第6章

33

Inthecaseofanimalsthatarequadrupedsandred-bloodedandoviparous，generationtakesplaceinthespring，butcopulationdoesnottakeplaceinanuniformseason。Insomecasesittakesplaceinthespring，inothersinsummertime，andinothersintheautumn，accordingasthesubsequentseasonmaybefavourablefortheyoung。

Thetortoiselayseggswithahardshellandoftwocolourswithin，likebirds\'eggs，andafterlayingthemburiestheminthegroundandtreadsthegroundhardoverthem；itthenbroodsovertheeggsonthesurfaceoftheground，andhatchestheeggsthenextyear。

Thehemys，orfresh-watertortoise，leavesthewaterandlaysitseggs。Itdigsaholeofacasklikeshape，anddepositsthereintheeggs；afterratherlessthanthirtydaysitdigstheeggsupagainandhatchesthemwithgreatrapidity，andleadsitsyoungatonceofftothewater。Thesea-turtlelaysonthegroundeggsjustliketheeggsofdomesticatedbirds，buriestheeggsintheground，andbroodsovertheminthenight-time。Itlaysaverygreatnumberofeggs，amountingattimestoonehundred。

Lizardsandcrocodiles，terrestrialandfluvial，layeggsonland。

Theeggsoflizardshatchspontaneouslyonland，forthelizarddoesnotliveonintothenextyear；infact，thelifeoftheanimalissaidnottoexceedsixmonths。Theriver-crocodilelaysanumberofeggs，sixtyatthemost，whiteincolour，andbroodsoverthemforsixtydays:for，bytheway，thecreatureisverylong-lived。Andthedisproportionismoremarkedinthisanimalthaninanyotherbetweenthesmallnessoftheoriginaleggandthehugesizeofthefull-grownanimal。Fortheeggisnotlargerthanthatofthegoose，andtheyoungcrocodileissmall，answeringtotheegginsize，butthefull-grownanimalattainsthelengthoftwenty-sixfeet；infact，itisactuallystatedthattheanimalgoesongrowingtotheendofitsdays。

34

Withregardtoserpentsorsnakes，theviperisexternallyviviparous，havingbeenpreviouslyoviparousinternally。Theegg，aswiththeeggoffishes，isuniformincolourandsoft-skinned。Theyoungserpentgrowsonthesurfaceoftheegg，and，liketheyoungoffishes，hasnoshell-likeenvelopment。Theyoungoftheviperisborninsideamembranethatburstsfromofftheyoungcreatureinthreedays；andattimestheyoungvipereatsitswayoutfromtheinsideoftheegg。Themotherviperbringsforthallitsyounginoneday，twentyinnumber，andoneatatime。Theotherserpentsareexternallyoviparous，andtheireggsarestrungontooneanotherlikealady\'snecklace；afterthedamhaslaidhereggsinthegroundshebroodsoverthem，andhatchestheeggsinthefollowingyear。

BookVI

1

Somuchforthegenerativeprocessesinsnakesandinsects，andalsoinoviparousquadrupeds。Birdswithoutexceptionlayeggs，butthepairingseasonandthetimesofparturitionarenotalikeforall。

Somebirdscoupleandlayatalmostanytimeintheyear，asforinstancethebarn-doorhenandthepigeon:theformerofthesecouplingandlayingduringtheentireyear，withtheexceptionofthemonthbeforeandthemonthafterthewintersolstice。Somehens，eveninthehighbreeds，layalargequantityofeggsbeforebrooding，amountingtoasmanyassixty；and，bytheway，thehigherbreedsarelessprolificthantheinferiorones。TheAdrianhensaresmall-sized，buttheylayeveryday；theyarecross-tempered，andoftenkilltheirchickens；theyareofallcolours。Somedomesticatedhenslaytwiceaday；indeed，instanceshavebeenknownwherehens，afterexhibitingextremefecundity，havediedsuddenly。

Hens，then，layeggs，ashasbeenstated，atalltimesindiscriminately；thepigeon，thering-dove，theturtle-dove，andthestock-dovelaytwiceayear，andthepigeonactuallylaystentimesayear。Thegreatmajorityofbirdslayduringthespring-time。Somebirdsareprolific，andprolificineitheroftwoways-eitherbylayingoften，asthepigeon，orbylayingmanyeggsatasitting，asthebarn-doorhen。Allbirdsofprey，orbirdswithcrookedtalons，areunprolific，exceptthekestrel:thisbirdisthemostprolificofbirdsofprey；asmanyasfoureggshavebeenobservedinthenest，andoccasionallyitlaysevenmore。

Birdsingenerallaytheireggsinnests，butsuchasaredisqualifiedforflight，asthepartridgeandthequail，donotlaytheminnestsbutontheground，andcoverthemoverwithloosematerial。Thesameisthecasewiththelarkandthetetrix。Thesebirdshatchinshelteredplaces；butthebirdcalledmeropsinBoeotia，aloneofallbirds，burrowsintoholesinthegroundandhatchesthere。

Thrushes，likeswallows，buildnestsofclay，onhightrees，andbuildtheminrowsallclosetogether，sothatfromtheircontinuitythestructureresemblesanecklaceofnests。Ofallbirdsthathatchforthemselvesthehoopoeistheonlyonethatbuildsnonestwhatever；itgetsintothehollowofthetrunkofatree，andlaysitseggstherewithoutmakinganysortofnest。Thecircusbuildseitherunderadwelling-rooforoncliffs。Thetetrix，calledouraxinAthens，buildsneitheronthegroundnorontrees，butonlow-lyingshrubs。

2

Theegginthecaseofallbirdsalikeishard-shelled，ifitbetheproduceofcopulationandbelaidbyahealthyhen-forsomehenslaysofteggs。Theinterioroftheeggisoftwocolours，andthewhitepartisoutsideandtheyellowpartwithin。

Theeggsofbirdsthatfrequentriversandmarshesdifferfromthoseofbirdsthatliveondryland；thatistosay，theeggsofwaterbirdshavecomparativelymoreoftheyelloworyolkandlessofthewhite。Eggsvaryincolouraccordingtotheirkind。Someeggsarewhite，asthoseofthepigeonandofthepartridge；othersareyellowish，astheeggsofmarshbirds；insomecasestheeggsaremottled，astheeggsoftheguinea-fowlandthepheasant；whiletheeggsofthekestrelarered，likevermilion。

Eggsarenotsymmetricallyshapedatbothends:inotherwords，oneendiscomparativelysharp，andtheotherendiscomparativelyblunt；anditisthelatterendthatprotrudesfirstatthetimeoflaying。Longandpointedeggsarefemale；thosethatareround，ormoreroundedatthenarrowend，aremale。Eggsarehatchedbytheincubationofthemother-bird。Insomecases，asinEgypt，theyarehatchedspontaneouslyintheground，bybeingburiedindungheaps。AstoryistoldofatoperinSyracuse，howheusedtoputeggsintothegroundunderhisrush-matandtokeepondrinkinguntilhehatchedthem。Instanceshaveoccurredofeggsbeingdepositedinwarmvesselsandgettinghatchedspontaneously。

Thespermofbirds，asofanimalsingeneral，iswhite。Afterthefemalehassubmittedtothemale，shedrawsupthespermtounderneathhermidriff。Atfirstitislittleinsizeandwhiteincolour；byandbyitisred，thecolourofblood；asitgrows，itbecomespaleandyellowallover。Whenatlengthitisgettingripeforhatching，itissubjecttodifferentiationofsubstance，andtheyolkgatherstogetherwithinandthewhitesettlesrounditontheoutside。Whenthefulltimeiscome，theeggdetachesitselfandprotrudes，changingfromsofttohardwithsuchtemporalexactitudethat，whereasitisnothardduringtheprocessofprotrusion，ithardensimmediatelyaftertheprocessiscompleted:thatisiftherebenoconcomitantpathologicalcircumstances。Caseshaveoccurredwheresubstancesresemblingtheeggatacriticalpointofitsgrowth-thatis，whenitisyellowallover，astheyolkissubsequently-havebeenfoundinthecockwhencutopen，underneathhismidriff，justwherethehenhashereggs；andtheseareentirelyyellowinappearanceandofthesamesizeasordinaryeggs。Suchphenomenaareregardedasunnaturalandportentous。

Suchasaffirmthatwind-eggsaretheresiduaofeggspreviouslybegottenfromcopulationaremistakeninthisassertion，forwehavecaseswellauthenticatedwherechickensofthecommonhenandgoosehavelaidwind-eggswithouteverhavingbeensubjectedtocopulation。Wind-eggsaresmaller，lesspalatable，andmoreliquidthantrueeggs，andareproducedingreaternumbers。Whentheyareputunderthemotherbird，theliquidcontentsnevercoagulate，butboththeyellowandthewhiteremainastheywere。Wind-eggsarelaidbyanumberofbirds:asforinstancebythecommonhen，thehenpartridge，thehenpigeon，thepeahen，thegoose，andthevulpanser。

Eggsarehatchedunderbroodinghensmorerapidlyinsummerthaninwinter；thatistosay，henshatchineighteendaysinsummer，butoccasionallyinwintertakeasmanyastwenty-five。Andbythewayforbroodingpurposessomebirdsmakebettermothersthanothers。Ifitthunderswhileahen-birdisbrooding，theeggsgetaddled。

Wind-eggsthatarecalledbysomecynosuraanduriaareproducedchieflyinsummer。Wind-eggsarecalledbysomezephyr-eggs，becauseatspring-timehen-birdsareobservedtoinhalethebreezes；theydothesameiftheybestrokedinapeculiarwaybyhand。Wind-eggscanturnintofertileeggs，andeggsduetopreviouscopulationcanchangebreed，ifbeforethechangeoftheyellowtothewhitethehenthatcontainswind-eggs，oreggsbegottenofcopulationbetroddenbyanothercock-bird。Underthesecircumstancesthewind-eggsturnintofertileeggs，andthepreviouslyimpregnatedeggsfollowthebreedoftheimpregnator；butifthelatterimpregnationtakesplaceduringthechangeoftheyellowtothewhite，thennochangeintheeggtakesplace:thewind-eggdoesnotbecomeatrueegg，andthetrueeggdoesnottakeonthebreedofthelatterimpregnator。Ifwhentheegg-substanceissmallcopulationbeintermitted，thepreviouslyexistingegg-substanceexhibitsnoincrease；butifthehenbeagainsubmittedtothemaletheincreaseinsizeproceedswithrapidity。

Theyolkandthewhitearediversenotonlyincolourbutalsoinproperties。Thus，theyolkcongealsundertheinfluenceofcold，whereasthewhiteinsteadofcongealingisinclinedrathertoliquefy。

Again，thewhitestiffensundertheinfluenceoffire，whereastheyolkdoesnotstiffen；but，unlessitbeburntthroughandthrough，itremainssoft，andinpointoffactisinclinedtosetortohardenmorefromtheboilingthanfromtheroastingoftheegg。Theyolkandthewhiteareseparatedbyamembranefromoneanother。Theso-called\'hail-stones\'，ortreadles，thatarefoundattheextremityoftheyellowinnowaycontributetowardsgeneration，assomeerroneouslysuppose:theyaretwoinnumber，onebelowandtheotherabove。Ifyoutakeoutoftheshellsanumberofyolksandanumberofwhitesandpourthemintoasaucepanandboilthemslowlyoveralowfire，theyolkswillgatherintothecentreandthewhiteswillsetallaroundthem。

Younghensarethefirsttolay，andtheydosoatthebeginningofspringandlaymoreeggsthantheolderhens，buttheeggsoftheyoungerhensarecomparativelysmall。Asageneralrule，ifhensgetnobroodingtheypineandsicken。Aftercopulationhensshiverandshakethemselves，andoftenkickrubbishaboutallroundthem-andthis，bytheway，theydosometimesafterlaying-whereaspigeonstrailtheirrumpsontheground，andgeesediveunderthewater。

Conceptionofthetrueeggandconformationofthewind-eggtakeplacerapidlywithmostbirds；asforinstancewiththehen-partridgewheninheat。Thefactisthat，whenshestandstowindwardandwithinscentofthemale，sheconceives，andbecomesuselessfordecoypurposes:for，bytheway，thepartridgeappearstohaveaveryacutesenseofsmell。

Thegenerationoftheeggaftercopulationandthegenerationofthechickfromthesubsequenthatchingoftheeggarenotbroughtaboutwithinequalperiodsforallbirds，butdifferastotimeaccordingtothesizeoftheparent-birds。Theeggofthecommonhenaftercopulationsetsandmaturesintendaysageneralrule；theeggofthepigeoninasomewhatlesserperiod。Pigeonshavethefacultyofholdingbacktheeggattheverymomentofparturition；

ifahenpigeonbeputaboutbyanyone，forinstanceifitbedisturbedonitsnest，orhaveafeatherpluckedout，orsustainanyotherannoyanceordisturbance，theneventhoughshehadmadeuphermindtolayshecankeeptheeggbackinabeyance。Asingularphenomenonisobservedinpigeonswithregardtopairing:thatis，theykissoneanotherjustwhenthemaleisonthepointofmountingthefemale，andwithoutthispreliminarythemalewoulddeclinetoperformhisfunction。Withtheoldermalesthepreliminarykissisonlygiventobeginwith，andsubsequentlysequentlyhemountswithoutpreviouslykissing；withyoungermalesthepreliminaryisneveromitted。Anothersingularityinthesebirdsisthatthehenstreadoneanotherwhenacockisnotforthcoming，afterkissingoneanotherjustastakesplaceinthenormalpairing。Thoughtheydonotimpregnateoneanothertheylaymoreeggsunderthesethanunderordinarycircumstances；nochicks，however，resulttherefrom，butallsucheggsarewind-eggs。

3

Generationfromtheeggproceedsinanidenticalmannerwithallbirds，butthefullperiodsfromconceptiontobirthdiffer，ashasbeensaid。Withthecommonhenafterthreedaysandthreenightsthereisthefirstindicationoftheembryo；withlargerbirdstheintervalbeinglonger，withsmallerbirdsshorter。Meanwhiletheyolkcomesintobeing，risingtowardsthesharpend，wheretheprimalelementoftheeggissituated，andwheretheegggetshatched；

andtheheartappears，likeaspeckofblood，inthewhiteoftheegg。

Thispointbeatsandmovesasthoughendowedwithlife，andfromittwovein-ductswithbloodinthemtrendinaconvolutedcourse(astheeggsubstancegoesongrowing，towardseachofthetwocircumjacentinteguments)；andamembranecarryingbloodyfibresnowenvelopstheyolk，leadingofffromthevein-ducts。Alittleafterwardsthebodyisdifferentiated，atfirstverysmallandwhite。Theheadisclearlydistinguished，andinittheeyes，swollenouttoagreatextent。Thisconditionoftheeyeslatonforagoodwhile，asitisonlybydegreesthattheydiminishinsizeandcollapse。Attheoutsettheunderportionofthebodyappearsinsignificantincomparisonwiththeupperportion。Ofthetwoductsthatleadfromtheheart，theoneproceedstowardsthecircumjacentintegument，andtheother，likeanavel-string，towardstheyolk。Thelife-elementofthechickisinthewhiteoftheegg，andthenutrimentcomesthroughthenavel-stringoutoftheyolk。

Whentheeggisnowtendaysoldthechickandallitspartsaredistinctlyvisible。Theheadisstilllargerthantherestofitsbody，andtheeyeslargerthanthehead，butstilldevoidofvision。

Theeyes，ifremovedaboutthistime，arefoundtobelargerthanbeans，andblack；ifthecuticlebepeeledoffthemthereisawhiteandcoldliquidinside，quiteglitteringinthesunlight，butthereisnohardsubstancewhatsoever。Suchistheconditionoftheheadandeyes。Atthistimealsothelargerinternalorgansarevisible，asalsothestomachandthearrangementoftheviscera；andveinsthatseemtoproceedfromtheheartarenowclosetothenavel。Fromthenaveltherestretchapairofveins；onetowardsthemembranethatenvelopstheyolk(and，bytheway，theyolkisnowliquid，ormoresothanisnormal)，andtheothertowardsthatmembranewhichenvelopscollectivelythemembranewhereinthechicklies，themembraneoftheyolk，andtheinterveningliquid。(For，asthechickgrows，littlebylittleonepartoftheyolkgoesupward，andanotherpartdownward，andthewhiteliquidisbetweenthem；andthewhiteoftheeggisunderneaththelowerpartoftheyolk，asitwasattheoutset。)Onthetenthdaythewhiteisattheextremeoutersurface，reducedinamount，glutinous，firminsubstance，andsallowincolour。

Thedispositionoftheseveralconstituentpartsisasfollows。Firstandoutermostcomesthemembraneoftheegg，notthatoftheshell，butunderneathit。Insidethismembraneisawhiteliquid；thencomesthechick，andamembraneroundaboutit，separatingitoffsoastokeepthechickfreefromtheliquid；nextafterthechickcomestheyolk，intowhichoneofthetwoveinswasdescribedasleading，theotheroneleadingintotheenvelopingwhitesubstance。(Amembranewithaliquidresemblingserumenvelopstheentirestructure。Thencomesanothermembranerightroundtheembryo，ashasbeendescribed，separatingitoffagainsttheliquid。

Underneaththiscomestheyolk，envelopedinanothermembrane(intowhichyolkproceedsthenavel-stringthatleadsfromtheheartandthebigvein)，soastokeeptheembryofreeofbothliquids。)

Aboutthetwentiethday，ifyouopentheeggandtouchthechick，itmovesinsideandchirps；anditisalreadycomingtobecoveredwithdown，when，afterthetwentiethdayisast，thechickbeginstobreaktheshell。Theheadissituatedovertherightlegclosetotheflank，andthewingisplacedoverthehead；andaboutthistimeisplaintobeseenthemembraneresemblinganafter-birththatcomesnextaftertheoutermostmembraneoftheshell，intowhichmembranetheoneofthenavel-stringswasdescribedasleading(and，bytheway，thechickinitsentiretyisnowwithinit)，andsoalsoistheothermembraneresemblinganafter-birth，namelythatsurroundingtheyolk，intowhichthesecondnavel-stringwasdescribedasleading；andbothofthemweredescribedasbeingconnectedwiththeheartandthebigvein。Atthisconjuncturethenavel-stringthatleadstotheouterafterbirthcollapsesandbecomesdetachedfromthechick，andthemembranethatleadsintotheyolkisfastenedontothethingutofthecreature，andbythistimeaconsiderableamountoftheyolkisinsidethechickandayellowsedimentisinitsstomach。Aboutthistimeitdischargesresiduuminthedirectionoftheouterafter-birth，andhasresiduuminsideitsstomach；andtheouterresiduumiswhite(andtherecomesawhitesubstanceinside)。Byandbytheyolk，diminishinggraduallyinsize，atlengthbecomesentirelyusedupandcomprehendedwithinthechick(sothat，tendaysafterhatching，ifyoucutopenthechick，asmallremnantoftheyolkisstillleftinconnexionwiththegut)，butitisdetachedfromthenavel，andthereisnothingintheintervalbetween，butithasbeenusedupentirely。Duringtheperiodabovereferredtothechicksleeps，wakesup，makesamoveandlooksupandChirps；andtheheartandthenaveltogetherpalpitateasthoughthecreaturewererespiring。Somuchastogenerationfromtheegginthecaseofbirds。

Birdslaysomeeggsthatareunfruitful，eveneggsthataretheresultofcopulation，andnolifecomesfromsucheggsbyincubation；andthisphenomenonisobservedespeciallywithpigeons。

Twineggshavetwoyolks。Insometwineggsathinpartitionofwhiteintervenestopreventtheyolksmixingwitheachother，butsometwineggsareunprovidedwithsuchpartition，andtheyokesrunintooneanother。Therearesomehensthatlaynothingbuttwineggs，andintheircasethephenomenonregardingtheyolkshasbeenobserved。Forinstance，ahenhasbeenknowntolayeighteeneggs，andtohatchtwinsoutofthemall，exceptthosethatwerewind-eggs；

therestwerefertile(though，bytheway，oneofthetwinsisalwaysbiggerthantheother)，buttheeighteenthwasabnormalormonstrous。

4

Birdsofthepigeonkind，suchastheringdoveandtheturtle-dove，laytwoeggsatatime；thatistosay，theydosoasageneralrule，andtheyneverlaymorethanthree。Thepigeon，ashasbeensaid，laysatallseasons；thering-doveandtheturtle-dovelayinthespringtime，andtheyneverlaymorethantwiceinthesameseason。Thehen-birdlaysthesecondpairofeggswhenthefirstpairhappenstohavebeendestroyed，formanyofthehen-pigeonsdestroythefirstbrood。Thehen-pigeon，ashasbeensaid，occasionallylaysthreeeggs，butitneverrearsmorethantwochicks，andsometimesrearsonlyone；andtheoddoneisalwaysawind-egg。

Veryfewbirdspropagatewithintheirfirstyear。Allbirds，afteroncetheyhavebegunlaying，keeponhavingeggs，thoughinthecaseofsomebirdsitisdifficulttodetectthefactfromtheminutesizeofthecreature。

Thepigeon，asarule，laysamaleandafemaleegg，andgenerallylaysthemaleeggfirst；afterlayingitallowsaday\'sintervaltoensueandthenlaysthesecondegg。Themaletakesitsturnofsittingduringthedaytime；thefemalesitsduringthenight。Thefirst-laideggishatchedandbroughttobirthwithintwentydays；andthemotherbirdpecksaholeintheeggthedaybeforeshehatchesitout。Thetwoparentbirdsbroodforsometimeoverthechicksinthewayinwhichtheybroodedpreviouslyovertheeggs。Inallconnectedwiththerearingoftheyoungthefemaleparentismorecross-temperedthanthemale，asisthecasewithmostanimalsafterparturition。Thehenslayasmanyastentimesintheyear；occasionalinstanceshavebeenknownoftheirlayingeleventimes，andinEgypttheyactuallylaytwelvetimes。Thepigeon，maleandfemale，coupleswithintheyear；infact，itcoupleswhenonlysixmonthsold。Someassertthatringdovesandturtle-dovespairandprocreatewhenonlythreemonthsold，andinstancetheirsuperabundantnumbersbywayofproofoftheassertion。Thehen-pigeoncarrieshereggsfourteendays；forasmanymoredaystheparentbirdshatchtheeggs；bytheendofanotherfourteendaysthechicksaresofarcapableofflightastobeovertakenwithdifficulty。(Thering-dove，accordingtoallaccounts，livesuptofortyyears。Thepartridgelivesoversixteen。)(Afteronebroodthepigeonisreadyforanotherwithinthirtydays。)

5

Thevulturebuildsitsnestoninaccessiblecliffs；forwhichreasonitsnestandyoungarerarelyseen。AndthereforeHerodorus，fatherofBrysontheSophist，declaresthatvulturesbelongtosomeforeigncountryunknowntous，statingasaproofoftheassertionthatnoonehaseverseenavulture\'snest，andalsothatvulturesingreatnumbersmakeasuddenappearanceintherearofarmies。

However，difficultasitistogetasightofit，avulture\'snesthasbeenseen。Thevulturelaystwoeggs。

(Carnivorousbirdsingeneralareobservedtolaybutonceayear。Theswallowistheonlycarnivorousbirdthatbuildsanesttwice。Ifyouprickouttheeyesofswallowchickswhiletheyareyetyoung，thebirdswillgetwellagainandwillseebyandby。)

6

Theeaglelaysthreeeggsandhatchestwoofthem，asitissaidintheversesascribedtoMusaeus:

Thatlaysthree，hatchestwo，andcaresforone。

Thisisthecaseinmostinstances，thoughoccasionallyabroodofthreehasbeenobserved。Astheyoungonesgrow，themotherbecomesweariedwithfeedingthemandextrudesoneofthepairfromthenest。Atthesametimethebirdissaidtoabstainfromfood，toavoidharryingtheyoungofwildanimals。Thatistosay，itswingsblanch，andforsomedaysitstalonsgetturnedawry。Itisinconsequenceaboutthistimecross-temperedtoitsownyoung。Thepheneissaidtoreartheyoungonethathasbeenexpelledthenest。Theeaglebroodsforaboutthirtydays。

Thehatchingperiodisaboutthesameforthelargerbirds，suchasthegooseandthegreatbustard；forthemiddle-sizedbirdsitextendsoverabouttwentydays，asinthecaseofthekiteandthehawk。Thekiteingenerallaystwoeggs，butoccasionallyrearsthreeyoungones。Theso-calledaegoliusattimesrearsfour。Itisnottruethat，assomeaver，theravenlaysonlytwoeggs；itlaysalargernumber。Itbroodsforabouttwentydaysandthenextrudesitsyoung。Otherbirdsperformthesameoperation；atalleventsmotherbirdsthatlayseveraleggsoftenextrudeoneoftheiryoung。

Birdsoftheeaglespeciesarenotalikeinthetreatmentoftheiryoung。Thewhite-tailedeagleiscross，theblackeagleisaffectionateinthefeedingoftheyoung；though，bytheway，allbirdsofprey，whentheirbroodisratherforwardinbeingabletofly，beatandextrudethemfromthenest。Themajorityofbirdsotherthanbirdsofprey，ashasbeensaid，alsoactinthismanner，andafterfeedingtheiryoungtakenofurthercareofthem；butthecrowisanexception。Thisbirdforaconsiderabletimetakeschargeofheryoung；for，evenwhenheryoungcanfly，shefliesalongsideofthemandsuppliesthemwithfood。

7

Thecuckooissaidbysometobeahawktransformed，becauseatthetimeofthecuckoo\'scoming，thehawk，whichitresembles，isneverseen；andindeeditisonlyforafewdaysthatyouwillseehawksaboutwhenthecuckoo\'snotesoundsearlyintheseason。Thecuckooappearsonlyforashorttimeinsummer，andinwinterdisappears。Thehawkhascrookedtalons，whichthecuckoohasnot；

neitherwithregardtotheheaddoesthecuckooresemblethehawk。

Inpointoffact，bothasregardstheheadandtheclawsitmoreresemblesthepigeon。However，incolourandincolouraloneitdoesresemblethehawk，onlythatthemarkingsofthehawkarestriped，andofthecuckoomottled。And，bytheway，insizeandflightitresemblesthesmallestofthehawktribe，whichbirddisappearsasaruleaboutthetimeoftheappearanceofthecuckoo，thoughthetwohavebeenseensimultaneously。Thecuckoohasbeenseentobepreyedonbythehawk；andthisneverhappensbetweenbirdsofthesamespecies。Theysaynoonehaseverseentheyoungofthecuckoo。Thebirdeggs，butdoesnotbuildanest。Sometimesitlaysitseggsinthenestofasmallerbirdafterfirstdevouringtheeggsofthisbird；itlaysbypreferenceinthenestoftheringdove，afterfirstdevouringtheeggsofthepigeon。(Itoccasionallylaystwo，butusuallyone。)Itlaysalsointhenestofthehypolais，andthehypolaishatchesandrearsthebrood。Itisaboutthistimethatthebirdbecomesfatandpalatable。(Theyoungofhawksalsogetpalatableandfat。Onespeciesbuildsanestinthewildernessandonsheerandinaccessiblecliffs。)

8

Withmostbirds，ashasbeensaidofthepigeon，thehatchingiscarriedonbythemaleandthefemaleinturns:withsomebirds，however，themaleonlysitslongenoughtoallowthefemaletoprovideherselfwithfood。Inthegoosetribethefemalealoneincubates，andafteroncesittingontheeggsshecontinuesbroodinguntiltheyarehatched。

Thenestsofallmarsh-birdsarebuiltindistrictsfennyandwellsuppliedwithgrass；consequently，themother-birdwhilesittingquietonhereggscanprovideherselfwithfoodwithouthavingtosubmittoabsolutefasting。

Withthecrowalsothefemalealonebroods，andbroodsthroughoutthewholeperiod；themalebirdsupportsthefemale，bringingherfoodandfeedingher。Thefemaleofthering-dovebeginstobroodintheafternoonandbroodsthroughtheentirenightuntilbreakfast-timeofthefollowingday；themalebroodsduringtherestofthetime。Partridgesbuildanestintwocompartments；themalebroodsontheoneandthefemaleontheother。Afterhatching，eachoftheparentbirdsrearsitsbrood。Butthemale，whenhefirsttakeshisyoungoutofthenest，treadsthem。

9

Peafowlliveforabouttwenty-fiveyears，breedaboutthethirdyear，andatthesametimetakeontheirspangledplumage。Theyhatchtheireggswithinthirtydaysorrathermore。Thepeahenlaysbutonceayear，andlaystwelveeggs，ormaybeaslightlylessernumber:shedoesnotlayalltheeggsthereandthenoneaftertheother，butatintervalsoftwoorthreedays。Suchaslayforthefirsttimelayabouteighteggs。Thepeahenlayswind-eggs。Theypairinthespring；andlayingbeginsimmediatelyafterpairing。Thebirdmoultswhentheearliesttreesaresheddingtheirleaves，andrecoversitsplumagewhenthesametreesarerecoveringtheirfoliage。

Peoplethatrearpeafowlputtheeggsunderthebarn-doorhen，owingtothefactthatwhenthepeahenisbroodingoverthemthepeacockattacksherandtriestotrampleonthem；owingtothiscircumstancesomebirdsofwildvarietiesrunawayfromthemalesandlaytheireggsandbroodinsolitude。Onlytwoeggsareputunderabarn-doorhen，forshecouldnotbroodoverandhatchalargenumber。Theytakeeveryprecaution，bysupplyingherwithfood，topreventhergoingofftheeggsanddiscontinuingthebrooding。

Withmalebirdsaboutpairingtimethetesticlesareobviouslylargerthanatothertimes，andthisisconspicuouslythecasewiththemoresalaciousbirds，suchasthebarn-doorcockandthecockpartridge；thepeculiarityislessconspicuousinsuchbirdsasareintermittentinregardtopairing。

10

Somuchfortheconceptionandgenerationofbirds。

Ithasbeenpreviouslystatedthatfishesarenotalloviparous。

Fishesofthecartilaginousgenusareviviparous；therestareoviparous。Andcartilaginousfishesarefirstoviparousinternallyandsubsequentlyviviparous；theyreartheembryosinternally，thebatrachusorfishing-frogbeinganexception。

Fishesalso，aswasabovestated，areprovidedwithwombs，andwombsofdiversekinds。Theoviparousgenerahavewombsbifurcateinshapeandlowdowninposition；thecartilaginousgenushavewombsshapedlikethoseofObirds。Thewomb，however，inthecartilaginousfishesdiffersinthisrespectfromthewombofbirds，thatwithsomecartilaginousfishestheeggsdonotsettleclosetothediaphragmbutmiddle-waysalongthebackbone，andastheygrowtheyshifttheirposition。

Theeggwithallfishesisnotoftwocolourswithinbutisofevenhue；andthecolourisnearertowhitethantoyellow，andthatbothwhentheyoungisinsideitandpreviouslyaswell。

Developmentfromtheegginfishesdiffersfromthatinbirdsinthisrespect，thatitdoesnotexhibitthatoneofthetwonavel-stringsthatleadsofftothemembranethatliescloseundertheshell，whileitdoesexhibitthatoneofthetwothatinthecaseofbirdsleadsofftotheyolk。Inageneralwaytherestofthedevelopmentfromtheeggonwardsisidenticalinbirdsandfishes。

Thatistosay，developmenttakesplaceattheupperpartoftheegg，andtheveinsextendinlikemanner，atfirstfromtheheart；andatfirstthehead，theeyes，andtheupperpartsarelargest；andasthecreaturegrowstheegg-substancedecreasesandeventuallydisappears，andbecomesabsorbedwithintheembryo，justastakesplacewiththeyolkinbirds。

Thenavel-stringisattachedalittlewaybelowtheapertureofthebelly。Whenthecreaturesareyoungthenavel-stringislong，butastheygrowitdiminishesinsize；atlengthitgetssmallandbecomesincorporated，aswasdescribedinthecaseofbirds。Theembryoandtheeggareenvelopedbyacommonmembrane，andjustunderthisisanothermembranethatenvelopstheembryobyitself；andinbetweenthetwomembranesisaliquid。Thefoodinsidethestomachofthelittlefishesresemblesthatinsidethestomachofyoungchicks，andispartlywhiteandpartlyyellow。

Asregardstheshapeofthewomb，thereaderisreferredtomytreatiseonAnatomy。Thewomb，however，isdiverseindiversefishes，asforinstanceinthesharksascomparedonewithanotherorascomparedwiththeskate。Thatistosay，insomesharkstheeggsadhereinthemiddleofthewombroundaboutthebackbone，ashasbeenstated，andthisisthecasewiththedog-fish；astheeggsgrowtheyshifttheirplace；andsincethewombisbifurcateandadherestothemidriff，asintherestofsimilarcreatures，theeggspassintooneorotherofthetwocompartments。Thiswombandthewomboftheothersharksexhibit，asyougoalittlewayofffromthemidriff，somethingresemblingwhitebreasts，whichnevermaketheirappearanceunlesstherebeconception。

Dog-fishandskatehaveakindofegg-shell，inthewhichisfoundanegg-likeliquid。Theshapeoftheegg-shellresemblesthetongueofabagpipe，andhair-likeductsareattachedtotheshell。

Withthedog-fishwhichiscalledbysomethe\'dappledshark\'，theyoungarebornwhentheshell-formationbreaksinpiecesandfallsout；withtheray，afterithaslaidtheeggtheshell-formationbreaksupandtheyoungmoveout。Thespinydog-fishhasitsclosetothemidriffabovethebreastlikeformations；whentheeggdescends，assoonasitgetsdetachedtheyoungisborn。Themodeofgenerationisthesameinthecaseofthefox-shark。

Theso-calledsmoothsharkhasitseggsinbetwixtthewombslikethedog-fish；theseeggsshiftintoeachofthetwohornsofthewombanddescend，andtheyoungdevelopwiththenavel-stringattachedtothewomb，sothat，astheegg-substancegetsusedup，theembryoissustainedtoallappearancejustasinthecaseofquadrupeds。Thenavel-stringislongandadherestotheunderpartofthewomb(eachnavel-stringbeingattachedasitwerebyasucker)，andalsotothecentreoftheembryointheplacewheretheliverissituated。Iftheembryobecutopen，eventhoughithastheegg-substancenolonger，thefoodinsideisegg-likeinappearance。

Eachembryo，asinthecaseofquadrupeds，isprovidedwithachorionandseparatemembranes。Whenyoungtheembryohasitsheadupwards，butdownwardswhenitgetsstrongandiscompletedinform。

Malesaregeneratedontheleft-handsideofthewomb，andfemalesontheright-handside，andmalesandfemalesonthesamesidetogether。Iftheembryobecutopen，then，aswithquadrupeds，suchinternalorgansasitisfurnishedwith，asforinstancetheliver，arefoundtobelargeandsuppliedwithblood。

Allcartilaginousfisheshaveatoneandthesametimeeggsaboveclosetothemidriff(somelarger，somesmaller)，inconsiderablenumbers，andalsoembryoslowerdown。Andthiscircumstanceleadsmanytosupposethatfishesofthisspeciespairandbearyoungeverymonth，inasmuchastheydonotproducealltheiryoungatonce，butnowandagainandoveralengthenedperiod。

Butsucheggsashavecomedownbelowwithinthewombaresimultaneouslyripenedandcompletedingrowth。

Dog-fishingeneralcanextrudeandtakeinagaintheiryoung，ascanalsotheangel-fishandtheelectricray-and，bytheway，alargeelectricrayhasbeenseenwithabouteightyembryosinsideit-butthespinydogfishisanexceptiontotherule，beingpreventedbythespineoftheyoungfishfromsodoing。Oftheflatcartilaginousfish，thetrygonandtheraycannotextrudeandtakeinagaininconsequenceoftheroughnessofthetailsoftheyoung。

Thebatrachusorfishing-frogalsoisunabletotakeinitsyoungowingtothesizeoftheheadandtheprickles；and，bytheway，aswaspreviouslyremarked，itistheonlyoneofthesefishesthatisnotviviparous。

Somuchforthevarietiesofthecartilaginousspeciesandfortheirmodesofgenerationfromtheegg。

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Atthebreedingseasonthesperm-ductsofthemalearefilledwithsperm，somuchsothatiftheybesqueezedthespermflowsoutspontaneouslyasawhitefluid；theductsarebifurcate，andstartfromthemidriffandthegreatvein。Aboutthisperiodthesperm-ductsofthemalearequitedistinct(fromthewombofthefemale)butatanyotherthantheactualbreedingtimetheirdistinctnessisnotobvioustoanon-expert。Thefactisthatincertainfishesatcertaintimestheseorgansareimperceptible，aswasstatedregardingthetesticlesofbirds。

Amongotherdistinctionsobservedbetweenthethoricductsandthewomb-ductsisthecircumstancethatthethoricductsareattachedtotheloins，whilethewomb-ductsmoveaboutfreelyandareattachedbyathinmembrane。TheparticularsregardingthethoricductsmaybestudiedbyareferencetothediagramsinmytreatiseonAnatomy。

Cartilaginousfishesarecapableofsuperfoetation，andtheirperiodofgestationissixmonthsatthelongest。Theso-calledstarrydogfishbearsyoungthemostfrequently；inotherwordsitbearstwiceamonth。ThebreedingseasonisinthemonthofMaemacterion。Thedog-fishasageneralrulebeartwiceintheyear，withtheexceptionofthelittledog-fish，whichbearsonlyonceayear。Someofthembringforthinthespringtime。Therhine，orangel-fish，bearsitsfirstbroodinthespringtime，anditssecondintheautumn，aboutthewintersettingofthePleiads；thesecondbroodisthestrongerofthetwo。Theelectricraybringsforthinthelateautumn。

Cartilaginousfishescomeoutfromthemainseasanddeepwaterstowardstheshoreandtherebringforththeiryoung，andtheydosoforthesakeofwarmthandbywayofprotectionfortheiryoung。

Observationswouldleadtothegeneralrulethatnoonevarietyoffishpairswithanothervariety。Theangel-fish，however，andthebatusorskateappeartopairwithoneanother；forthereisafishcalledtherhinobatus，withtheheadandfrontpartsoftheskateandtheafterpartsoftherhineorangel-fish，justasthoughitweremadeupofbothfishestogether。

Sharksthenandtheircongeners，asthefox-sharkandthedog-fish，andtheflatfishes，suchastheelectricray，theray，thesmoothskate，andthetrygon，arefirstoviparousandthenviviparousinthewayabovementioned，(asarealsothesaw-fishandtheox-ray。)

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Thedolphin，thewhale，andalltherestoftheCetacea，all，thatistosay，thatareprovidedwithablow-holeinsteadofgills，areviviparous。Thatistosay，nooneofallthesefishesiseverseentobesuppliedwitheggs，butdirectlywithanembryofromwhosedifferentiationcomesthefish，justasinthecaseofmankindandtheviviparousquadrupeds。

Thedolphinbearsoneatatimegenerally，butoccasionallytwo。

Thewhalebearsoneoratthemosttwo，generallytwo。Theporpoiseinthisrespectresemblesthedolphin，and，bytheway，itisinformlikealittledolphin，andisfoundintheEuxine；itdiffers，however，fromthedolphinasbeinglessinsizeandbroaderintheback；itscolourisleaden-black。Manypeopleareofopinionthattheporpoiseisavarietyofthedolphin。

Allcreaturesthathaveablow-holerespireandinspire，fortheyareprovidedwithlungs。Thedolphinhasbeenseenasleepwithhisnoseabovewater，andwhenasleephesnores。

Thedolphinandtheporpoiseareprovidedwithmilk，andsuckletheiryoung。Theyalsotaketheiryoung，whensmall，insidethem。Theyoungofthedolphingrowrapidly，beingfullgrownattenyearsofage。Itsperiodofgestationistenmonths。Itbringsforthitsyoungsummer，andneveratanyotherseason；(and，singularlyenough，undertheDogstaritdisappearsforaboutthirtydays)。Itsyoungaccompanyitforaconsiderableperiod；and，infact，thecreatureisremarkableforthestrengthofitsparentalaffection。

Itlivesformanyyears；someareknowntohavelivedformorethantwenty-five，andsomeforthirtyyears；thefactisfishermennicktheirtailssometimesandsetthemadriftagain，andbythisexpedienttheiragesareascertained。

Thesealisanamphibiousanimal:thatistosay，itcannottakeinwater，butbreathesandsleepsandbringsforthondryland-onlyclosetotheshore-asbeingananimalfurnishedwithfeet；itspends，however，thegreaterpartofitstimeintheseaandderivesitsfoodfromit，sothatitmustbeclassedinthecategoryofmarineanimals。Itisviviparousbyimmediateconceptionandbringsforthitsyoungalive，andexhibitsanafter-birthandallelsejustlikeaewe。

Itbearsoneortwoatatime，andthreeatthemost。Ithastwoteats，andsucklesitsyounglikeaquadruped。Likethehumanspeciesitbringsforthatallseasonsoftheyear，butespeciallyatthetimewhentheearliestkidsareforthcoming。Itconductsitsyoungones，whentheyareabouttwelvedaysold，overandoveragainduringthedaydowntothesea，accustomingthembyslowdegreestothewater。Itslipsdownsteepplacesinsteadofwalking，fromthefactthatitcannotsteadyitselfbyitsfeet。Itcancontractanddrawitselfin，foritisfleshyandsoftanditsbonesaregristly。

Owingtotheflabbinessofitsbodyitisdifficulttokillasealbyablow，unlessyoustrikeitonthetemple。Itlookslikeacow。

Thefemaleinregardtoitsgenitalorgansresemblesthefemaleoftheray；inallotherrespectsitresemblesthefemaleofthehumanspecies。

Somuchforthephenomenaofgenerationandofparturitioninanimalsthatliveinwaterandareviviparouseitherinternallyorexternally。

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Oviparousfisheshavetheirwombbifurcateandplacedlowdown，aswassaidpreviously-and，bytheway，allscalyfishareoviparous，asthebasse，themullet，thegreymullet，andtheetelis，andalltheso-calledwhite-fish，andallthesmoothorslipperyfishexcepttheeel-andtheirroeisofacrumblingorgranularsubstance。Thisappearanceisduetothefactthatthewholewombofsuchfishesisfullofeggs，sothatinlittlefishesthereseemtobeonlyacoupleofeggsthere；forinsmallfishesthewombisindistinguishable，fromitsdiminutivesizeandthincontexture。Thepairingoffisheshasbeendiscussedpreviously。

Fishesforthemostpartaredividedintomalesandfemales，butoneispuzzledtoaccountfortheerythrinusandthechanna，forspecimensofthesespeciesarenevercaughtexceptinaconditionofpregnancy。

Withsuchfishaspair，eggsaretheresultofcopulation，butsuchfishhavethemalsowithoutcopulation；andthisisshowninthecaseofsomeriver-fish，fortheminnowhaseggswhenquitesmall，-almost，onemaysay，assoonasitisborn。Thesefishesshedtheireggslittlebylittle，and，asisstated，themalesswallowthegreaterpartofthem，andsomeportionofthemgoestowasteinthewater；butsuchoftheeggsasthefemaledepositsonthespawningbedsaresaved。Ifalltheeggswerepreserved，eachspecieswouldbeinfiniteinnumber。Thegreaternumberoftheseeggssodepositedarenotproductive，butonlythoseoverwhichthemaleshedsthemiltorsperm；forwhenthefemalehaslaidhereggs，themalefollowsandshedsitsspermoverthem，andfromalltheeggssobesprinkledyoungfishesproceed，whiletherestarelefttotheirfate。

Thesamephenomenonisobservedinthecaseofmolluscsalso；

forinthecaseofthecuttlefishorsepia，afterthefemalehasdepositedhereggs，themalebesprinklesthem。Itishighlyprobablethatasimilarphenomenontakesplaceinregardtomolluscsingeneral，thoughuptothepresenttimethephenomenonhasbeenobservedonlyinthecaseofthecuttlefish。

Fishesdeposittheireggscloseintoshore，thegobyclosetostones；and，bytheway，thespawnofthegobyisflatandcrumbly。

Fishingeneralsodeposittheireggs；forthewatercloseintoshoreiswarmandisbettersuppliedwithfoodthantheoutersea，andservesasaprotectiontothespawnagainstthevoracityofthelargerfish。AnditisforthisreasonthatintheEuxinemostfishesspawnnearthemouthoftheriverThermodon，becausethelocalityissheltered，genial，andsuppliedwithfreshwater。

Oviparousfishasarulespawnonlyonceayear。Thelittlephycisorblackgobyisanexception，asitspawnstwice；themaleoftheblackgobydiffersfromthefemaleasbeingblackerandhavinglargerscales。

Fishestheningeneralproducetheiryoungbycopulation，andlaytheireggs；butthepipefish，assomecallit，whenthetimeofparturitionarrives，burstsintwo，andtheeggsescapeout。Forthefishhasadiaphysisorclovengrowthunderthebellyandabdomen(liketheblindsnakes)，and，afterithasspawnedbythesplittingofthisdiaphysis，thesidesofthesplitgrowtogetheragain。

Developmentfromtheeggtakesplacesimilarlywithfishesthatareoviparousinternallyandwithfishesthatareoviparousexternally；thatistosay，theembryocomesattheupperendoftheeggandisenvelopedinamembrane，andtheeyes，largeandspherical，arethefirstorgansvisible。Fromthiscircumstanceitisplainthattheassertionisuntenablewhichismadebysomewriters，towit，thattheyoungofoviparousfishesaregeneratedlikethegrubsofworms；fortheoppositephenomenaareobservedinthecaseofthesegrubs，inthattheirlowerextremitiesarethelargerattheoutset，andthattheeyesandtheheadappearlateron。Aftertheegghasbeenusedup，theyoungfishesareliketadpolesinshape，andatfirst，withouttakinganynutriment，theygrowbysustenancederivedfromthejuiceoozingfromtheegg；byandby，theyarenourisheduptofullgrowthbytheriver-waters。

WhentheEuxineis\'purged\'asubstancecalledphycusiscarriedintotheHellespont，andthissubstanceisofapaleyellowcolour。

Somewritersaverthatitistheflowerofthephycus，fromwhichrougeismade；itcomesatthebeginningofsummer。Oystersandthesmallfishoftheselocalitiesfeedonthissubstance，andsomeoftheinhabitantsofthesemaritimedistrictssaythatthepurplemurexderivesitspeculiarcolourfromit。

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Marsh-fishesandriver-fishesconceiveattheageoffivemonthsasageneralrule，anddeposittheirspawntowardsthecloseoftheyearwithoutexception。Andwiththesefishes，likeaswiththemarinefishes，thefemaledoesnotvoidallhereggsatonetime，northemalehissperm；buttheyareatalltimesmoreorlessprovided，thefemalewitheggs，andthemalewithsperm。The-carpspawnsastheseasonscomeround，fiveorsixtimes，andfollowsinspawningtherisingofthegreaterconstellations。Thechalcisspawnsthreetimes，andtheotherfishesonceonlyintheyear。Theyallspawninpoolsleftbytheoverflowingofrivers，andneartoreedyplacesinmarshes；asforinstancethephoxinusorminnowandtheperch。

Theglanisorsheat-fishandtheperchdeposittheirspawninonecontinuousstring，likethefrog；socontinuous，infact，istheconvolutedspawnoftheperchthat，byreasonofitssmoothness，thefishermeninthemarshescanunwinditoffthereedslikethreadsoffareel。Thelargerindividualsofthesheat-fishspawnindeepwaters，someinwaterofafathom\'sdepth，thesmallerinshallowerwater，generallyclosetotherootsofthewilloworofsomeothertree，orclosetoreedsortomoss。Attimesthesefishesintertwinewithoneanother，abigwithalittleone，andbringintojuxtapositiontheducts-whichsomewritersdesignateasnavels-atthepointwheretheyemitthegenerativeproductsanddischargetheegginthecaseofthefemaleandthemiltinthecaseofthemale。

Sucheggsasarebesprinkledwiththemiltgrow，inadayorthereabouts，whiterandlarger，andinalittlewhileafterwardsthefish\'seyesbecomevisiblefortheseorgansinallfishes，asforthatmatterinallotheranimals，areearlyconspicuousandseemdisproportionatelybig。Butsucheggsasthemiltfailstotouchremain，aswithmarinefishes，uselessandinfertile。Fromthefertileeggs，asthelittlefishgrow，akindofsheathdetachesitself；

thisisamembranethatenvelopstheeggandtheyoungfish。Whenthemilthasmingledwiththeeggs，theresultingproductbecomesverystickyorviscous，andadherestotherootsoftreesorwhereveritmayhavebeenlaid。Themalekeepsonguardattheprincipalspawning-place，andthefemaleafterspawninggoesaway。

Inthecaseofthesheat-fishthegrowthfromtheeggisexceptionallyslow，and，inconsequence，themalehastokeepwatchforfortyorfiftydaystopreventthe-spawnbeingdevouredbysuchlittlefishesaschancetocomeby。Nextinpointofslownessisthegenerationofthecarp。Aswithfishesingeneral，soevenwiththese，thespawnthusprotecteddisappearsandgetslostrapidly。

Inthecaseofsomeofthesmallerfisheswhentheyareonlythreedaysoldyoungfishesaregenerated。Eggstouchedbythemalespermtakeonincreaseboththesamedayandalsolater。Theeggofthesheat-fishisasbigasavetch-seed；theeggofthecarpandofthecarp-speciesasbigasamillet-seed。

Thesefishesthenspawnandgenerateinthewayheredescribed。Thechalcis，however，spawnsindeepwaterindenseshoalsoffish；andtheso-calledtilonspawnsneartobeachesinshelteredspotsinshoalslikewise。Thecarp，thebaleros，andfishesingeneralpusheagerlyintotheshallowsforthepurposeofspawning，andveryoftenthirteenorfourteenmalesareseenfollowingasinglefemale。Whenthefemaledepositsherspawnanddeparts，themalesfollowonandshedthemilt。Thegreaterportionofthespawngetswasted；because，owingtothefactthatthefemalemovesaboutwhilespawning，thespawnscatters，orsomuchofitasiscaughtinthestreamanddoesnotgetentangledwithsomerubbish。For，withtheexceptionofthesheatfish，nofishkeepsonguard；unless，bytheway，itbethecarp，whichissaidtoremainonguard，ifitsohappenthatitsspawnliesinasolidmass。

Allmalefishesaresuppliedwithmilt，exceptingtheeel:withtheeel，themaleisdevoidofmilt，andthefemaleofspawn。Themulletgoesupfromtheseatomarshesandrivers；theeels，onthecontrary，maketheirwaydownfromthemarshesandriverstothesea。

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Thegreatmajorityoffish，then，ashasbeenstated，proceedfromeggs。However，therearesomefishthatproceedfrommudandsand，evenofthosekindsthatproceedalsofrompairingandtheegg。Thisoccursinpondshereandthere，andespeciallyinapondintheneighbourhoodofCnidos。Thispond，itissaid，atonetimerandryabouttherisingoftheDogstar，andthemudhadalldriedup；atthefirstfalloftherainstherewasashowofwaterinthepond，andonthefirstappearanceofthewatershoalsoftinyfishwerefoundinthepond。Thefishinquestionwasakindofmullet，onewhichdoesnotproceedfromnormalpairing，aboutthesizeofasmallsprat，andnotoneofthesefisheswasprovidedwitheitherspawnormilt。

TherearefoundalsoinAsiaMinor，inriversnotcommunicatingwiththesea，littlefisheslikewhitebait，differingfromthesmallfryfoundnearCnidosbutfoundundersimilarcircumstances。Somewritersactuallyaverthatmulletallgrowspontaneously。Inthisassertiontheyaremistaken，forthefemaleofthefishisfoundprovidedwithspawn，andthemalewithmilt。However，thereisaspeciesofmulletthatgrowsspontaneouslyoutofmudandsand。

Fromthefactsaboveenumerateditisquiteprovedthatcertainfishescomespontaneouslyintoexistence，notbeingderivedfromeggsorfromcopulation。Suchfishasareneitheroviparousnorviviparousariseallfromoneoftwosources，frommud，orfromsandandfromdecayedmatterthatrisesthenceasascum；forinstance，theso-calledfrothofthesmallfrycomesoutofsandyground。Thisfryisincapableofgrowthandofpropagatingitskind；afterlivingforawhileitdiesawayandanothercreaturetakesitsplace，andso，withshortintervalsexcepted，itmaybesaidtolastthewholeyearthrough。Atallevents，itlastsfromtheautumnrisingofArcturusuptothespring-time。Asaproofthatthesefishoccasionallycomeoutofthegroundwehavethefactthatincoldweathertheyarenotcaught，andthattheyarecaughtinwarmweather，obviouslycomingupoutofthegroundtocatchtheheat；also，whenthefishermenusedredgesandthegroundisscrapedupfairlyoften，thefishesappearinlargernumbersandofsuperiorquality。Allothersmallfryareinferiorinqualityowingtorapidityofgrowth。Thefryarefoundinshelteredandmarshydistricts，whenafteraspelloffineweatherthegroundisgettingwarmer，as，forinstance，intheneighbourhoodofAthens，atSalamisandnearthetombofThemistoclesandatMarathon；forinthesedistrictsthefrothisfound。Itappears，then，insuchdistrictsandduringsuchweather，andoccasionallyappearsafteraheavyfallofraininthefroththatisthrownupbythefallingrain，fromwhichcircumstancethesubstancederivesitsspecificname。Foamisoccasionallybroughtinonthesurfaceoftheseainfairweather。(Andinthis，whereithasformedonthesurface，theso-calledfrothcollects，asgrubsswarminmanure；forwhich-reasonthisfryisoftenbroughtinfromtheopensea。Thefishisatitsbestinqualityandquantityinmoistwarmweather。)

Theordinaryfryisthenormalissueofparentfishes:theso-calledgudgeon-fryofsmallinsignificantgudgeon-likefishthatburrowundertheground。FromthePhalericfrycomesthemembras，fromthemembrasthetrichis，fromthetrichisthetrichias，andfromoneparticularsortoffry，towitfromthatfoundintheharbourofAthens，comeswhatiscalledtheencrasicholus，oranchovy。Thereisanotherfry，derivedfromthemaenisandthemullet。

Theunfertilefryiswateryandkeepsonlyashorttime，ashasbeenstated，foratlastonlyheadandeyesareleft。However，thefishermenoflatehavehituponamethodoftransportingittoadistance，aswhensalteditkeepsforaconsiderabletime。

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Eelsarenottheissueofpairing，neitheraretheyoviparous；norwasaneeleverfoundsuppliedwitheithermiltorspawn，noraretheywhencutopenfoundtohavewithinthempassagesforspawnorforeggs。Inpointoffact，thisentirespeciesofbloodedanimalsproceedsneitherfrompairnorfromtheegg。

Therecanbenodoubtthatthecaseisso。Forinsomestandingpools，afterthewaterhasbeendrainedoffandthemudhasbeendredgedaway，theeelsappearagainafterafallofrain。Intimeofdroughttheydonotappeareveninstagnantponds，forthesimplereasonthattheirexistenceandsustenanceisderivedfromrain-water。

Thereisnodoubt，then，thattheyproceedneitherfrompairingnorfromanegg。Somewriters，however，areofopinionthattheygeneratetheirkind，becauseinsomeeelslittlewormsarefound，fromwhichtheysupposethateelsarederived。Butthisopinionisnotfoundedonfact。Eelsarederivedfromtheso-called\'earth\'sguts\'

thatgrowspontaneouslyinmudandinhumidground；infact，eelshaveattimesbeenseentoemergeoutofsuchearthworms，andonotheroccasionshavebeenrenderedvisiblewhentheearthwormswerelaidopenbyeitherscrapingorcutting。Suchearthwormsarefoundbothintheseaandinrivers，especiallywherethereisdecayedmatter:intheseainplaceswheresea-weedabounds，andinriversandmarshesneartotheedge；foritisneartothewater\'sedgethatsun-heathasitschiefpowerandproducesputrefaction。Somuchforthegenerationoftheeel。

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Fishdonotallbringforththeiryoungatthesameseasonnorallinlikemanner，neitheristheperiodofgestationforallofthesameduration。

Beforepairingthemalesandfemalesgathertogetherinshoals；atthetimeforcopulationandparturitiontheypairoff。Withsomefishesthetimeofgestationisnotlongerthanthirtydays，withothersitisalesserperiod；butwithallitextendsoveranumberofdaysdivisiblebyseven。Thelongestperiodofgestationisthatofthespecieswhichsomecallamarinus。

ThesargueconceivesduringthemonthofPoseideon(orDecember)，andcarriesitsspawnforthirtydays；andthespeciesofmulletnamedbysomethechelon，andthemyxon，gowithspawnatthesameperiodandoverthesamelengthoftime。

Allfishsuffergreatlyduringtheperiodofgestation，andareinconsequenceveryapttobethrownuponshoreatthistime。

Insomecasestheyaredrivenfranticwithpainandthrowthemselvesonland。Atalleventstheyarethroughoutthistimecontinuallyinmotionuntilparturitionisover(thisbeingespeciallytrueofthemullet)，andafterparturitiontheyareinrepose。Withmanyfishthetimeforparturitionterminatesontheappearanceofgrubswithinthebelly；forsmalllivinggrubsgetgeneratedthereandeatupthespawn。

Withshoalfishesparturitiontakesplaceinthespring，andindeed，withmostfishes，aboutthetimeofthespringequinox；withothersitisatdifferenttimes，insummerwithsome，andwithothersabouttheautumnequinox。

Thefirstofshoalfishestospawnistheatherine，anditspawnsclosetoland；thelastisthecephalus:andthisisinferredfromthefactthatthebroodoftheatherineappearsfirstofallandthebroodofthecephaluslast。Themulletalsospawnsearly。

Thesaupespawnsusuallyatthebeginningofsummer，butoccasionallyintheautumn。Theaulopias，whichsomecalltheanthias，spawnsinthesummer。Nextinorderofspawningcomesthechrysophrysorgilthead，thebasse，themormyrus，andingeneralsuchfishasarenicknamed\'runners\'。Latestinorderoftheshoalfishcometheredmulletandthecoracine；thesespawninautumn。

Theredmulletspawnsonmud，andconsequently，asthemudcontinuescoldforalongwhile，spawnslateintheyear。Thecoracinecarriesitsspawnforalongtime；but，asitlivesusuallyonrockyground，itgoestoadistanceandspawnsinplacesaboundinginseaweed，ataperiodlaterthantheredmullet。Themaenisspawnsaboutthewintersolstice。Oftheothers，suchasarepelagicspawnforthemostpartinsummer；whichfactisprovedbytheirnotbeingcaughtbyfishermenduringthisperiod。

Ofordinaryfishesthemostprolificisthesprat；ofcartilaginousfishes，thefishing-frog。Specimens，however，ofthefishing-frogarerarefromthefacilitywithwhichtheyoungaredestroyed，asthefemalelaysherspawnallinalumpcloseintoshore。Asarule，cartilaginousfisharelessprolificthanotherfishowingtotheirbeingviviparous；andtheiryoungbyreasonoftheirsizehaveabetterchanceofescapingdestruction。

Theso-calledneedle-fish(orpipe-fish)islateinspawning，andthegreaterportionofthemareburstasunderbytheeggsbeforespawning；andtheeggsarenotsomanyinnumberaslargeinsize。Theyoungfishclusterroundtheparentlikesomanyyoungspiders，forthefishspawnsontoherself；and，ifanyonetouchtheyoung，theyswimaway。Theatherinespawnsbyrubbingitsbellyagainstthesand。

Tunnyfishalsoburstasunderbyreasonoftheirfat。Theylivefortwoyears；andthefishermeninferthisagefromthecircumstancethatoncewhentherewasafailureoftheyoungtunnyfishforayeartherewasafailureofthefull-growntunnythenextsummer。Theyareofopinionthatthetunnyisafishayearolderthanthepelamyd。ThetunnyandthemackerelpairaboutthecloseofthemonthofElaphebolion，andspawnaboutthecommencementofthemonthofHecatombaeon；theydeposittheirspawninasortofbag。Thegrowthoftheyoungtunnyisrapid。AfterthefemaleshavespawnedintheEuxine，therecomesfromtheeggwhatsomecallscordylae，butwhattheByzantinesnicknamethe\'auxids\'or\'growers\'，fromtheirgrowingtoaconsiderablesizeinafewdays；thesefishgooutofthePontusinautumnalongwiththeyoungtunnies，andenterPontusinthespringaspelamyds。Fishesasaruletakeongrowthwithrapidity，butthisispeculiarlythecasewithallspeciesoffishfoundinthePontus；thegrowth，forinstance，oftheamia-tunnyisquitevisiblefromdaytoday。

Toresume，wemustbearinmindthatthesamefishinthesamelocalitieshavenotthesameseasonforpairing，forconception，forparturition，orforfavouringweather。Thecoracine，forinstance，insomeplacesspawnsaboutwheat-harvest。Thestatementsheregivenpretendonlytogivetheresultsofgeneralobservation。

Thecongeralsospawns，butthefactisnotequallyobviousinalllocalities，noristhespawnplainlyvisibleowingtothefatofthefish；forthespawnislankyinshapeasitiswithserpents。

However，ifitbeputonthefireitshowsitsnature；forthefatevaporatesandmelts，whiletheeggsdanceaboutandexplodewithacrack。Further，ifyoutouchthesubstancesandrubthemwithyourfingers，thefatfeelssmoothandtheeggrough。Somecongersareprovidedwithfatbutnotwithanyspawn，othersareunprovidedwithfatbuthaveegg-spawnasheredescribed。

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Wehave，then，treatedprettyfullyoftheanimalsthatflyintheairorswiminthewater，andofsuchofthosethatwalkondrylandasareoviparous，towitoftheirpairing，conception，andthelikephenomena；itnowremainstotreatofthesamephenomenainconnexionwithviviparouslandanimalsandwithman。

Thestatementsmadeinregardtothepairingofthesexesapplypartlytotheparticularkindsofanimalandpartlytoallingeneral。Itiscommontoallanimalstobemostexcitedbythedesireofonesexfortheotherandbythepleasurederivedfromcopulation。Thefemaleismostcross-temperedjustafterparturition，themaleduringthetimeofpairing；forinstance，stallionsatthisperiodbiteoneanother，throwtheirriders，andchasethem。Wildboars，thoughusuallyenfeebledatthistimeastheresultofcopulation，arenowunusuallyfierce，andfightwithoneanotherinanextraordinaryway，clothingthemselveswithdefensivearmour，orinotherwordsdeliberatelythickeningtheirhidebyrubbingagainsttreesorbycoatingthemselvesrepeatedlyalloverwithmudandthendryingthemselvesinthesun。Theydriveoneanotherawayfromtheswinepastures，andfightwithsuchfurythatveryoftenbothcombatantssuccumb。Thecaseissimilarwithbulls，rams，andhe-goats；for，thoughatordinarytimestheyherdtogether，atbreedingtimetheyholdalooffromandquarrelwithoneanother。Themalecamelalsoiscross-temperedatpairingtimeifeitheramanoracamelcomesnearhim；asforahorse，acamelisreadytofighthimatanytime。Itisthesamewithwildanimals。Thebear，thewolf，andthelionareallatthistimeferocioustowardssuchascomeintheirway，butthemalesoftheseanimalsarelessgiventofightwithoneanotherfromthefactthattheyareatnotimegregarious。Theshe-bearisfierceaftercubbing，andthebitchafterpupping。

Maleelephantsgetsavageaboutpairingtime，andforthisreasonitisstatedthatmenwhohavechargeofelephantsinIndianeverallowthemalestohaveintercoursewiththefemales；onthegroundthatthemalesgowildatthistimeandturntopsy-turvythedwellingsoftheirkeepers，lightlyconstructedastheyare，andcommitallkindsofhavoc。Theyalsostatethatabundancyoffoodhasatendencytotamethemales。Theyfurtherintroduceotherelephantsamongstthewildones，andpunishandbreaktheminbysettingonthenew-comerstochastisetheothers。

Animalsthatpairfrequentlyandnotatasinglespecificseason，asforinstanceanimalsdomesticatedbyman，suchasswineanddogs，arefoundtoindulgeinsuchfreakstoalesserdegreeowingtothefrequencyoftheirsexualintercourse。

Offemaleanimalsthemareisthemostsexuallywanton，andnextinordercomesthecow。Infact，themareissaidtogoa-horsing；andthetermderivedfromthehabitsofthisoneanimalservesasatermofabuseapplicabletosuchfemalesofthehumanspeciesasareunbridledinthewayofsexualappetite。Thisisthecommonphenomenonasobservedinthesowwhensheissaidtogoa-boaring。Themareissaidalsoaboutthistimetogetwind-impregnatedifnotimpregnatedbythestallion，andforthisreasoninCretetheyneverremovethestallionfromthemares；forwhenthemaregetsintothisconditionsherunsawayfromallotherhorses。Themaresunderthesecircumstancesflyinvariablyeithernorthwardsorsouthwards，andnevertowardseithereastorwest。Whenthiscomplaintisonthemtheyallownoonetoapproach，untileithertheyareexhaustedwithfatigueorhavereachedthesea。Undereitherofthesecircumstancestheydischargeacertainsubstance\'hippomanes\'，thetitlegiventoagrowthonanew-bornfoal；thisresemblesthesow-virus，andisingreatrequestamongstwomenwhodealindrugsandpotions。Abouthorsingtimethemareshuddleclosertogether，arecontinuallyswitchingtheirtails，theirneighisabnormalinsound，andfromthesexualorganthereflowsaliquidresemblinggenitalsperm，butmuchthinnerthanthespermofthemale。Itisthissubstancethatsomecallhippomanes，insteadofthegrowthfoundonthefoal；theysayitisextremelydifficulttogetasitoozesoutonlyinsmalldropsatatime。Maresalso，wheninheat，dischargeurinefrequently，andfriskwithoneanother。Sucharethephenomenaconnectedwiththehorse。

Cowsgoa-bulling；andsocompletelyaretheyundertheinfluenceofthesexualexcitementthattheherdsmenhavenocontroloverthemandcannotcatchholdoftheminthefields。Maresandkinealike，wheninheat，indicatethefactbytheupraisingoftheirgenitalorgans，andbycontinuallyvoidingurine。Further，kinemountthebulls，followthemabout；andkeepstandingbesidethem。Theyoungerfemalesbothwithhorsesandoxenarethefirsttogetinheat；andtheirsexualappetitesareallthekeeneriftheweatherwarmandtheirbodilyconditionbehealthy。Mares，whencliptoftheircoat，havethesexualfeelingchecked，andassumeadowncastdroopingappearance。Thestallionrecognizesbythescentthemaresthatformhiscompany，eventhoughtheyhavebeentogetheronlyafewdaysbeforebreedingtime:iftheygetmixedupwithothermares，thestallionbitesanddrivesawaytheinterlopers。Hefeedsapart，accompaniedbyhisowntroopofmares。Eachstallionhasassignedtohimaboutthirtymaresorevensomewhatmore；whenastrangestallionapproaches，hehuddleshismaresintoaclosering，runsroundthem，thenadvancestotheencounterofthenewcomer；ifoneofthemaresmakeamovement，hebitesheranddrivesherback。

Thebullinbreedingtimebeginstograzewiththecows，andfightswithotherbulls(havinghithertograzedwiththem)，whichistermedbygraziers\'herd-spurning\'。OfteninEpirusabulldisappearsforthreemonthstogether。Inageneralwayonemaystatethatofmaleanimalseithernoneorfewherdwiththeirrespectivefemalesbeforebreedingtime；buttheykeepseparateafterreachingmaturity，andthetwosexesfeedapart。Sows，whentheyaremovedbysexualdesire，orare，asitiscalled，a-boaring，willattackevenhumanbeings。

Withbitchesthesamesexualconditionistermed\'gettingintoheat\'。Thesexualorganrisesatthistime，andthereisamoistureabouttheparts。Maresdripwithawhiteliquidatthisseason。

Femaleanimalsaresubjecttomenstrualdischarges，butneverinsuch-abundanceasisthefemaleofthehumanspecies。Withewesandshe-goatstherearesignsofmenstruationinbreedingtime，justbeforetheforsubmittingtothemale；aftercopulationalsothesignsaremanifest，andthenceaseforanintervaluntiltheperiodofparturitionarrives；theprocessthensupervenes，anditisbythissuperventionthattheshepherdknowsthatsuchandsuchaneweisabouttobringforth。Afterparturitioncomescopiousmenstruation，notatfirstmuchtingedwithblood，butdeeplydyedwithitbyandby。Withthecow，thesheass，andthemare，thedischargeismorecopiousactually，owingtotheirgreaterbulk，butproportionallytothegreaterbulkitisfarlesscopious。Thecow，forinstance，wheninheat，exhibitsasmalldischargetotheextentofaquarterofapintofliquidoralittleless；andthetimewhenthisdischargetakesplaceisthebesttimeforhertobecoveredbythebull。Ofallquadrupedsthemareisthemosteasilydeliveredofitsyoung，exhibitstheleastamountofdischargeafterparturition，andemitstheleastamountofblood；thatistosay，ofallanimalsinproportiontosize。Withkineandmaresmenstruationusuallymanifestsitselfatintervalsoftwo，four，andsixmonths；but，unlessonebeconstantlyattendingtoandthoroughlyacquaintedwithsuchanimals，itisdifficulttoverifythecircumstance，andtheresultisthatmanypeopleareunderthebeliefthattheprocessnevertakesplacewiththeseanimalsatall。

Withmulesmenstruationnevertakesplace，buttheurineofthefemaleisthickerthantheurineofthemale。Asageneralrulethedischargefromthebladderinthecaseofquadrupedsisthickerthanitisinthehumanspecies，andthisdischargewithewesandshe-goatsisthickerthanwithramsandhe-goats；buttheurineofthejackassisthickerthantheurineoftheshe-ass，andtheurineofthebullismorepungentthantheurineofthecow。Afterparturitiontheurineofallquadrupedsbecomesthicker，especiallywithsuchanimalsasexhibitcomparativelyslightdischarges。Atbreedingtimethemilkbecomepurulent，butafterparturitionitbecomeswholesome。Duringpregnancyewesandshe-goatsgetfatterandeatmore；asisalsothecasewithcows，and，indeed，withthefemalesofallquadrupeds。

Ingeneralthesexualappetitesofanimalsarekeenestinspring-time；thetimeofpairing，however，isnotthesameforall，butisadaptedsoastoensuretherearingoftheyoungataconvenientseason。

Domesticatedswinecarrytheiryoungforfourmonths，andbringforthalitteroftwentyattheutmost；and，bytheway，ifthelitterbeexceedinglynumeroustheycannotrearalltheyoung。

Asthesowgrowsoldshecontinuestobear，butgrowsindifferenttotheboar；sheconceivesafterasinglecopulation，buttheyhavetoputtheboartoherrepeatedlyowingtoherdroppingafterintercoursewhatiscalledthesow-virus。Thisincidentbefallsallsows，butsomeofthemdischargethegenitalspermaswell。Duringconceptionanyoneofthelitterthatgetsinjuredordwarfediscalledanafterpigorscut:suchinjurymayoccuratanypartofthewomb。Afterlitteringthemotherofferstheforemostteattothefirst-born。Whenthesowisinheat，shemustnotatoncebeputtotheboar，butonlyaftersheletsherlugsdrop，forotherwisesheisapttogetintoheatagain；

ifshebeputtotheboarwheninfullconditionofheat，onecopulation，ashasbeensaid，issufficient。Itisaswelltosupplytheboarattheperiodofcopulationwithbarley，andthesowatthetimeofparturitionwithboiledbarley。Someswinegivefinelittersonlyatthebeginning，withothersthelittersimproveasthemothersgrowinageandsize。Itissaidthatasow，ifshehaveoneofhereyesknockedout，isalmostsuretodiesoonafterwards。

Swineforthemostpartliveforfifteenyears，butsomefalllittleshortofthetwenty。