariesaccordinglyastheanimalisemprosthureticoropisthuretic。

Nofishisfurnishedwithtesticles，noranyothercreaturethathasgills，noranyserpentwhatever:nor，inshort，anyanimaldevoidoffeet，savesuchonlyasareviviparouswithinthemselves。

Birdsarefurnishedwithtesticles，buttheseareinternallysituated，closetotheloin。Thecaseissimilarwithoviparousquadrupeds，suchasthelizard，thetortoiseandthecrocodile；andamongtheviviparousanimalsthispeculiarityisfoundinthehedgehog。Othersamongthosecreaturesthathavetheorganinternallysituatedhaveitclosetothebelly，asisthecasewiththedolphinamongstanimalsdevoidoffeet，andwiththeelephantamongviviparousquadrupeds。

Inothercasestheseorgansareexternallyconspicuous。

Wehavealreadyalludedtothediversitiesobservedintheattachmentoftheseorganstothebellyandtheadjacentregion；inotherwords，wehavestatedthatinsomecasesthetesticlesaretightlyfastenedback，asinthepiganditsallies，andthatinotherstheyarefreelysuspended，asinman。

Fishes，then，aredevoidoftesticles，ashasbeenstated，andserpentsalso。Theyarefurnished，however，withtwoductsconnectedwiththemidriffandrunningontoeithersideofthebackbone，coalescingintoasingleductabovetheoutletoftheresiduum，andby\'above\'theoutletImeantheregionneartothespine。Theseductsintheruttingseasongetfilledwiththegenitalfluid，and，iftheductsbesqueezed，thespermoozesoutwhiteincolour。Astothedifferencesobservedinmalefishesofdiversespecies，thereadershouldconsultmytreatiseonAnatomy，andthesubjectwillbehereaftermorefullydiscussedwhenwedescribethespecificcharacterineachcase。

Themalesofoviparousanimals，whetherbipedorquadruped，areinallcasesfurnishedwithtesticlesclosetotheloinunderneaththemidriff。Withsomeanimalstheorganiswhitish，inotherssomewhatofasallowhue；inallcasesitisentirelyenvelopedwithminuteanddelicateveins。Fromeachofthetwotesticlesextendsaduct，and，asinthecaseoffishes，thetwoductscoalesceintooneabovetheoutletoftheresiduum。Thisconstitutesthepenis，whichorganinthecaseofsmalloviparaisinconspicuous；butinthecaseofthelargerovipara，asinthegooseandthelike，theorganbecomesquitevisiblejustaftercopulation。

Theductsinthecaseoffishesandinbipedandquadrupedoviparaareattachedtotheloinunderthestomachandthegut，inbetwixtthemandthegreatvein，fromwhichductsorblood-vesselsextend，onetoeachofthetwotesticles。Andjustaswithfishesthemalespermisfoundintheseminalducts，andtheductsbecomeplainlyvisibleattheruttingseasonandinsomeinstancesbecomeinvisibleaftertheseasonispassed，soalsoisitwiththetesticlesofbirds；beforethebreedingseasontheorganissmallinsomebirdsandquiteinvisibleinothers，butduringtheseasontheorganinallcasesisgreatlyenlarged。Thisphenomenonisremarkablyillustratedinthering-doveandthepartridge，somuchsothatsomepeopleareactuallyofopinionthatthesebirdsaredevoidoftheorganinthewinter-time。

Ofmaleanimalsthathavetheirtesticlesplacedfrontwards，somehavetheminside，closetothebelly，asthedolphin；somehavethemoutside，exposedtoview，closetothelowerextremityofthebelly。

Theseanimalsresembleoneanotherthusfarinrespecttothisorgan；buttheydifferfromoneanotherinthisfact，thatsomeofthemhavetheirtesticlessituatedseparatelybythemselves，whileothers，whichhavetheorgansituatedexternally，havethemenvelopedinwhatistermedthescrotum。

Again，inallviviparousanimalsfurnishedwithfeetthefollowingpropertiesareobservedinthetesticlesthemselves。Fromtheaortathereextendvein-likeductstotheheadofeachofthetesticles，andanothertwofromthekidneys；thesetwofromthekidneysaresuppliedwithblood，whilethetwofromtheaortaaredevoidofit。Fromtheheadofthetesticlealongsideofthetesticleitselfisaduct，thickerandmoresinewythantheotherjustalludedto-aductthatbendsbackagainattheendofthetesticletoitshead；andfromtheheadofeachofthetwotesticlesthetwoductsextenduntiltheycoalesceinfrontatthepenis。Theductthatbendsbackagainandthatwhichisincontactwiththetesticleareenvelopedinoneandthesamemembrane，sothat，untilyoudrawasidethemembrane，theypresentalltheappearanceofbeingasingleundifferentiatedduct。Further，theductincontactwiththetesticlehasitsmoistcontentqualifiedbyblood，buttoacomparativelylessextentthaninthecaseoftheductshigherupwhichareconnectedwiththeaorta；intheductsthatbendbacktowardsthetubeofthepenis，theliquidiswhite-coloured。Therealsorunsaductfromthebladder，openingintotheupperpartofthecanal，aroundwhichlies，sheathwise，whatiscalledthe\'penis\'。

Allthesedescriptiveparticularsmayberegardedbythelightoftheaccompanyingdiagram；whereintheletterAmarksthestarting-pointoftheductsthatextendfromtheaorta；thelettersKK

marktheheadsofthetesticlesandtheductsdescendingthereunto；

theductsextendingfromthesealongthetesticlesaremarkedMM；theductsturningback，inwhichisthewhitefluid，aremarkedBB；thepenisD；thebladderE；andthetesticlesXX。

(Bytheway，whenthetesticlesarecutofforremoved，theductsdrawupwardsbycontraction。Moreover，whenmaleanimalsareyoung，theirownersometimesdestroystheorganinthembyattrition；

sometimestheycastratethematalaterperiod。AndImayhereadd，thatabullhasbeenknowntoserveacowimmediatelyaftercastration，andactuallytoimpregnateher。)

Somuchthenforthepropertiesoftesticlesinmaleanimals。

Infemaleanimalsfurnishedwithawomb，thewombisnotinallcasesthesameinformorendowedwiththesameproperties，butbothintheviviparaandtheoviparagreatdiversitiespresentthemselves。Inallcreaturesthathavethewombclosetothegenitals，thewombistwo-horned，andonehornliestotheright-handsideandtheothertotheleft；itscommencement，however，issingle，andsoistheorifice，resemblinginthecaseofthemostnumerousandlargestanimalsatubecomposedofmuchfleshandgristle。Ofthesepartsoneistermedthehysteraordelphys，whenceisderivedthewordadelphos，andtheotherpart，thetubeororifice，istermedmetra。Inallbipedorquadrupedviviparathewombisinallcasesbelowthemidriff，asinman，thedog，thepig，thehorse，andtheox；thesameisthecasealsoinallhornedanimals。Attheextremityoftheso-calledceratia，orhorns，thewombsofmostanimalshaveatwistorconvolution。

Inthecaseofthoseoviparathatlayeggsexternally，thewombsarenotinallcasessimilarlysituated。Thusthewombsofbirdsareclosetothemidriff，andthewombsoffishesdownbelow，justlikethewombsofbipedandquadrupedvivipara，onlythat，inthecaseofthefish，thewombsaredelicatelyformed，membranous，andelongated；somuchsothatinextremelysmallfish，eachofthetwobifurcatedpartslookslikeasingleegg，andthosefisheswhoseeggisdescribedascrumblingwouldappeartohaveinsidethemapairofeggs，whereasinrealityeachofthetwosidesconsistsnotofonebutofmanyeggs，andthisaccountsfortheirbreakingupintosomanyparticles。

Thewombofbirdshasthelowerandtubularportionfleshyandfirm，andthepartclosetothemidriffmembranousandexceedinglythinandfine:sothinandfinethattheeggsmightseemtobeoutsidethewombaltogether。Inthelargerbirdsthemembraneismoredistinctlyvisible，and，ifinflatedthroughthetube，liftsandswellsout；inthesmallerbirdsallthesepartsaremoreindistinct。

Thepropertiesofthewombaresimilarinoviparousquadrupeds，asthetortoise，thelizard，thefrogandthelike；forthetubebelowissingleandfleshy，andthecleftportionwiththeeggsisatthetopclosetothemidriff。Withanimalsdevoidoffeetthatareinternallyoviparousandviviparousexternally，asisthecasewiththedogfishandtheotherso-calledSelachians(andbythistitlewedesignatesuchcreaturesdestituteoffeetandfurnishedwithgillsasareviviparous)，withtheseanimalsthewombisbifurcate，andbeginningdownbelowitextendsasfarasthemidriff，asinthecaseofbirds。Thereisalsoanarrowpartbetweenthetwohornsrunningupasfarasthemidriff，andtheeggsareengenderedhereandaboveattheoriginofthemidriff；afterwardstheypassintothewiderspaceandturnfromeggsintoyounganimals。However，thedifferencesinrespecttothewombsofthesefishesascomparedwithothersoftheirownspeciesorwithfishesingeneral，wouldbemoresatisfactorilystudiedintheirvariousformsinspecimensunderdissection。

Themembersoftheserpentgenusalsopresentdivergencieseitherwhencomparedwiththeabove-mentionedcreaturesorwithoneanother。Serpentsasaruleareoviparous，theviperbeingtheonlyviviparousmemberofthegenus。Theviperis，previouslytoexternalparturition，oviparousinternally；andowingtothisperculiaritythepropertiesofthewombintheviperaresimilartothoseofthewombintheselachians。Thewomboftheserpentislong，inkeepingwiththebody，andstartingbelowfromasingleductextendscontinuouslyonbothsidesofthespine，soastogivetheimpressionofthusbeingaseparateductoneachsideofthespine，untilitreachesthemidriff，wheretheeggsareengenderedinarow；andtheseeggsarelaidnotonebyone，butallstrungtogether。(Andallanimalsthatareviviparousbothinternallyandexternallyhavethewombsituatedabovethestomach，andalltheoviparaunderneath，neartotheloin。Animalsthatareviviparousexternallyandinternallyoviparouspresentanintermediatearrangement；fortheunderneathportionofthewomb，inwhichtheeggsare，isplacedneartotheloin，butthepartabouttheorificeisabovethegut。)

Further，thereisthefollowingdiversityobservableinwombsascomparedwithoneanother:namelythatthefemalesofhornednonambidentalanimalsarefurnishedwithcotyledonsinthewombwhentheyarepregnant，andsuchisthecase，amongambidentals，withthehare，themouse，andthebat；whereasallotheranimalsthatareambidental，viviparous，andfurnishedwithfeet，havethewombquitesmooth，andintheircasetheattachmentoftheembryoistothewombitselfandnottoanycotyledoninsideit。

Theparts，then，inanimalsthatarenothomogeneouswiththemselvesanduniformintheirtexture，bothpartsexternalandpartsinternal，havethepropertiesaboveassignedtothem。

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Insanguineousanimalsthehomogeneousoruniformpartmostuniversallyfoundistheblood，anditshabitatthevein；nextindegreeofuniversality，theiranalogues，lymphandfibre，and，thatwhichchieflyconstitutestheframeofanimals，fleshandwhatsoeverintheseveralpartsisanalogoustoflesh；thenbone，andpartsthatareanalogoustobone，asfish-boneandgristle；andthen，again，skin，membrane，sinew，hair，nails，andwhatevercorrespondstothese；

and，furthermore，fat，suet，andtheexcretions:andtheexcretionsaredung，phlegm，yellowbile，andblackbile。

Now，asthenatureofbloodandthenatureoftheveinshavealltheappearanceofbeingprimitive，wemustdiscusstheirpropertiesfirstofall，andallthemoreassomepreviouswritershavetreatedthemveryunsatisfactorily。Andthecauseoftheignorancethusmanifestedistheextremedifficultyexperiencedinthewayofobservation。Forinthedeadbodiesofanimalsthenatureofthechiefveinsisundiscoverable，owingtothefactthattheycollapseatoncewhenthebloodleavesthem；forthebloodpoursoutoftheminastream，likeliquidoutofavessel，sincethereisnobloodseparatelysituatedbyitself，exceptalittleintheheart，butitisalllodgedintheveins。Inlivinganimalsitisimpossibletoinspecttheseparts，foroftheirverynaturetheyaresituatedinsidethebodyandoutofsight。Forthisreasonanatomistswhohavecarriedontheirinvestigationsondeadbodiesinthedissectingroomhavefailedtodiscoverthechiefrootsoftheveins，whilethosewhohavenarrowlyinspectedbodiesoflivingmenreducedtoextremeattenuationhavearrivedatconclusionsregardingtheoriginoftheveinsfromthemanifestationsvisibleexternally。Oftheseinvestigators，Syennesis，thephysicianofCyprus，writesasfollows:-

\'Thebigveinsrunthus:-fromthenavelacrosstheloins，alongtheback，pastthelung，inunderthebreasts；onefromrighttoleft，andtheotherfromlefttoright；thatfromtheleft，throughthelivertothekidneyandthetesticle，thatfromtheright，tothespleenandkidneyandtesticle，andfromthencetothepenis。\'

DiogenesofApolloniawritesthus:-

\'Theveinsinmanareasfollows:-Therearetwoveinspre-eminentinmagnitude。Theseextendthroughthebellyalongthebackbone，onetoright，onetoleft；eitheronetothelegonitsownside，andupwardstothehead，pastthecollarbones，throughthethroat。Fromthese，veinsextendalloverthebody，fromthatontherighthandtotherightsideandfromthatonthelefthandtotheleftside；themostimportantones，twoinnumber，totheheartintheregionofthebackbone；othertwoalittlehigherupthroughthechestinunderneaththearmpit，eachtothehandonitsside:ofthesetwo，onebeingtermedtheveinsplenitis，andtheothertheveinhepatitis。Eachofthepairsplitsatitsextremity；theonebranchesinthedirectionofthethumbandtheotherinthedirectionofthepalm；andfromtheserunoffanumberofminuteveinsbranchingofftothefingersandtoallpartsofthehand。Otherveins，moreminute，extendfromthemainveins；fromthatontherighttowardstheliver，fromthatonthelefttowardsthespleenandthekidneys。Theveinsthatruntothelegssplitatthejunctureofthelegswiththetrunkandextendrightdownthethigh。Thelargestofthesegoesdownthethighatthebackofit，andcanbediscernedandtracedasabigone；thesecondonerunsinsidethethigh，notquiteasbigastheonejustmentioned。Afterthistheypassonalongthekneetotheshinandthefoot(astheupperveinsweredescribedaspassingtowardsthehands)，andarriveatthesoleofthefoot，andfromthencecontinuetothetoes。Moreover，manydelicateveinsseparateofffromthegreatveinstowardsthestomachandtowardstheribs。

\'Theveinsthatrunthroughthethroattotheheadcanbediscernedandtracedintheneckaslargeones；andfromeachoneofthetwo，whereitterminates，therebranchoffanumberofveinstothehead；somefromtherightsidetowardstheleft，andsomefromtheleftsidetowardstheright；andthetwoveinsterminateneartoeachofthetwoears。Thereisanotherpairofveinsintheneckrunningalongthebigveinoneitherside，slightlylessinsizethanthepairjustspokenof，andwiththesethegreaterpartoftheveinsintheheadareconnected。Thisotherpairrunsthroughthethroatinside；andfromeitheroneofthetwothereextendveinsinunderneaththeshoulderbladeandtowardsthehands；andtheseappearalongsidetheveinssplenitisandhepatitisasanotherpairofveinssmallerinsize。Whenthereisapainnearthesurfaceofthebody，thephysicianlancesthesetwolatterveins；butwhenthepainiswithinandintheregionofthestomachhelancestheveinssplenitisandhepatitis。Andfromthese，otherveinsdeparttorunbelowthebreasts。

\'Thereisalsoanotherpairrunningoneachsidethroughthespinalmarrowtothetesticles，thinanddelicate。Thereis，further，apairrunningalittleunderneaththecuticlethroughthefleshtothekidneys，andthesewithmenterminateatthetesticle，andwithwomenatthewomb。Theseveinsaretermedthespermaticveins。Theveinsthatleavethestomacharecomparativelybroadjustastheyleave；buttheybecomegraduallythinner，untiltheychangeoverfromrighttoleftandfromlefttoright。

\'Bloodisthickestwhenitisimbibedbythefleshyparts；whenitistransmittedtotheorgansabove-mentioned，itbecomesthin，warm，andfrothy。\'

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SucharetheaccountsgivenbySyennesisandDiogenes。Polybuswritestothefollowingeffect:-

\'Therearefourpairsofveins。Thefirstextendsfromthebackofthehead，throughtheneckontheoutside，pastthebackboneoneitherside，untilitreachestheloinsandpassesontothelegs，afterwhichitgoesonthroughtheshinstotheoutersideoftheanklesandontothefeet。Anditisonthisaccountthatsurgeons，forpainsinthebackandloin，bleedinthehamandintheoutersideoftheankle。Anotherpairofveinsrunsfromthehead，pastears，throughtheneck；whichveinsaretermedthejugularveins。Thispairgoesoninsidealongthebackbone，pastthemusclesoftheloins，ontothetesticles，andonwardstothethighs，andthroughtheinsideofthehamsandthroughtheshinsdowntotheinsideoftheanklesandtothefeet；andforthisreason，surgeons，forpainsinthemusclesoftheloinsandinthetesticles，bleedonthehamsandtheinnersideoftheankles。Thethirdpairextendsfromthetemples，throughtheneck，inunderneaththeshoulder-blades，intothelung；thosefromrighttoleftgoinginunderneaththebreastandontothespleenandthekidney；thosefromlefttorightrunningfromthelunginunderneaththebreastandintotheliverandthekidney；andbothterminateinthefundament。Thefourthpairextendfromthefrontpartoftheheadandtheeyesinunderneaththeneckandthecollar-bones；fromthencetheystretchonthroughtheupperpartoftheupperarmstotheelbowsandthenthroughthefore-armsontothewristsandthejointingsofthefingers，andalsothroughthelowerpartoftheupper-armstothearmpits，andsoon，keepingabovetheribs，untiloneofthepairreachesthespleenandtheotherreachestheliver；

andafterthistheybothpassoverthestomachandterminateatthepenis。\'