第5章

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(Theaithyia，ordiver，andthelarus，orgull，laytheireggsonrocksborderingonthesea，twoorthreeatatime；butthegulllaysinthesummer，andthediveratthebeginningofspring，justafterthewintersolstice，anditbroodsoveritseggsasbirdsdoingeneral。Andneitherofthesebirdsresortstoahiding-place。)

Thehalcyonisthemostrarelyseenofallbirds。ItisseenonlyaboutthetimeofthesettingofthePleiadsandthewintersolstice。Whenshipsarelyingatanchorintheroads，itwillhoveraboutavesselandthendisappearinamoment，andStesichorusinoneofhispoemsalludestothispeculiarity。Thenightingalealsobreedsatthebeginningofsummer，andlaysfiveorsixeggs；fromautumnuntilspringitretirestoahiding-place。

Insectscopulateandbreedinwinteralso，thatiswhentheweatherisfineandsouthwindsprevail；such，Imean，asdonothibernate，astheflyandtheant。Thegreaterpartofwildanimalsbringforthonceandonceonlyintheyear，exceptinthecaseofanimalslikethehare，wherethefemalecanbecomesuperfoetallyimpregnated。

Inlikemannerthegreatmajorityoffishesbreedonlyonceayear，liketheshoal-fishes(or，inotherwords，suchasarecaughtinnets)，thetunny，thepelamys，thegreymullet，thechalcis，themackerel，thesciaena，thepsettaandthelike，withtheexceptionofthelabraxorbasse；forthisfish(aloneamongstthosementioned)breedstwiceayear，andthesecondbroodistheweakerofthetwo。Thetrichiasandtherock-fishesbreedtwiceayear；theredmulletbreedsthriceayear，andisexceptionalinthisrespect。

Thisconclusioninregardtotheredmulletisinferredfromthespawn；forthespawnofthefishmaybeseenincertainplacesatthreedifferenttimesoftheyear。Thescorpaenabreedstwiceayear。Thesarguebreedstwice，inthespringandintheautumn。Thesaupebreedsonceayearonly，intheautumn。Thefemaletunnybreedsonlyonceayear，butowingtothefactthatthefishinsomecasesspawnearlyandinotherslate，itlooksasthoughthefishbredtwiceover。ThefirstspawningtakesplaceinDecemberbeforethesolstice，andthelatterspawninginthespring。Themaletunnydiffersfromthefemaleinbeingunprovidedwiththefinbeneaththebellywhichiscalledaphareus。

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Ofcartilaginousfishes，therhinaorangelfishistheonlyonethatbreedstwice；foritbreedsatthebeginningofautumn，andatthesettingofthePleiads:and，ofthetwoseasons，itisinbetterconditionintheautumn。Itengendersatabirthsevenoreightyoung。

Certainofthedog-fishes，forexamplethespotteddog，seemtobreedtwiceamonth，andthisresultsfromthecircumstancethattheeggsdonotallreachmaturityatthesametime。

Somefishesbreedatallseasons，asthemuraena。Thisanimallaysagreatnumberofeggsatatime；andtheyoungwhenhatchedareverysmallbutgrowwithgreatrapidity，liketheyoungofthehippurus，forthesefishesfrombeingdiminutiveattheoutsetgrowwithexceptionalrapiditytoanexceptionalsize。(Beitobservedthatthemuraenabreedsatallseasons，butthehippurusonlyinthespring。Thesmyrusdiffersfromthesmyraena；forthemuraenaismottledandweakly，whereasthesmyrusisstrongandofoneuniformcolour，andthecolourresemblesthatofthepine-tree，andtheanimalhasteethinsideandout。Theysaythatinthiscase，asinothersimilarones，theoneisthemale，andtheotherthefemale，ofasinglespecies。Theycomeoutontotheland，andarefrequentlycaught。)Fishes，then，asageneralrule，attaintheirfullgrowthwithgreatrapidity，butthisisespeciallythecase，amongsmallfishes，withthecoracineorcrow-fish:itspawns，bytheway，neartheshore，inweedyandtangledspots。Theorphusalso，orsea-perch，issmallatfirst，andrapidlyattainsagreatsize。ThepelamysandthetunnybreedintheEuxine，andnowhereelse。Thecestreusormullet，thechrysophrysorgilt-head，andthelabraxorbasse，breedbestwhereriversrunintothesea。Theorcysorlarge-sizedtunny，thescorpis，andmanyotherspeciesspawnintheopensea。

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FishforthemostpartbreedsometimeorotherduringthethreemonthsbetweenthemiddleofMarchandthemiddleofJune。Somefewbreedinautumn:as，forinstance，thesaupeandthesargus，andsuchothersofthissortasbreedshortlybeforetheautumnequinox；

likewisetheelectricrayandtheangel-fish。Otherfishesbreedbothinwinterandinsummer，aswaspreviouslyobserved:as，forinstance，inwinter-timethebasse，thegreymullet，andthebeloneorpipe-fish；andinsummer-time，fromthemiddleofJunetothemiddleofJuly，thefemaletunny，aboutthetimeofthesummersolstice；

andthetunnylaysasac-likeenclosureinwhicharecontainedanumberofsmalleggs。Theryadesorshoal-fishesbreedinsummer。

Ofthegreymullets，thechelonbeginstobeinroebetweenthemiddleofNovemberandthemiddleofDecember；asalsothesargue，andthesmyxonormyxon，andthecephalus；andtheirperiodofgestationisthirtydays。And，bytheway，someofthegreymulletspeciesarenotproducedfromcopulation，butgrowspontaneouslyfrommudandsand。

Asageneralrule，then，fishesareinroeinthespring-time；

whilesome，ashasbeensaid，aresoinsummer，inautumn，orinwinter。Butwhereastheimpregnationinthespring-timefollowsagenerallaw，impregnationintheotherseasonsdoesnotfollowthesameruleeitherthroughoutorwithinthelimitsofonegenus；and，further，conceptioninthesevariantseasonsisnotsoprolific。

And，indeed，wemustbearthisinmind，thatjustaswithplantsandquadrupedsdiversityoflocalityhasmuchtodonotonlywithgeneralphysicalhealthbutalsowiththecomparativefrequencyofsexualintercourseandgeneration，soalsowithregardtofisheslocalityofitselfhasmuchtodonotonlyinregardtothesizeandvigourofthecreature，butalsoinregardtoitsparturitionanditscopulations，causingthesamespeciestobreedoftenerinoneplaceandseldomerinanother。

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Themolluscsalsobreedinspring。Ofthemarinemolluscsoneofthefirsttobreedisthesepia。Itspawnsatalltimesofthedayanditsperiodofgestationisfifteendays。Afterthefemalehaslaidhereggs，themalecomesanddischargesthemiltovertheeggs，andtheeggsthereuponharden。Andthetwosexesofthisanimalgoaboutinpairs，sidebyside；andthemaleismoremottledandmoreblackonthebackthanthefemale。

Theoctopuspairsinwinterandbreedsinspring，lyinghiddenforabouttwomonths。Itsspawnisshapedlikeavine-tendril，andresemblesthefruitofthewhitepoplar；thecreatureisextraordinarilyprolific，forthenumberofindividualsthatcomefromthespawnissomethingincalculable。Themalediffersfromthefemaleinthefactthatitsheadislonger，andthattheorgancalledbythefishermenitspenis，inthetentacle，iswhite。Thefemale，afterlayinghereggs，broodsoverthem，andinconsequencegetsoutofcondition，byreasonofnotgoinginquestoffoodduringthehatchingperiod。

Thepurplemurexbreedsaboutspringtime，andtheceryxatthecloseofthewinter。And，asageneralrule，thetestaceansarefoundtobefurnishedwiththeirso-calledeggsinspring-timeandinautumn，withtheexceptionoftheedibleurchin；forthisanimalhastheso-calledeggsinmostabundanceintheseseasons，butatnoseasonisunfurnishedwiththem；anditisfurnishedwiththeminespecialabundanceinwarmweatherorwhenafullmoonisinthesky。Only，bytheway，theseremarksdonotapplytothesea-urchinfoundinthePyrrhaeanStraits，forthisurchinisatitsbestfortablepurposesinthewinter；andtheseurchinsaresmallbutfullofeggs。

Snailsarefoundbyobservationstobecomeinallcasesimpregnatedaboutthesameseason。

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(Ofbirdsthewildspecies，ashasbeenstated，asageneralrulepairandbreedonlyonceayear。Theswallow，however，andtheblackbirdbreedtwice。Withregardtotheblackbird，however，itsfirstbroodiskilledbyinclemencyofweather(foritistheearliestofallbirdstobreed)，butthesecondbrooditusuallysucceedsinrearing。

Birdsthataredomesticatedorthatarecapableofdomesticationbreedfrequently，justasthecommonpigeonbreedsallthroughthesummer，andasisseeninthebarn-doorhen；forthebarn-doorcockandhenhaveintercourse，andthehenbreeds，atallseasonsalike:

exceptingbytheway，duringthedaysaboutthewintersolstice。

Ofthepigeonfamilytherearemanydiversities；fortheperisteraorcommonpigeonisnotidenticalwiththepeleiasorrock-pigeon。

Inotherwords，therock-pigeonissmallerthanthecommonpigeon，andislesseasilydomesticated；itisalsoblack，andsmall，red-footedandrough-footed；andinconsequenceofthesepeculiaritiesitisneglectedbythepigeon-fancier。Thelargestofallthepigeonspeciesisthephattaorring-dove；andthenextinsizeistheoenasorstock-dove；andthestock-doveisalittlelargerthanthecommonpigeon。Thesmallestofallthespeciesistheturtle-dove。Pigeonsbreedandhatchatallseasons，iftheyarefurnishedwithasunnyplaceandallrequisites；unlesstheyaresofurnished，theybreedonlyinthesummer。Thespringbroodisthebest，ortheautumnbrood。

Atallevents，withoutdoubt，theproduceofthehotseason，thesummerbrood，isthepoorestofthethree。)

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Further，animalsdifferfromoneanotherinregardtothetimeoflifethatisbestadaptedforsexualintercourse。

Tobeginwith，inmostanimalsthesecretionoftheseminalfluidanditsgenerativecapacityarenotphenomenasimultaneouslymanifested，butmanifestedsuccessively。Thus，inallanimals，theearliestsecretionofspermisunfruitful，orifitbefruitfultheissueiscomparativelypoorandsmall。Andthisphenomenonisespeciallyobservableinman，inviviparousquadrupeds，andinbirds；forinthecaseofmanandthequadrupedtheoffspringissmaller，andinthecaseofthebird，theegg。

Foranimalsthatcopulate，ofoneandthesamespecies，theageformaturityisinmostspeciestolerablyuniform，unlessitoccursprematurelybyreasonofabnormality，orispostponedbyphysicalinjury。

Inman，then，maturityisindicatedbyachangeofthetoneofvoice，byanincreaseinsizeandanalterationinappearanceofthesexualorgans，asalsoinanincreaseofsizeandalterationinappearanceofthebreasts；andaboveall，inthehair-growthatthepubes。Manbeginstopossessseminalfluidabouttheageoffourteen，andbecomesgenerativelycapableatabouttheageoftwenty-oneyears。

Inotheranimalsthereisnohair-growthatthepubes(forsomeanimalshavenohairatall，andothershavenoneonthebelly，orlessonthebellythanontheback)，butstill，insomeanimalsthechangeofvoiceisquiteobvious；andinsomeanimalsotherorgansgiveindicationofthecommencingsecretionofthespermandtheonsetofgenerativecapacity。Asageneralrulethefemaleissharper-tonedinvoicethanthemale，andtheyounganimalthantheelder；for，bytheway，thestaghasamuchdeeper-tonedbaythanthehind。Moreover，themalecrieschieflyatruttingtime，andthefemaleunderterrorandalarm；andthecryofthefemaleisshort，andthatofthemaleprolonged。Withdogsalso，astheygrowold，thetoneofthebarkgetsdeeper。

Thereisadifferenceobservablealsointheneighingsofhorses。Thatistosay，thefemalefoalhasathinsmallneigh，andthemalefoalasmallneigh，yetbiggeranddeeper-tonedthanthatofthefemale，andalouderoneastimegoeson。Andwhentheyoungmaleandfemalearetwoyearsoldandtaketobreeding，theneighingofthestallionbecomesloudanddeep，andthatofthemarelouderandshrillerthanheretofore；andthischangegoesonuntiltheyreachtheageofabouttwentyyears；andafterthistimetheneighinginbothsexesbecomesweakerandweaker。

Asarule，then，aswasstated，thevoiceofthemalediffersfromthevoiceofthefemale，inanimalswherethevoiceadmitsofacontinuousandprolongedsound，inthefactthatthenoteinthemalevoiceismoredeepandbass；not，however，inallanimals，forthecontraryholdsgoodinthecaseofsome，asforinstanceinkine:forherethecowhasadeepernotethanthebull，andthecalvesadeepernotethanthecattle。Andwecanthusunderstandthechangeofvoiceinanimalsthatundergogelding；formaleanimalsthatundergothisprocessassumethecharactersofthefemale。

Thefollowingaretheagesatwhichvariousanimalsbecomecapacitatedforsexualcommerce。Theeweandtheshe-goataresexuallymaturewhenoneyearold，andthisstatementismademoreconfidentlyinrespecttotheshe-goatthantotheewe；theramandthehe-goataresexuallymatureatthesameage。Theprogenyofveryyoungindividualsamongtheseanimalsdiffersfromthatofothermales:forthemalesimproveinthecourseofthesecondyear，whentheybecomefullymature。Theboarandthesowarecapableofintercoursewheneightmonthsold，andthefemalebringsforthwhenoneyearold，thedifferencecorrespondingtoherperiodofgestation。

Theboariscapableofgenerationwheneightmonthsold，but，withasireunderayearinage，thelitterisapttobeapoorone。Theages，however，arenotinvariable；nowandthentheboarandthesowarecapableofintercoursewhenfourmonthsold，andarecapableofproducingalitterwhichcanberearedwhensixmonthsold；butattimestheboarbeginstobecapableofintercoursewhentenmonths。Hecontinuessexuallymatureuntilheisthreeyearsold。Thedogandthebitchare，asarule，sexuallycapableandsexuallyreceptivewhenayearold，andsometimeswheneightmonthsold；butthepriorityindateismorecommonwiththedogthanwiththebitch。Theperiodofgestationwiththebitchissixtydays，orsixty-one，orsixty-two，orsixty-threeattheutmost；theperiodisneverundersixtydays，or，ifitis，thelittercomestonogood。Thebitch，afterdeliveringalitter，submitstothemaleinsixmonths，butnotbefore。Thehorseandthemareare，attheearliest，sexuallycapableandsexuallymaturewhentwoyearsold；theissue，however，ofparentsofthisageissmallandpoor。Asageneralruletheseanimalsaresexuallycapablewhenthreeyearsold，andtheygrowbetterforbreedingpurposesuntiltheyreachtwentyyears。Thestallionissexuallycapableuptotheageofthirty-threeyears，andthemareuptoforty，sothat，inpointoffact，theanimalsaresexuallycapablealltheirliveslong；forthestallion，asarule，livesforaboutthirty-fiveyears，andthemareforalittleoverforty；although，bytheway，ahorsehasknowntolivetotheageofseventy-five。

Theassandtheshe-assaresexuallycapablewhenthirtymonthsold；

but，asarule，theyarenotgenerativelymatureuntiltheyarethreeyearsold，orthreeyearsandahalf。Aninstancehasbeenknownofashe-assbearingandbringingforthafoalwhenonlyayearold。A

cowhasbeenknowntocalvewhenonlyayearold，andthecalfgrewasbigasmightbeexpected，butnomore。Somuchforthedatesintimeatwhichtheseanimalsattaintogenerativecapacity。

Inthehumanspecies，themaleisgenerative，atthelongest，uptoseventyyears，andthefemaleuptofifty；butsuchextendedperiodsarerare。Asarule，themaleisgenerativeuptotheageofsixty-five，andtotheageofforty-fivethefemaleiscapableofconception。

Theewebearsuptoeightyears，and，ifshebecarefullytended，uptoelevenyears；infact，theramandtheewearesexuallycapableprettywellalltheirliveslong。He-goats，iftheybefat，aremoreorlessunserviceableforbreeding；andthis，bytheway，isthereasonwhycountryfolksayofavinewhenitstopsbearingthatitis\'runningthegoat\'。However，ifanover-fathe-goatbethinneddown，hebecomessexuallycapableandgenerative。

Ramssingleouttheoldestewesforcopulation，andshownoregardfortheyoungones。And，ashasbeenstated，theissueoftheyoungerewesispoorerthanthatoftheolderones。

Theboarisgoodforbreedingpurposesuntilheisthreeyearsofage；butafterthatagehisissuedeteriorates，forafterthatagehisvigourisonthedecline。Theboarismostcapableafteragoodfeed，andwiththefirstsowitmounts；ifpoorlyfedorputtomanyfemales，thecopulationisabbreviated，andthelitteriscomparativelypoor。Thefirstlitterofthesowisthefewestinnumber；atthesecondlittersheisatherprime。Theanimal，asitgrowsold，continuestobreed，butthesexualdesireabates。Whentheyreachfifteenyears，theybecomeunproductive，andaregettingold。Ifasowbehighlyfed，itisallthemoreeagerforsexualcommerce，whetheroldoryoung；but，ifitbeover-fattenedinpregnancy，itgivesthelessmilkafterparturition。Withregardtotheageoftheparents，thelitteristhebestwhentheyareintheirprime；butwithregardtotheseasonsoftheyear，thelitteristhebestthatcomesatthebeginningofwinter；andthesummerlitterthepoorest，consistingasitusuallydoesofanimalssmallandthinandflaccid。

Theboar，ifitbewellfed，issexuallycapableatallhours，nightandday；butotherwiseispeculiarlysalaciousearlyinthemorning。

Asitgrowsoldthesexualpassiondiesaway，aswehavealreadyremarked。Veryoftenaboar，whenmoreorlessimpotentfromageordebility，findingitselfunabletoaccomplishthesexualcommercewithduespeed，andgrowingfatiguedwiththestandingposture，willrollthesowoverontheground，andthepairwillconcludetheoperationsidebysideofoneanother。Thesowissureofconceptionifitdropsitslugsinruttingtime；iftheearsdonotthusdrop，itmayhavetorutasecondtimebeforeimpregnationtakesplace。

Bitchesdonotsubmittothemalethroughouttheirlives，butonlyuntiltheyreachacertainmaturityofyears。Asageneralrule，theyaresexuallyreceptiveandconceptiveuntiltheyaretwelveyearsold；although，bytheway，caseshavebeenknownwheredogsandbitcheshavebeenrespectivelyprocreativeandconceptivetotheagesofeighteenandevenoftwentyyears。But，asarule，agediminishesthecapabilityofgenerationandofconceptionwiththeseanimalsaswithallothers。

Thefemaleofthecamelisopisthuretic，andsubmitstothemaleinthewayabovedescribed；andtheseasonforcopulationinArabiaisaboutthemonthofOctober。Itsperiodofgestationistwelvemonths；anditisneverdeliveredofmorethanonefoalatatime。Thefemalebecomessexuallyreceptiveandthemalesexuallycapableattheageofthreeyears。Afterparturition，anintervalofayearelapsesbeforethefemaleisagainreceptivetothemale。

Thefemaleelephantbecomessexuallyreceptivewhentenyearsoldattheyoungest，andwhenfifteenattheoldest；andthemaleissexuallycapablewhenfiveyearsold，orsix。Theseasonforintercourseisspring。Themaleallowsanintervalofthreeyearstoelapseaftercommercewithafemale:and，afterithasonceimpregnatedafemale，ithasnointercoursewithheragain。Theperiodofgestationwiththefemaleistwoyears；andonlyoneyounganimalisproducedatatime，inotherwordsitisuniparous。Andtheembryoisthesizeofacalftwoorthreemonthsold。

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Somuchforthecopulationsofsuchanimalsascopulate。

Wenowproceedtotreatofgenerationbothwithrespecttocopulatingandnon-copulatinganimals，andweshallcommencewithdiscussingthesubjectofgenerationinthecaseofthetestaceans。

Thetestaceanisalmosttheonlygenusthatthroughoutallitsspeciesisnon-copulative。

Theporphyrae，orpurplemurices，gathertogethertosomeoneplaceinthespring-time，anddeposittheso-called\'honeycomb\'。

Thissubstanceresemblesthecomb，onlythatitisnotsoneatanddelicate；andlooksasthoughanumberofhusksofwhitechick-peaswereallstucktogether。Butnoneofthesestructureshasanyopenpassage，andtheporphyradoesnotgrowoutofthem，buttheseandallothertestaceansgrowoutofmudanddecayingmatter。Thesubstance，is，infact，anexcretionoftheporphyraandtheceryx；foritisdepositedbytheceryxaswell。Such，then，ofthetestaceansasdepositthehoneycombaregeneratedspontaneouslylikeallothertestaceans，buttheycertainlycomeingreaterabundanceinplaceswheretheircongenershavebeenlivingpreviously。Atthecommencementoftheprocessofdepositingthehoneycomb，theythrowoffaslipperymucus，andofthisthehusklikeformationsarecomposed。

Theseformations，then，allmeltanddeposittheircontentsontheground，andatthisspottherearefoundonthegroundanumberofminuteporphyrae，andporphyraearecaughtattimeswiththeseanimalculaeuponthem，someofwhicharetoosmalltobedifferentiatedinform。Iftheporphyraearecaughtbeforeproducingthishoney-comb，theysometimesgothroughtheprocessinfishing-creels，nothereandthereinthebaskets，butgatheringtosomeonespotalltogether，justastheydointhesea；andowingtothenarrownessoftheirnewquarterstheyclustertogetherlikeabunchofgrapes。

Therearemanyspeciesofthepurplemurex；andsomearelarge，asthosefoundoffSigeumandLectum；othersaresmall，asthosefoundintheEuripus，andonthecoastofCaria。Andthosethatarefoundinbaysarelargeandrough；inmostofthemthepeculiarbloomfromwhichtheirnameisderivedisdarktoblackness，inothersitisreddishandsmallinsize；someofthelargeonesweighupwardsofaminaapiece。Butthespecimensthatarefoundalongthecoastandontherocksaresmall-sized，andthebloomintheircaseisofareddishhue。Further，asageneralrule，innorthernwatersthebloomisblackish，andinsouthernwatersofareddishhue。Themurexiscaughtinthespring-timewhenengagedintheconstructionofthehoneycomb；butitisnotcaughtatanytimeabouttherisingofthedog-star，foratthatperioditdoesnotfeed，butconcealsitselfandburrows。Thebloomoftheanimalissituatedbetweenthemecon(orquasi-liver)andtheneck，andtheco-attachmentoftheseisanintimateone。Incolouritlookslikeawhitemembrane，andthisiswhatpeopleextract；andifitberemovedandsqueezeditstainsyourhandwiththecolourofthebloom。Thereisakindofveinthatrunsthroughit，andthisquasi-veinwouldappeartobeinitselfthebloom。Andthequalities，bytheway，ofthisorganareastringent。Itisafterthemurexhasconstructedthehoneycombthatthebloomisatitsworst。Smallspecimenstheybreakinpieces，shellsandall，foritisnoeasymattertoextracttheorgan；butindealingwiththelargeronestheyfirststripofftheshellandthenabstractthebloom。Forthispurposetheneckandmeconareseparated，forthebloomliesinbetweenthem，abovetheso-calledstomach；hencethenecessityofseparatingtheminabstractingthebloom。Fishermenareanxiousalwaystobreaktheanimalinpieceswhileitisyetalive，for，ifitdiebeforetheprocessiscompleted，itvomitsoutthebloom；andforthisreasonthefishermenkeeptheanimalsincreels，untiltheyhavecollectedasufficientnumberandcanattendtothemattheirleisure。Fishermeninpasttimesusednottolowercreelsorattachthemtothebait，sothatveryoftentheanimalgotdroppedoffinthepullingup；atpresent，however，theyalwaysattachabasket，sothatiftheanimalfalloffitisnotlost。

Theanimalismoreinclinedtoslipoffthebaitifitbefullinside；

ifitbeemptyitisdifficulttoshakeitoff。Sucharethephenomenaconnectedwiththeporphyraormurex。

Thesamephenomenaaremanifestedbytheceryxortrumpet-shell；

andtheseasonsarethesameinwhichthephenomenaareobservable。

Bothanimals，also，themurexandtheceryx，havetheiroperculasimilarlysituated-and，infact，allthestromboids，andthisiscongenitalwiththemall；andtheyfeedbyprotrudingtheso-calledtongueunderneaththeoperculum。Thetongueofthemurexisbiggerthanone\'sfinger，andbymeansofit，itfeeds，andperforatesconchyliaandtheshellsofitsownkind。Boththemurexandtheceryxarelonglived。Themurexlivesforaboutsixyears；andtheyearlyincreaseisindicatedbyadistinctintervalinthespiralconvolutionoftheshell。

Themusselalsoconstructsahoneycomb。

Withregardtothelimnostreae，orlagoonoysters，whereveryouhaveslimymudthereyouaresuretofindthembeginningtogrow。

Cocklesandclamsandrazor-fishesandscallopsrowspontaneouslyinsandyplaces。Thepinnagrowsstraightupfromitstuftofanchoringfibresinsandyandslimyplaces；thesecreatureshaveinsidethemaparasitenicknamedthepinna-guard，insomecasesasmallcaridandinothercasesalittlecrab；ifthepinnabedeprivedofthispinna-guarditsoondies。

Asageneralrule，then，alltestaceansgrowbyspontaneousgenerationinmud，differingfromoneanotheraccordingtothedifferencesofthematerial；oystersgrowinginslime，andcocklesandtheothertestaceansabovementionedonsandybottoms；andinthehollowsoftherockstheascidianandthebarnacle，andcommonsorts，suchasthelimpetandthenerites。Alltheseanimalsgrowwithgreatrapidity，especiallythemurexandthescallop；forthemurexandthescallopattaintheirfullgrowthinayear。Insomeofthetestaceanswhitecrabsarefound，verydiminutiveinsize；theyaremostnumerousinthetroughshapedmussel。Inthepinnaalsoisfoundtheso-calledpinna-guard。Theyarefoundalsointhescallopandintheoyster；theseparasitesneverappeartogrowinsize。

Fishermendeclarethattheparasiteiscongenitalwiththelargeranimal。(Scallopsburrowforatimeinthesand，likethemurex。)

(Shell-fish，then，growinthewayabovementioned；andsomeofthemgrowinshallowwater，someonthesea-shore，someinrockyplaces，someonhardandstonyground，andsomeinsandyplaces。)Someshiftaboutfromplacetoplace，othersremainpermanentononespot。Ofthosethatkeeptoonespotthepinnaearerootedtotheground；therazor-fishandtheclamkeeptothesamelocality，butarenotsorooted；butstill，ifforciblyremovedtheydie。

(Thestar-fishisnaturallysowarmthatwhateveritlaysholdofisfound，whensuddenlytakenawayfromtheanimal，tohaveundergoneaprocesslikeboiling。Fishermensaythatthestar-fishisagreatpestintheStraitofPyrrha。Inshapeitresemblesastarasseeninanordinarydrawing。Theso-called\'lungs\'aregeneratedspontaneously。Theshellsthatpaintersuseareagooddealthicker，andthebloomisoutsidetheshellonthesurface。ThesecreaturesaremostlyfoundonthecoastofCaria。)

Thehermit-crabgrowsspontaneouslyoutofsoilandslime，andfindsitswayintountenantedshells。Asitgrowsitshiftstoalargershell，asforinstanceintotheshellofthenerites，orofthestrombusorthelike，andveryoftenintotheshellofthesmallceryx。Afterenteringnewshell，itcarriesitabout，andbeginsagaintofeed，and，byandby，asitgrows，itshiftsagainintoanotherlargerone。

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Moreover，theanimalsthatareunfurnishedwithshellsgrowspontaneously，likethetestaceans，as，forinstance，thesea-nettlesandthespongesinrockycaves。

Ofthesea-nettle，orsea-anemone，therearetwospecies；andoftheseonespecieslivesinhollowsandneverloosensitsholdupontherocks，andtheotherlivesonsmoothflatreefs，freeanddetached，andshiftsitspositionfromtimetotime。(Limpetsalsodetachthemselves，andshiftfromplacetoplace。)

Inthechamberedcavitiesofspongespinna-guardsorparasitesarefound。Andoverthechambersthereisakindofspider\'sweb，bytheopeningandclosingofwhichtheycatchmutefishes；thatistosay，theyopenthewebtoletthefishgetin，andcloseitagaintoentrapthem。

Ofspongestherearethreespecies；thefirstisoflooseporoustexture，thesecondisclosetextured，thethird，whichisnicknamed\'thespongeofAchilles\'，isexceptionallyfineandclose-texturedandstrong。Thisspongeisusedasaliningtohelmetsandgreaves，forthepurposeofdeadeningthesoundoftheblow；andthisisaveryscarcespecies。Oftheclosetexturedspongessuchasareparticularlyhardandrougharenicknamed\'goats\'。

Spongesgrowspontaneouslyeitherattachedtoarockoronsea-beaches，andtheygettheirnutrimentinslime:aproofofthisstatementisthefactthatwhentheyarefirstsecuredtheyarefoundtobefullofslime。Thisischaracteristicofalllivingcreaturesthatgettheirnutrimentbycloselocalattachment。And，bytheway，theclose-texturedspongesareweakerthanthemoreopenlyporousonesbecausetheirattachmentextendsoverasmallerarea。

Itissaidthatthespongeissensitive；andasaproofofthisstatementtheysaythatifthespongeismadeawareofanattemptbeingmadetopluckitfromitsplaceofattachmentitdrawsitselftogether，anditbecomesadifficulttasktodetachit。Itmakesasimilarcontractilemovementinwindyandboisterousweather，obviouslywiththeobjectoftighteningitshold。Somepersonsexpressdoubtsastothetruthofthisassertion；as，forinstance，thepeopleofTorone。

Thespongebreedsparasites，worms，andothercreatures，onwhich，iftheybedetached，therock-fishesprey，astheypreyalsoontheremainingstumpsofthesponge；but，ifthespongebebrokenoff，itgrowsagainfromtheremainingstumpandtheplaceissoonaswellcoveredasbefore。

Thelargestofallspongesaretheloose-texturedones，andthesearepeculiarlyabundantonthecoastofLycia。Thesoftestaretheclose-texturedsponges；for，bytheway，theso-calledspongesofAchillesareharderthanthese。Asageneralrule，spongesthatarefoundindeepcalmwatersarethesoftest；forusuallywindyandstormyweatherhasatendencytohardenthem(asithastohardenallsimilargrowingthings)，andtoarresttheirgrowth。AndthisaccountsforthefactthatthespongesfoundintheHellespontareroughandclose-textured；and，asageneralrule，spongesfoundbeyondorinsideCapeMaleaare，respectively，comparativelysoftorcomparativelyhard。But，bytheway，thehabitatofthespongeshouldnotbetooshelteredandwarm，forithasatendencytodecay，likeallsimilarvegetable-likegrowths。Andthisaccountsforthefactthatthespongeisatitsbestwhenfoundindeepwaterclosetoshore；forowingtothedepthofthewatertheyenjoyshelteralikefromstormywindsandfromexcessiveheat。

Whilsttheyarestillaliveandbeforetheyarewashedandcleaned，theyareblackishincolour。Theirattachmentisnotmadeatoneparticularspot，norisitmadeallovertheirbodies；forvacantpore-spacesintervene。Thereisakindofmembranestretchedovertheunderparts；andintheunderpartsthepointsofattachmentarethemorenumerous。Onthetopmostoftheporesareclosed，butfourorfiveareopenandvisible；andwearetoldbysomethatitisthroughtheseporesthattheanimaltakesitsfood。

Thereisaparticularspeciesthatisnamedthe\'aplysia\'orthe\'unwashable\'，fromthecircumstancethatitcannotbecleaned。Thisspecieshasthelargeopenandvisiblepores，butalltherestofthebodyisclose-textured；and，ifitbedissected，itisfoundtobecloserandmoreglutinousthantheordinarysponge，and，inaword，somethinglunglikeinconsistency。And，onallhands，itisallowedthatthisspeciesissensitiveandlong-lived。Theyaredistinguishedintheseafromordinaryspongesfromthecircumstancethattheordinaryspongesarewhitewhiletheslimeisinthem，butthatthesespongesareunderanycircumstancesblack。

Andsomuchwithregardtospongesandtogenerationinthetestaceans。

17

Ofcrustaceans，thefemalecrawfishaftercopulationconceivesandretainsitseggsforaboutthreemonths，fromaboutthemiddleofMaytoaboutthemiddleofAugust；theythenlaytheeggsintothefoldsunderneaththebelly，andtheireggsgrowlikegrubs。Thissamephenomenonisobservableinmolluscsalso，andinsuchfishesasareoviparous；forinallthesecasestheeggcontinuestogrow。

Thespawnofthecrawfishisofalooseorgranularconsistency，andisdividedintoeightparts；forcorrespondingtoeachoftheflapsonthesidethereisagristlyformationtowhichthespawnisattached，andtheentirestructureresemblesaclusterofgrapes；

foreachgristlyformationissplitintoseveralparts。Thisisobviousenoughifyoudrawthepartsasunder；butatfirstsightthewholeappearstobeoneandindivisible。Andthelargestarenotthosenearesttotheoutletbutthoseinthemiddle，andthefarthestoffarethesmallest。Thesizeofthesmalleggsisthatofasmallseedinafig；andtheyarenotquiteclosetotheoutlet，butplacedmiddleways；foratbothends，tailwardsandtrunkwards，therearetwointervalsdevoidofeggs；foritisthusthattheflapsalsogrow。

Thesideflaps，then，cannotclose，butbyplacingtheendflaponthemtheanimalcancloseupall，andthisend-flapservesthemforalid。Andintheactoflayingitseggsitseemstobringthemtowardsthegristlyformationsbycurvingtheflapofitstail，andthen，squeezingtheeggstowardsthesaidgristlyformationsandmaintainingabentposture，itperformstheactoflaying。Thegristlyformationsattheseseasonsincreaseinsizeandbecomereceptiveoftheeggs；fortheanimallaysitseggsintotheseformations，justasthesepialaysitseggsamongtwigsanddriftwood。

Itlaysitseggs，then，inthismanner，andafterhatchingthemforabouttwentydaysitridsitselfofthemallinonesolidlump，asisquiteplainfromoutside。Andoutoftheseeggscrawfishforminaboutfifteendays，andthesecrawfisharecaughtattimeslessthenafinger\'sbreadth，orseven-tenthsofaninch，inlength。

Theanimal，then，laysitseggsbeforethemiddleofSeptember，andafterthemiddleofthatmonththrowsoffitseggsinalump。Withthehumpedcaridsorprawnsthetimeforgestationisfourmonthsorthereabouts。

Crawfisharefoundinroughandrockyplaces，lobstersinsmoothplaces，andneithercrawfishnorlobstersarefoundinmuddyones；andthisaccountsforthefactthatlobstersarefoundintheHellespontandonthecoastofThasos，andcrawfishintheneighbourhoodofSigeumandMountAthos。Fishermen，accordingly，whentheywanttocatchthesevariouscreaturesoutatsea，takebearingsonthebeachandelsewherethattellthemwherethegroundatthebottomisstonyandwheresoftwithslime。Inwinterandspringtheseanimalskeepinneartoland，insummertheykeepindeepwater；thusatvarioustimesseekingrespectivelyforwarmthorcoolness。

Theso-calledarctusorbear-crablaysitseggsataboutthesametimeasthecrawfish；andconsequentlyinwinterandinthespring-time，beforelayingtheireggs，theyareattheirbest，andafterlayingattheirworst。

Theycasttheirshellinthespring-time(justasserpentsshedtheirso-called\'old-age\'orslough)，bothdirectlyafterbirthandinlaterlife；thisistruebothofcrabsandcrawfish。And，bytheway，allcrawfisharelonglived。

18

Molluscs，afterpairingandcopulation，layawhitespawn；andthisspawn，asinthecaseofthetestacean，getsgranularintime。

Theoctopusdischargesintoitshole，orintoapotsherdorintoanysimilarcavity，astructureresemblingthetendrilsofayoungvineorthefruitofthewhitepoplar，ashasbeenpreviouslyobserved。Theeggs，whenthefemalehaslaidthem，areclusteredroundthesidesofthehole。Theyaresonumerousthat，iftheyberemovedtheysufficetofillavesselmuchlargerthantheanimal\'sbodyinwhichtheywerecontained。Somefiftydayslater，theeggsburstandthelittlepolypusescreepout，likelittlespiders，ingreatnumbers；thecharacteristicformoftheirlimbsisnotyettobediscernedindetail，buttheirgeneraloutlineisclearenough。And，bytheway，theyaresosmallandhelplessthatthegreaternumberperish；itisafactthattheyhavebeenseensoextremelyminuteastobeabsolutelywithoutorganization，butneverthelesswhentouchedtheymoved。Theeggsofthesepialooklikebigblackmyrtle-berries，andtheyarelinkedalltogetherlikeabunchofgrapes，clusteredroundacentre，andarenoteasilysunderedfromoneanother:forthemaleexudesoverthemsomemoistglairystuff，whichconstitutesthestickygum。Theseeggsincreaseinsize；andtheyarewhiteattheoutset，butblackandlargerafterthesprinklingofthemaleseminalfluid。

Whenithascomeintobeingtheyoungsepiaisfirstdistinctlyformedinsideoutofthewhitesubstance，andwhentheeggburstsitcomesout。Theinnerpartisformedassoonasthefemalelaystheegg，somethinglikeahail-stone；andoutofthissubstancetheyoungsepiagrowsbyahead-attachment，justasyoungbirdsgrowbyabelly-attachment。Whatistheexactnatureofthenavel-attachmenthasnotyetbeenobserved，exceptthatastheyoungsepiagrowsthewhitesubstancegrowslessandlessinsize，andatlength，ashappenswiththeyolkinthecaseofbirds，thewhitesubstanceinthecaseoftheyoungsepiadisappears。Inthecaseoftheyoungsepia，asinthecaseoftheyoungofmostanimals，theeyesatfirstseemverylarge。Toillustratethisbywayofafigure，letA

representtheovum，BandCtheeyes，andDthesepidium，orbodyofthelittlesepia。(Seediagram。)

Thefemalesepiagoespregnantinthespring-time，andlaysitseggsafterfifteendaysofgestation；aftertheeggsarelaidtherecomesinanotherfifteendayssomethinglikeabunchofgrapes，andattheburstingofthesetheyoungsepiaeissueforth。Butif，whentheyoungonesarefullyformed，yousevertheoutercoveringamomenttoosoon，theyoungcreaturesejectexcrement，andtheircolourchangesfromwhitetoredintheiralarm。

Crustaceans，then，hatchtheireggsbybroodingoverthemastheycarrythemaboutbeneaththeirbodies；buttheoctopus，thesepia，andthelikehatchtheireggswithoutstirringfromthespotwheretheymayhavelaidthem，andthisstatementisparticularlyapplicabletothesepia；infact，thenestofthefemalesepiaisoftenseenexposedtoviewcloseintoshore。Thefemaleoctopusattimessitsbroodingoverhereggs，andatothertimessquatsinfrontofherhole，stretchingouthertentaclesonguard。

Thesepialaysherspawnneartolandintheneighbourhoodofsea-weedorreedsoranyoff-sweepingssuchasbrushwood，twigs，orstones；andfishermenplaceheapsoffaggotshereandthereonpurpose，andontosuchheapsthefemaledepositsalongcontinuousroeinshapelikeavinetendril。Itlaysorspirtsoutthespawnwithaneffort，asthoughthereweredifficultyintheprocess。Thefemalecalamaryspawnsatsea；anditemitsthespawn，asdoesthesepia，inthemass。

Thecalamaryandthecuttle-fishareshort-lived，as，withfewexceptions，theyneverseetheyearout；andthesamestatementisapplicabletotheoctopus。

Fromonesingleeggcomesonesinglesepia；andthisislikewisetrueoftheyoungcalamary。

Themalecalamarydiffersfromthefemale；forifitsgill-regionbedilatedandexaminedtherearefoundtworedformationsresemblingbreasts，withwhichthemaleisunprovided。Inthesepia，apartfromthisdistinctioninthesexes，themale，ashasbeenstated，ismoremottledthanthefemale。

19

Withregardtoinsects，thatthemaleislessthanthefemaleandthathemountsuponherback，andhowheperformstheactofcopulationandthecircumstancethathegivesoverreluctantly，allthishasalreadybeensetforth，mostcasesofinsectcopulationthisprocessisspeedilyfollowedupbyparturition。

Allinsectsengendergrubs，withtheexceptionofaspeciesofbutterfly；andthefemaleofthisspecieslaysahardegg，resemblingtheseedofthecnecus，withajuiceinsideit。Butfromthegrub，theyounganimaldoesnotgrowoutofamereportionofit，asayounganimalgrowsfromaportiononlyofanegg，butthegrubentiregrowsandtheanimalbecomesdifferentiatedoutofit。

Andofinsectssomearederivedfrominsectcongeners，asthevenom-spiderandthecommon-spiderfromthevenom-spiderandthecommon-spider，andsowiththeattelabusorlocust，theacrisorgrasshopper，andthetettixorcicada。Otherinsectsarenotderivedfromlivingparentage，butaregeneratedspontaneously:someoutofdewfallingonleaves，ordinarilyinspring-time，butnotseldominwinterwhentherehasbeenastretchoffairweatherandsoutherlywinds；othersgrowindecayingmudordung；othersintimber，greenordry；someinthehairofanimals；someinthefleshofanimals；someinexcrements:andsomefromexcrementafterithasbeenvoided，andsomefromexcrementyetwithinthelivinganimal，likethehelminthesorintestinalworms。Andoftheseintestinalwormstherearethreespecies:onenamedtheflat-worm，anothertheroundworm，andthethirdtheascarid。Theseintestinalwormsdonotinanycasepropagatetheirkind。Theflat-worm，however，inanexceptionalway，clingsfasttothegut，andlaysathinglikeamelon-seed，byobservingwhichindicationthephysicianconcludesthathispatientistroubledwiththeworm。

Theso-calledpsycheorbutterflyisgeneratedfromcaterpillarswhichgrowongreenleaves，chieflyleavesoftheraphanus，whichsomecallcrambeorcabbage。Atfirstitislessthanagrainofmillet；itthengrowsintoasmallgrub；andinthreedaysitisatinycaterpillar。Afterthisitgrowsonandon，andbecomesquiescentandchangesitsshape，andisnowcalledachrysalis。Theoutershellishard，andthechrysalismovesifyoutouchit。Itattachesitselfbycobweb-likefilaments，andisunfurnishedwithmouthoranyotherapparentorgan。Afteralittlewhiletheoutercoveringburstsasunder，andoutfliesthewingedcreaturethatwecallthepsycheorbutterfly。Atfirst，whenitisacaterpillar，itfeedsandejectsexcrement；butwhenitturnsintothechrysalisitneitherfeedsnorejectsexcrement。

Thesameremarksareapplicabletoallsuchinsectsasaredevelopedoutofthegrub，bothsuchgrubsasarederivedfromthecopulationoflivinganimalsandsuchasaregeneratedwithoutcopulationonthepartofparents。Forthegrubofthebee，theanthrena，andthewasp，whilstitisyoung，takesfoodandvoidsexcrement；butwhenithaspassedfromthegrubshapetoitsdefinedformandbecomewhatistermeda\'nympha\'，itceasestotakefoodandtovoidexcrement，andremainstightlywrappedupandmotionlessuntilithasreacheditsfullsize，whenitbreakstheformationwithwhichthecellisclosed，andissuesforth。Theinsectsnamedthehyperaandthepeniaarederivedfromsimilarcaterpillars，whichmoveinanundulatoryway，progressingwithonepartandthenpullingupthehinderpartsbyabendofthebody。Thedevelopedinsectineachcasetakesitspeculiarcolourfromtheparentcaterpillar。

Fromoneparticularlargegrub，whichhasasitwerehorns，andinotherrespectsdiffersfromgrubsingeneral，therecomes，byametamorphosisofthegrub，firstacaterpillar，thenthecocoon，thenthenecydalus；andthecreaturepassesthroughallthesetransformationswithinsixmonths。Aclassofwomenunwindandreeloffthecocoonsofthesecreatures，andafterwardsweaveafabricwiththethreadsthusunwound；aCoanwomanofthenameofPamphila，daughterofPlateus，beingcreditedwiththefirstinventionofthefabric。Afterthesamefashionthecarabusorstag-beetlecomesfromgrubsthatliveindrywood:atfirstthegrubismotionless，butafterawhiletheshellburstsandthestag-beetleissuesforth。

Fromthecabbageisengenderedthecabbageworm，andfromtheleektheprasocurisorleekbane；thiscreatureisalsowinged。Fromtheflatanimalculethatskimsoverthesurfaceofriverscomestheoestrusorgadfly；andthisaccountsforthefactthatgadfliesmostaboundintheneighbourhoodofwatersonwhosesurfacetheseanimalculesareobserved。Fromacertainsmall，blackandhairycaterpillarcomesfirstawinglessglow-worm；andthiscreatureagainsuffersametamorphosis，andtransformsintoawingedinsectnamedthebostrychus(orhair-curl)。

Gnatsgrowfromascarids；andascaridsareengenderedintheslimeofwells，orinplaceswherethereisadepositleftbythedrainingoffofwater。Thisslimedecays，andfirstturnswhite，thenblack，andfinallyblood-red；andatthisstagethereoriginateinit，asitwere，littletinybitsofredweed，whichatfirstwriggleaboutallclingingtogether，andfinallybreaklooseandswiminthewater，andarehereuponknownasascarids。Afterafewdaystheystandstraightuponthewatermotionlessandhard，andbyandbythehuskbreaksoffandthegnatsareseensittinguponit，untilthesun\'sheatorapuffofwindsetstheminmotion，whentheyflyaway。

Withallgrubsandallanimalsthatbreakoutfromthegrubstate，generationisdueprimarilytotheheatofthesunortowind。

Ascaridsaremorelikelytobefound，andgrowwithunusualrapidity，inplaceswherethereisadepositofamixedandheterogeneouskind，asinkitchensandinploughedfields，forthecontentsofsuchplacesaredisposedtorapidputrefaction。Inautumn，also，owingtothedryingupofmoisture，theygrowinunusualnumbers。

Thetickisgeneratedfromcouch-grass。Thecockchafercomesfromagrubthatisgeneratedinthedungofthecowortheass。Thecantharusorscarabeusrollsapieceofdungintoaball，lieshiddenwithinitduringthewinter，andgivesbirththereintosmallgrubs，fromwhichgrubscomenewcanthari。Certainwingedinsectsalsocomefromthegrubsthatarefoundinpulse，inthesamefashionasinthecasesdescribed。

Fliesgrowfromgrubsinthedungthatfarmershavegatheredupintoheaps:forthosewhoareengagedinthisworkassiduouslygatherupthecompost，andthistheytechnicallyterm\'working-up\'themanure。Thegrubisexceedinglyminutetobeginwith；firstevenatthisstage-itassumesareddishcolour，andthenfromaquiescentstateittakesonthepowerofmotion，asthoughborntoit；itthenbecomesasmallmotionlessgrub；itthenmovesagain，andagainrelapsesintoimmobility；itthencomesoutaperfectfly，andmovesawayundertheinfluenceofthesun\'sheatorofapuffofair。Themyopsorhorse-flyisengenderedintimber。Theorsodacnaorbudbaneisatransformedgrub；andthisgrubisengenderedincabbage-stalks。Thecanthariscomesfromthecaterpillarsthatarefoundonfig-treesorpear-treesorfir-trees——foronallthesegrubsareengendered-andalsofromcaterpillarsfoundonthedog-rose；

andthecantharistakeseagerlytoill-scentedsubstances，fromthefactofitshavingbeenengenderedinill-scentedwoods。Theconopscomesfromagrubthatisengenderedintheslimeofvinegar。

And，bytheway，livinganimalsarefoundinsubstancesthatareusuallysupposedtobeincapableofputrefaction；forinstance，wormsarefoundinlong-lyingsnow；andsnowofthisdescriptiongetsreddishincolour，andthegrubthatisengenderedinitisred，asmighthavebeenexpected，anditisalsohairy。ThegrubsfoundinthesnowsofMediaarelargeandwhite；andallsuchgrubsarelittledisposedtomotion。InCyprus，inplaceswherecopper-oreissmelted，withheapsoftheorepiledondayafterday，ananimalisengenderedinthefire，somewhatlargerthanabluebottlefly，furnishedwithwings，whichcanhoporcrawlthroughthefire。Andthegrubsandtheselatteranimalsperishwhenyoukeeptheoneawayfromthefireandtheotherfromthesnow。Nowthesalamanderisaclearcaseinpoint，toshowusthatanimalsdoactuallyexistthatfirecannotdestroy；forthiscreature，sothestorygoes，notonlywalksthroughthefirebutputsitoutindoingso。

OntheriverHypanisintheCimmerianBosphorus，aboutthetimeofthesummersolstice，therearebroughtdowntowardstheseabythestreamwhatlooklikelittlesacksratherbiggerthangrapes，outofwhichattheirburstingissuesawingedquadruped。Theinsectlivesandfliesaboutuntiltheevening，butasthesungoesdownitpinesaway，anddiesatsunsethavinglivedjustoneday，fromwhichcircumstanceitiscalledtheephemeron。

Asarule，insectsthatcomefromcaterpillarsandgrubsareheldatfirstbyfilamentsresemblingthethreadsofaspider\'sweb。

Suchisthemodeofgenerationoftheinsectsaboveenumerated。butifthelatterimpregnationtakesplaceduringthechangeoftheyellow20

Thewaspsthatarenicknamed\'theichneumons\'(orhunters)，lessinsize，bytheway，thantheordinarywasp，killspidersandcarryoffthedeadbodiestoawallorsomesuchplacewithaholeinit；

thisholetheysmearoverwithmudandlaytheirgrubsinsideit，andfromthegrubscomethehunter-wasps。Someofthecoleopteraandofthesmallandnamelessinsectsmakesmallholesorcellsofmudonawalloronagrave-stone，andtheredeposittheirgrubs。

Withinsects，asageneralrule，thetimeofgenerationfromitscommencementtoitscompletioncomprisesthreeorfourweeks。Withgrubsandgrub-likecreaturesthetimeisusuallythreeweeks，andintheoviparousinsectsasarulefour。But，inthecaseofoviparousinsects，theegg-formationcomesatthecloseofsevendaysfromcopulation，andduringtheremainingthreeweekstheparentbroodsoverandhatchesitsyoung；i。e。wherethisistheresultofcopulation，asinthecaseofthespideranditscongeners。Asarule，thetransformationstakeplaceinintervalsofthreeorfourdays，correspondingtothelengthsofintervalatwhichthecrisesrecurinintermittentfevers。

Somuchforthegenerationofinsects。Theirdeathisduetotheshrivellingoftheirorgans，justasthelargeranimalsdieofoldage。

Wingedinsectsdieinautumnfromtheshrinkingoftheirwings。

Themyopsdiesfromdropsyintheeyes。

21

Withregardtothegenerationofbeesdifferenthypothesesareinvogue。Someaffirmthatbeesneithercopulatenorgivebirthtoyoung，butthattheyfetchtheiryoung。Andsomesaythattheyfetchtheiryoungfromtheflowerofthecallyntrum；othersassertthattheybringthemfromtheflowerofthereed，others，fromthefloweroftheolive。Andinrespecttotheolivetheory，itisstatedasaproofthat，whentheoliveharvestismostabundant，theswarmsaremostnumerous。Othersdeclarethattheyfetchthebroodofthedronesfromsuchthingsasabovementioned，butthattheworkingbeesareengenderedbytherulersofthehive。

Nowoftheserulerstherearetwokinds:thebetterkindisredincolour，theinferiorkindisblackandvariegated；therulerisdoublethesizeoftheworkingbee。Theserulershavetheabdomenorpartbelowthewaisthalfaslargeagain，andtheyarecalledbysomethe\'mothers\'，fromanideathattheybearorgeneratethebees；and，asaproofofthistheoryoftheirmotherhood，theydeclarethatthebroodofthedronesappearsevenwhenthereisnoruler-beeinthehive，butthatthebeesdonotappearinhisabsence。Others，again，assertthattheseinsectscopulate，andthatthedronesaremaleandthebeesfemale。

Theordinarybeeisgeneratedinthecellsofthecomb，buttheruler-beesincellsdownbelowattachedtothecomb，suspendedfromit，apartfromtherest，sixorseveninnumber，andgrowinginawayquitedifferentfromthemodeofgrowthoftheordinarybrood。

Beesareprovidedwithasting，butthedronesarenotsoprovided。Therulersareprovidedwithstings，buttheyneverusethem；andthislattercircumstancewillaccountforthebeliefofsomepeoplethattheyhavenostingsatall。

22

Ofbeestherearevariousspecies。Thebestkindisalittleroundmottledinsect；anotherislong，andresemblestheanthrena；athirdisablackandflat-bellied，andisnick-namedthe\'robber\'；afourthkindisthedrone，thelargestofall，butstinglessandinactive。Andthisproportionatesizeofthedroneexplainswhysomebee-mastersplaceanet-workinfrontofthehives；forthenetworkisputtokeepthebigdronesoutwhileitletsthelittlebeesgoin。

Ofthekingbeesthereare，ashasbeenstated，twokinds。Ineveryhivetherearemorekingsthanone；andahivegoestoruiniftherebetoofewkings，notbecauseofanarchytherebyensuing，but，aswearetold，becausethesecreaturescontributeinsomewaytothegenerationofthecommonbees。Ahivewillgoalsotoruiniftherebetoolargeanumberofkingsinit；forthemembersofthehivesaretherebysubdividedintotoomanyseparatefactions。

Wheneverthespring-timeislatea-coming，andwhenthereisdroughtandmildew，thentheprogenyofthehiveissmallinnumber。

Butwhentheweatherisdrytheyattendtothehoney，andinrainyweathertheirattentionisconcentratedonthebrood；andthiswillaccountforthecoincidenceofricholive-harvestsandabundantswarms。

Thebeesfirstworkatthehoneycomb，andthenputthepupaeinit:bythemouth，saythosewhoholdthetheoryoftheirbringingthemfromelsewhere。Afterputtinginthepupaetheyputinthehoneyforsubsistence，andthistheydointhesummerandautumn；and，bytheway，theautumnhoneyisthebetterofthetwo。

Thehoneycombismadefromflowers，andthematerialsforthewaxtheygatherfromtheresinousgumoftrees，whilehoneyisdistilledfromdew，andisdepositedchieflyattherisingsoftheconstellationsorwhenarainbowisinthesky:andasageneralrulethereisnohoneybeforetherisingofthePleiads。(Thebee，then，makesthewaxfromflowers。Thehoney，however，itdoesnotmake，butmerelygatherswhatisdepositedoutoftheatmosphere；

andasaproofofthisstatementwehavetheknownfactthatoccasionallybee-keepersfindthehivesfilledwithhoneywithinthespaceoftwoorthreedays。Furthermore，inautumnflowersarefound，buthoney，ifitbewithdrawn，isnotreplaced；now，afterthewithdrawaloftheoriginalhoney，whennofoodorverylittleisinthehives，therewouldbeafreshstockofhoney，ifthebeesmadeitfromflowers。)Honey，ifallowedtoripenandmature，gathersconsistency；foratfirstitislikewaterandremainsliquidforseveraldays。Ifitbedrawnoffduringthesedaysithasnoconsistency；butitattainsconsistencyinabouttwentydays。Thetasteofthyme-honeyisdiscernibleatonce，fromitspeculiarsweetnessandconsistency。

Thebeegathersfromeveryflowerthatisfurnishedwithacalyxorcup，andfromallotherflowersthataresweet-tasted，withoutdoinginjurytoanyfruit；andthejuicesoftheflowersittakesupwiththeorganthatresemblesatongueandcarriesofftothehive。

Swarmsarerobbedoftheirhoneyontheappearanceofthewildfig。Theyproducethebestlarvaeatthetimethehoneyisa-making。

Thebeecarrieswaxandbees\'breadrounditslegs，butvomitsthehoneyintothecell。Afterdepositingitsyoung，itbroodsoveritlikeabird。Thegrubwhenitissmallliesslantwiseinthecomb，butbyandbyrisesupstraightbyaneffortofitsownandtakesfood，andholdsonsotightlytothehoneycombasactuallytoclingtoit。

Theyoungofbeesandofdronesiswhite，andfromtheyoungcomethegrubs；andthegrubsgrowintobeesanddrones。Theeggofthekingbeeisreddishincolour，anditssubstanceisaboutasconsistentasthickhoney；andfromthefirstitisaboutasbigasthebeethatisproducedfromit。Fromtheyoungofthekingbeethereisnointermediatestage，itissaid，ofthegrub，butthebeecomesatonce。

Wheneverthebeelaysanegginthecombthereisalwaysadropofhoneysetagainstit。Thelarvaofthebeegetsfeetandwingsassoonasthecellhasbeenstoppedupwithwax，andwhenitarrivesatitscompletedformitbreaksitsmembraneandfliesaway。

Itejectsexcrementinthegrubstate，butnotafterwards；thatis，notuntilithasgotoutoftheencasingmembrane，aswehavealreadydescribed。Ifyouremovetheheadsfromoffthelarvaebeforethecomingofthewings，thebeeswilleatthemup；andifyounipoffthewingsfromadroneandletitgo，thebeeswillspontaneouslybiteoffthewingsfromoffalltheremainingdrones。

Thebeelivesforsixyearsasarule，asanexceptionforsevenyears。Ifaswarmlastsfornineyears，orten，greatcreditisconsideredduetoitsmanagement。

InPontusarefoundbeesexceedinglywhiteincolour，andthesebeesproducetheirhoneytwiceamonth。(ThebeesinThemiscyra，onthebanksoftheriverThermodon，buildhoneycombsinthegroundandinhives，andthesehoneycombsarefurnishedwithverylittlewaxbutwithhoneyofgreatconsistency；andthehoneycomb，bytheway，issmoothandlevel。)Butthisisnotalwaysthecasewiththesebees，butonlyinthewinterseason；forinPontustheivyisabundant，anditflowersatthistimeoftheyear，anditisfromtheivy-flowerthattheyderivetheirhoney。AwhiteandveryconsistenthoneyisbroughtdownfromtheuppercountrytoAmisus，whichisdepositedbybeesontreeswithouttheemploymentofhoneycombs:andthiskindofhoneyisproducedinotherdistrictsinPontus。

Therearebeesalsothatconstructtriplehoneycombsintheground；andthesehoneycombssupplyhoneybutnevercontaingrubs。Butthehoneycombsintheseplacesarenotallofthissort，nordoallthebeesconstructthem。

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Anthrenaeandwaspsconstructcombsfortheiryoung。Whentheyhavenoking，butarewanderingaboutinsearchofone，theanthreneconstructsitscombonsomehighplace，andthewaspinsideahole。

Whentheanthreneandthewasphaveaking，theyconstructtheircombsunderground。Theircombsareinallcaseshexagonallikethecombofthebee。Theyarecomposed，however，notofwax，butofabark-likefilamentedfibre，andthecomboftheanthreneismuchneaterthanthecombofthewasp。Likethebee，theyputtheiryoungjustlikeadropofliquidontothesideofthecell，andtheeggclingstothewallofthecell。Buttheeggsarenotdepositedinthecellssimultaneously；onthecontrary，insomecellsarecreaturesbigenoughtofly，inothersarenymphae，andinothersaremeregrubs。Asinthecaseofbees，excrementisobservedonlyinthecellswherethegrubsarefound。Aslongasthecreaturesareinthenymphconditiontheyaremotionless，andthecelliscementedover。Inthecomboftheanthrenethereisfoundinthecelloftheyoungadropofhoneyinfrontofit。Thelarvaeoftheanthreneandthewaspmaketheirappearancenotinthespringbutintheautumn；andtheirgrowthisespeciallydiscernibleintimesoffullmoon。And，bytheway，theeggsandthegrubsneverrestatthebottomofthecells，butalwaysclingontothesidewall。

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Thereisakindofhumble-beethatbuildsacone-shapednestofclayagainstastoneorinsomesimilarsituation，besmearingtheclaywithsomethinglikespittle。Andthisnestorhiveisexceedinglythickandhard；inpointoffact，onecanhardlybreakitopenwithaspike。Heretheinsectslaytheireggs，andwhitegrubsareproducedwrappedinablackmembrane。Apartfromthemembranethereisfoundsomewaxinthehoneycomb；andthisawaxismuchsallowerinhuethanthewaxinthehoneycombofthebee。

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Antscopulateandengendergrubs；andthesegrubsattachthemselvestonothinginparticular，butgrowonandonfromsmallandroundedshapesuntiltheybecomeelongatedanddefinedinshape:andtheyareengenderedinspring-time。

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Theland-scorpionalsolaysanumberofeggshapedgrubs，andbroodsoverthem。Whenthehatchingiscompleted，theparentanimal，ashappenswiththeparentspider，isejectedandputtodeathbytheyoungones；forveryoftentheyoungonesareabouteleveninnumber。

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Spidersinallcasescopulateinthewayabovementioned，andgenerateatfirstsmallgrubs。Andthesegrubsmetamorphoseintheirentirety，andnotpartially，intospiders；for，bytheway，thegrubsareround-shapedattheoutset。Andthespider，whenitlaysitseggs，broodsoverthem，andinthreedaystheeggsorgrubstakedefiniteshape。

Allspiderslaytheireggsinaweb；butsomespiderslayinasmallandfineweb，andothersinathickone；andsome，asarule，layinaround-shapedcaseorcapsule，andsomeareonlypartiallyenvelopedintheweb。Theyounggrubsarenotalldevelopedatoneandthesametimeintoyoungspiders；butthemomentthedevelopmenttakesplace，theyoungspidermakesaleapandbeginstospinhisweb。Thejuiceofthegrub，ifyousqueezeit，isthesameasthejuicefoundinthespiderwhenyoung；thatistosay，itisthickandwhite。

Themeadowspiderlaysitseggsintoaweb，onehalfofwhichisattachedtoitselfandtheotherhalfisfree；andonthistheparentbroodsuntiltheeggsarehatched。Thephalangialaytheireggsinasortofstrongbasketwhichtheyhavewoven，andbroodoverituntiltheeggsarehatched。Thesmoothspiderismuchlessprolificthanthephalangiumorhairyspider。Thesephalangia，whentheygrowtofullsize，veryoftenenvelopthemotherphalangiumandejectandkillher；andnotseldomtheykillthefather-phalangiumaswell，iftheycatchhim:for，bytheway，hehasthehabitofco-operatingwiththemotherinthehatching。Thebroodofasinglephalangiumissometimesthreehundredinnumber。Thespiderattainsitsfullgrowthinaboutfourweeks。

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Grasshoppers(orlocusts)copulateinthesamewayasotherinsects；thatistosay，withthelessercoveringthelarger，forthemaleissmallerthanthefemale。Thefemalesfirstinsertthehollowtube，whichtheyhaveattheirtails，intheground，andthenlaytheireggs:andthemale，bytheway，isnotfurnishedwiththistube。Thefemaleslaytheireggsallinalumptogether，andinonespot，sothattheentirelumpofeggsresemblesahoneycomb。Aftertheyhavelaidtheireggs，theeggsassumetheshapeofovalgrubsthatareenvelopedbyasortofthinclay，likeamembrane；inthismembrane-likeformationtheygrowontomaturity。Thelarvaissosoftthatitcollapsesatatouch。Thelarvaisnotplacedonthesurfaceoftheground，butalittlebeneaththesurface；and，whenitreachesmaturity，itcomesoutofitsclayeyinvestitureintheshapeofalittleblackgrasshopper；byandby，theskinintegumentstripsoff，anditgrowslargerandlarger。

Thegrasshopperlaysitseggsatthecloseofsummer，anddiesafterlayingthem。Thefactisthat，atthetimeoflayingtheeggs，grubsareengenderedintheregionofthemothergrasshopper\'sneck；

andthemalegrasshoppersdieaboutthesametime。Inspring-timetheycomeoutoftheground；and，bytheway，nograsshoppersarefoundinmountainouslandorinpoorland，butonlyinflatandloamyland，forthefactistheylaytheireggsincracksofthesoil。

Duringthewintertheireggsremainintheground；andwiththecomingofsummerthelastyear\'slarvadevelopsintotheperfectgrasshopper。

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Theattelabiorlocustslaytheireggsanddieinlikemannerafterlayingthem。Theireggsaresubjecttodestructionbytheautumnrains，whentherainsareunusuallyheavy；butinseasonsofdroughtthelocustsareexceedinglynumerous，fromtheabsenceofanydestructivecause，sincetheirdestructionseemsthentobeamatterofaccidentandtodependonluck。

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Ofthecicadatherearetwokinds；one，smallinsize，thefirsttocomeandthelasttodisappear；theother，large，thesingingonethatcomeslastandfirstdisappears。Bothinthesmallandthelargespeciessomearedividedatthewaist，towit，thesingingones，andsomeareundivided；andtheselatterhavenosong。Thelargeandsingingcicadaisbysomedesignatedthe\'chirper\'，andthesmallcicadathe\'tettigonium\'orcicadelle。And，bytheway，suchofthetettigoniaasaredividedatthewaistcansingjustalittle。

Thecicadaisnotfoundwheretherearenotrees；andthisaccountsforthefactthatinthedistrictsurroundingthecityofCyreneitisnotfoundatallintheplaincountry，butisfoundingreatnumbersintheneighbourhoodofthecity，andespeciallywhereolive-treesaregrowing:foranolivegroveisnotthicklyshaded。Andthecicadaisnotfoundincoldplaces，andconsequentlyisnotfoundinanygrovethatkeepsoutthesunlight。

Thelargeandthesmallcicadacopulatealike，bellytobelly。Themaledischargesspermintothefemale，asisthecasewithinsectsingeneral，andthefemalecicadahasacleftgenerativeorgan；anditisthefemaleintowhichthemaledischargesthesperm。

Theylaytheireggsinfallowlands，boringaholewiththepointedorgantheycarryintherear，asdothelocustslikewise；

forthelocustlaysitseggsinuntilledlands，andthisfactmayaccountfortheirnumbersintheterritoryadjacenttothecityofCyrene。Thecicadaealsolaytheireggsinthecanesonwhichhusbandmenpropvines，perforatingthecanes；andalsointhestalksofthesquill。Thisbroodrunsintotheground。Andtheyaremostnumerousinrainyweather。Thegrub，onattainingfullsizeintheground，becomesatettigometra(ornymph)，andthecreatureissweetesttothetasteatthisstagebeforethehuskisbroken。Whenthesummersolsticecomes，thecreatureissuesfromthehuskatnight-time，andinamoment，asthehuskbreaks，thelarvabecomestheperfectcicada。creature，also，atonceturnsblackincolourandharderandlarger，andtakestosinging。Inbothspecies，thelargerandthesmaller，itisthemalethatsings，andthefemalethatisunvocal。Atfirst，themalesarethesweetereating；but，aftercopulation，thefemales，astheyarefullthenofwhiteeggs。

Ifyoumakeasuddennoiseastheyareflyingoverheadtheyletdropsomethinglikewater。Countrypeople，inregardtothis，saythattheyarevoidingurine，ie。thattheyhaveanexcrement，andthattheyfeedupondew。

Ifyoupresentyourfingertoacicadaandbendbackthetipofitandthenextenditagain，itwillendurethepresentationmorequietlythanifyouweretokeepyourfingeroutstretchedaltogether；anditwillsettoclimbingyourfinger:forthecreatureissoweak-sightedthatitwilltaketoclimbingyourfingerasthoughthatwereamovingleaf。

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Ofinsectsthatarenotcarnivorousbutthatliveonthejuicesoflivingflesh，suchasliceandfleasandbugs，all，withoutexception，generatewhatarecalled\'nits\'，andthesenitsgeneratenothing。

Oftheseinsectsthefleaisgeneratedoutoftheslightestamountofputrefyingmatter；forwhereverthereisanydryexcrement，afleaissuretobefound。Bugsaregeneratedfromthemoistureoflivinganimals，asitdriesupoutsidetheirbodies。Licearegeneratedoutofthefleshofanimals。

Whenlicearecomingthereisakindofsmalleruptionvisible，unaccompaniedbyanydischargeofpurulentmatter；and，ifyouprickananimalwheninthisconditionatthespotoferuption，thelicejumpout。Insomementheappearanceofliceisadisease，incaseswherethebodyissurchargedwithmoisture；and，indeed，menhavebeenknowntosuccumbtothislouse-disease，asAlcmanthepoetandtheSyrianPherecydesaresaidtohavedone。Moreover，incertaindiseasesliceappearingreatabundance。

Thereisalsoaspeciesoflousecalledthe\'wildlouse\'，andthisisharderthantheordinarylouse，andthereisexceptionaldifficultyingettingtheskinridofit。Boys\'headsareapttobelousy，butmen\'sinlessdegree；andwomenaremoresubjecttolicethanmen。But，wheneverpeoplearetroubledwithlousyheads，theyarelessthanordinarilytroubledwithheadache。Andlicearegeneratedinotheranimalsthanman。Forbirdsareinfestedwiththem；andpheasants，unlesstheycleanthemselvesinthedust，areactuallydestroyedbythem。Allotherwingedanimalsthatarefurnishedwithfeathersaresimilarlyinfested，andallhair-coatedcreaturesalso，withthesingleexceptionoftheass，whichisinfestedneitherwithlicenorwithticks。

Cattlesufferbothfromliceandfromticks。Sheepandgoatsbreedticks，butdonotbreedlice。Pigsbreedlicelargeandhard。Indogsarefoundthefleapeculiartotheanimal，theCynoroestes。Inallanimalsthataresubjecttolice，thelatteroriginatefromtheanimalsthemselves。Moreover，inanimalsthatbatheatall，licearemorethanusuallyabundantwhentheychangethewaterinwhichtheybathe。

Inthesea，licearefoundonfishes，buttheyaregeneratednotoutofthefishbutoutofslime；andtheyresemblemultipedalwood-lice，onlythattheirtailisflat。Sea-liceareuniforminshapeanduniversalinlocality，andareparticularlynumerousonthebodyoftheredmullet。Andalltheseinsectsaremultipedalanddevoidofblood。

Theparasitethatfeedsonthetunnyisfoundintheregionofthefins；itresemblesascorpion，andisaboutthesizeofaspider。IntheseasbetweenCyreneandEgyptthereisafishthatattendsonthedolphin，whichiscalledthe\'dolphin\'slouse\'。Thisfishgetsexceedinglyfatfromenjoyinganabundanceoffoodwhilethedolphinisoutinpursuitofitsprey。

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Otheranimalculesbesidesthesearegenerated，aswehavealreadyremarked，someinwoolorinarticlesmadeofwool，asthesesorclothes-moth。Andtheseanimalculescomeingreaternumbersifthewoollensubstancesaredusty；andtheycomeinespeciallylargenumbersifaspiderbeshutupintheclothorwool，forthecreaturedrinksupanymoisturethatmaybethere，anddriesupthewoollensubstance。Thisgrubisfoundalsoinmen\'sclothes。

Acreatureisalsofoundinwaxlonglaidby，justasinwood，anditisthesmallestofanimalculesandiswhiteincolour，andisdesignatedtheacariormite。Inbooksalsootheranimalculesarefound，someresemblingthegrubsfoundingarments，andsomeresemblingtaillessscorpions，butverysmall。Asageneralrulewemaystatethatsuchanimalculesarefoundinpracticallyanything，bothindrythingsthatarebecomingmoistandinmoistthingsthataredrying，providedtheycontaintheconditionsoflife。

Thereisagrubentitledthe\'faggot-bearer\'，asstrangeacreatureasisknown。Itsheadprojectsoutsideitsshell，mottledincolour，anditsfeetareneartheendorapex，asisthecasewithgrubsingeneral；buttherestofitsbodyiscasedinatunicasitwereofspider\'sweb，andtherearelittledrytwigsaboutit，thatlookasthoughtheyhadstuckbyaccidenttothecreatureasitwentwalkingabout。Butthesetwig-likeformationsarenaturallyconnectedwiththetunic，forjustastheshelliswiththebodyofthesnailsoisthewholesuperstructurewithourgrub；andtheydonotdropoff，butcanonlybetornoff，asthoughtheywereallofapiecewithhim，andtheremovalofthetunicisasfataltothisgrubastheremovaloftheshellwouldbetothesnail。Incourseoftimethisgrubbecomesachrysalis，asisthecasewiththesilkworm，andlivesinamotionlesscondition。Butasyetitisnotknownintowhatwingedconditionitistransformed。

Thefruitofthewildfigcontainsthepsen，orfig-wasp。Thiscreatureisagrubatfirst；butinduetimethehuskpeelsoffandthepsenleavesthehuskbehinditandfliesaway，andentersintothefruitofthefig-treethroughitsorifice，andcausesthefruitnottodropoff；andwithaviewtothisphenomenon，countryfolkareinthehabitoftyingwildfigsontofig-trees，andofplantingwildfig-treesneardomesticatedones。