第7章

19

Ewesconceiveafterthreeorfourcopulationswiththeram。Ifrainfallsafterintercourse，theramimpregnatestheeweagain；anditisthesamewiththeshe-goat。Theewebearsusuallytwolambs，sometimesthreeorfour。Botheweandshe-goatcarrytheiryoungforfivemonths；consequentlywhereveradistrictissunnyandtheanimalsareusedtocomfortandwellfed，theybeartwiceintheyear。Thegoatlivesforeightyearsandthesheepforten，butinmostcasesnotsolong；thebell-wether，however，livestofifteenyears。Ineveryflocktheytrainoneoftheramsforbell-wether。Whenheiscalledonbynamebytheshepherd，hetakestheleadoftheflock:andtothisdutythecreatureistrainedfromitsearliestyears。SheepinEthiopialivefortwelveorthirteenyears，goatsfortenoreleven。

Inthecaseofthesheepandthegoatthetwosexeshaveintercoursealltheirliveslong。

Twinswithsheepandgoatsmaybeduetorichnessofpasturage，ortothefactthateithertheramorthehe-goatisatwin-begetterorthattheeweortheshe-goatisatwin-bearer。Oftheseanimalssomegivebirthtomalesandotherstofemales；andthedifferenceinthisrespectdependsonthewaterstheydrinkandalsoonthesires。Andiftheysubmittothemalewhennorthwindsareblowing，theyareapttobearmales；ifwhensouthwindsareblowing，females。Suchasbearfemalesmaygettobearmales，dueregardbeingpaidtotheirlookingnorthwardswhenputtothemale。

Ewesaccustomedtobeputtotheramearlywillrefusehimifheattempttomountthemlate。Lambsarebornwhiteandblackaccordingaswhiteorblackveinsareundertheram\'stongue；thelambsarewhiteiftheveinsarewhite，andblackiftheveinsareblack，andwhiteandblackiftheveinsarewhiteandblack；andrediftheveinsarered。Thefemalesthatdrinksaltedwatersarethefirsttotakethemale；thewatershouldbesaltedbeforeandafterparturition，andagaininthespringtime。Withgoatstheshepherdsappointnobell-wether，astheanimalisnotcapableofreposebutfriskyandapttoramble。Ifattheappointedseasontheeldersoftheflockareeagerforintercourse，theshepherdssaythatitbodeswellfortheflock；iftheyoungerones，thattheflockisgoingtobebad。

20

Ofdogsthereareseveralbreeds。OfthesetheLaconianhoundofeithersexisfitforbreedingpurposeswheneightmonthsold:ataboutthesameagesomedogsliftthelegwhenvoidingurine。Thebitchconceiveswithonelining；thisisclearlyseeninthecasewhereadogcontrivestolineabitchbystealth，astheyimpregnateaftermountingonlyonce。TheLaconianbitchcarriesheryoungthesixthpartofayearorsixtydays:ormorebyone，two，orthree，orlessbyone；thepupsareblindfortwelvedaysafterbirth。

Afterpupping，thebitchgetsinheatagaininsixmonths，butnotbefore。Somebitchescarrytheiryoungforthefifthpartoftheyearorforseventy-twodays；andtheirpupsareblindforfourteendays。Otherbitchescarrytheiryoungforaquarterofayearorforthreewholemonths；andthewhelpsoftheseareblindforseventeendays。Thebitchappearsgoinheatforthesamelengthoftime。

Menstruationcontinuesforsevendays，andaswellingofthegenitalorganoccurssimultaneously；itisnotduringthisperiodthatthebitchisdisposedtosubmittothedog，butinthesevendaysthatfollow。Thebitchasarulegoesinheatforfourteendays，butoccasionallyforsixteen。Thebirth-dischargeoccurssimultaneouslywiththedeliveryofthewhelps，andthesubstanceofitisthickandmucous。(Thefalling-offinbulkonthepartofthemotherisnotsogreatasmighthavebeeninferredfromthesizeofherframe。)Thebitchisusuallysuppliedwithmilkfivedaysbeforeparturition；somesevendayspreviously，somefour；andthemilkisserviceableimmediatelyafterbirth。TheLaconianbitchissuppliedwithmilkthirtydaysafterlining。Themilkatfirstisthickish，butgetsthinnerbydegrees；withthebitchthemilkisthickerthanwiththefemaleofanyotheranimalexceptingthesowandthehare。

Whenthebitcharrivesatfullgrowthanindicationisgivenofhercapacityforthemale；thatistosay，justasoccursinthefemaleofthehumanspecies，aswellingtakesplaceintheteatsofthebreasts，andthebreaststakeongristle。Thisincident，however，itisdifficultforanybutanexperttodetect，asthepartthatgivestheindicationisinconsiderable。Theprecedingstatementsrelatetothefemale，andnotoneofthemtothemale。Themaleasaruleliftshislegtovoidurinewhensixmonthsold；someatalaterperiod，wheneightmonthsold，somebeforetheyreachsixmonths。Inageneralwayonemayputitthattheydosowhentheyareoutofpuppyhood。Thebitchsquatsdownwhenshevoidsurine；itisarareexceptionthatsheliftsthelegtodoso。Thebitchbearstwelvepupsatthemost，butusuallyfiveorsix；occasionallyabitchwillbearoneonly。ThebitchoftheLaconianbreedgenerallybearseight。Thetwosexeshaveintercoursewitheachotheratallperiodsoflife。A

veryremarkablephenomenonisobservedinthecaseoftheLaconianhound:inotherwords，heisfoundtobemorevigorousincommercewiththefemaleafterbeinghard-workedthanwhenallowedtoliveidle。

ThedogoftheLaconianbreedlivestenyears，andthebitchtwelve。Thebitchofotherbreedsusuallylivesforfourteenorfifteenyears，butsomelivetotwenty；andforthisreasoncertaincriticsconsiderthatHomerdidwellinrepresentingthedogofUlyssesashavingdiedinhistwentiethyear。WiththeLaconianhound，owingtothehardshipstowhichthemaleisput，heislesslong-livedthanthefemale；withotherbreedsthedistinctionastolongevityisnotveryapparent，thoughasageneralrulethemaleisthelonger-lived。

Thedogshedsnoteethexcepttheso-called\'canines\'；theseadogofeithersexshedswhenfourmonthsold。Astheyshedtheseonly，manypeopleareindoubtastothefact，andsomepeople，owingtotheirsheddingbuttwoanditsbeinghardtohituponthetimewhentheydoso，fancythattheanimalshedsnoteethatall；others，afterobservingthesheddingoftwo，cometotheconclusionthatthecreatureshedstherestindueturn。Mendiscerntheageofadogbyinspectionofitsteeth；withyoungdogstheteetharewhiteandsharppointed，witholddogsblackandblunted。

21

Thebullimpregnatesthecowatasinglemount，andmountswithsuchvigourastoweighdownthecow；ifhiseffortbeunsuccessful，thecowmustbeallowedanintervaloftwentydaysbeforebeingagainsubmitted。Bullsofmatureagedeclinetomountthesamecowseveraltimesononeday，except，bytheway，atconsiderableintervals。Youngbullsbyreasonoftheirvigourareenabledtomountthesamecowseveraltimesinoneday，andagoodmanycowsbesides。Thebullistheleastsalaciousofmaleanimals……Thevictoramongthebullsistheonethatmountsthefemales；whenhegetsexhaustedbyhisamorousefforts，hisbeatenantagonistsetsonhimandveryoftengetsthebetteroftheconflict。Thebullandthecowareaboutayearoldwhenitispossibleforthemtohavecommercewithchanceofoffspring:asarule，however，theyareabouttwentymonthsold，butitisuniversallyallowedthattheyarecapableinthisrespectattheageoftwoyears。Thecowgoeswithcalfforninemonths，andshecalvesinthetenthmonth；somemaintainthattheygoincalffortenmonths，totheveryday。Acalfdeliveredbeforethetimesherespecifiedisanabortionandneverlives，howeverlittleprematureitsbirthmayhavebeen，asitshoovesareweakandimperfect。Thecowasarulebearsbutonecalf，veryseldomtwo；shesubmitstothebullandbearsaslongasshelives。

Cowsliveforaboutfifteenyears，andthebullstoo，iftheyhavebeencastrated；butsomelivefortwentyyearsorevenmore，iftheirbodilyconstitutionsbesound。Theherdsmentamethecastratedbulls，andgivethemanofficeintheherdanalogoustotheofficeofthebell-wetherinaflock；andthesebullslivetoanexceptionallyadvancedage，owingtotheirexemptionfromhardshipandtotheirbrowsingonpastureofgoodquality。Thebullisinfullestvigourwhenfiveyearsold，whichleadsthecriticstocommendHomerforapplyingtothebulltheepithetsof\'five-year-old\'，or\'ofnineseasons\'，whichepithetsarealikeinmeaning。Theoxshedshisteethattheageoftwoyears，notalltogetherbutjustasthehorseshedshis。Whentheanimalsuffersfrompodagraitdoesnotshedthehoof，butissubjecttoapainfulswellinginthefeet。Themilkofthecowisserviceableafterparturition，andbeforeparturitionthereisnomilkatall。Themilkthatfirstpresentsitselfbecomesashardasstonewhenitclots；thisresultensuesunlessitbepreviouslydilutedwithwater。Oxenyoungerthanayearolddonotcopulateunlessundercircumstancesofanunnaturalandportentouskind:instanceshavebeenrecordedofcopulationinbothsexesattheageoffourmonths。KineingeneralbegintosubmittothemaleaboutthemonthofThargelionorofScirophorion；some，however，arecapableofconceptionrightontotheautumn。Whenkineinlargenumbersreceivethebullandconceive，itislookeduponasprognosticofrainandstormyweather。Kineherdtogetherlikemares，butinlesserdegree。

22

Inthecaseofhorses，thestallionandthemarearefirstfittedforbreedingpurposeswhentwoyearsold。Instances，however，ofsuchearlymaturityarerare，andtheiryoungareexceptionallysmallandweak；theordinaryageforsexualmaturityisthreeyears，andfromthatagetotwentythetwosexesgoonimprovinginthequalityoftheiroffspring。Themarecarriesherfoalforelevenmonths，andcastsitinthetwelfth。Itisnotafixednumberofdaysthatthestalliontakestoimpregnatethemare；itmaybeone，two，three，ormore。Anassincoveringwillimpregnatemoreexpeditiouslythanastallion。Theactofintercoursewithhorsesisnotlaboriousasitiswithoxen。Inbothsexesthehorseisthemostsalaciousofanimalsnextafterthehumanspecies。Thebreedingfacultiesoftheyoungerhorsesmaybestimulatedbeyondtheiryearsiftheybesuppliedwithgoodfeedinginabundance。Themareasarulebearsonlyonefoal；occasionallyshehastwo，butnevermore。A

marehasbeenknowntocasttwomules；butsuchacircumstancewasregardedasunnaturalandportentous。

Thehorsethenisfirstfittedforbreedingpurposesattheageoftwoandahalfyears，butachievesfullsexualmaturitywhenithasceasedtoshedteeth，exceptitbenaturallyinfertile；itmustbeadded，however，thatsomehorseshavebeenknowntoimpregnatethemarewhiletheteethwereinprocessofshedding。

Thehorsehasfortyteeth。Itshedsitsfirstsetoffour，twofromtheupperjawandtwofromthelower，whentwoandahalfyearsold。Afterayear\'sinterval，itshedsanothersetoffourinlikemanner，andanothersetoffourafteryetanotheryear\'sinterval；

afterarrivingattheageoffouryearsandsixmonthsitshedsnomore。Aninstancehasoccurredwhereahorseshedallhisteethatonce，andanotherinstanceofahorsesheddingallhisteethwithhislastsetoffour；butsuchinstancesareveryrare。Itconsequentlyhappensthatahorsewhenfourandahalfyearsoldisinexcellentconditionforbreedingpurposes。

Theolderhorses，whetherofthemaleorfemale，arethemoregenerativelyproductive。Horseswillcovermaresfromwhichtheyhavebeenfoaledandmareswhichtheyhavebegotten；and，indeed，atroopofhorsesisonlyconsideredperfectwhensuchpromiscuityofintercourseoccurs。Scythiansusepregnantmaresforridingwhentheembryohasturnedrathersooninthewomb，andtheyassertthattherebythemothershavealltheeasierdelivery。Quadrupedsasaruleliedownforparturition，andinconsequencetheyoungofthemallcomeoutofthewombsideways。Themare，however，whenthetimeforparturitionarrives，standserectandinthatposturecastsitsfoal。

Thehorseingenerallivesforeighteenortwentyyears；somehorseslivefortwenty-fiveoreventhirty，andifahorsebetreatedwithextremecare，itmaylastontotheageoffiftyyears；ahorse，however，whenitreachesthirtyyearsisregardedasexceptionallyold。Themarelivesusuallyfortwenty-fiveyears，thoughinstanceshaveoccurredoftheirattainingtheageofforty。

Themaleislesslong-livedthanthefemalebyreasonofthesexualserviceheiscalledontorender；andhorsesthatarerearedinaprivatestablelivelongerthansuchasarerearedintroops。Themareattainsherfulllengthandheightatfiveyearsold，thestallionatsix；inanothersixyearstheanimalreachesitsfullbulk，andgoesonimprovinguntilitistwentyyearsold。Thefemale，then，reachesmaturitymorerapidlythanthemale，butinthewombthecaseisreversed，justasisobservedinregardtothesexesofthehumanspecies；andthesamephenomenonisobservedinthecaseofallanimalsthatbearseveralyoung。

Themareissaidtosuckleamule-foalforsixmonths，butnottoallowitsapproachforanylongeronaccountofthepainitisputtobythehardtuggingoftheyoung；anordinaryfoalitallowstosuckforalongerperiod。

Horseandmuleareattheirbestafterthesheddingoftheteeth。Aftertheyhaveshedthemall，itisnoteasytodistinguishtheirage；hencetheyaresaidtocarrytheirmarkbeforetheshedding，butnotafter。However，evenafterthesheddingtheirageisprettywellrecognizedbytheaidofthecanines；forinthecaseofhorsesmuchriddentheseteetharewornawaybyattritioncausedbytheinsertionofthebit；inthecaseofhorsesnotriddentheteetharelargeanddetached，andinyounghorsestheyaresharpandsmall。

Themaleofthehorsewillbreedatallseasonsandduringitswholelife；themarecantakethehorseallitslifelong，butisnotthusreadytopairatallseasonsunlessitbeheldincheckbyahalterorsomeothercompulsionbebroughttobear。Thereisnofixedtimeatwhichintercourseofthetwosexescannottakeplace；

andaccordinglyintercoursemaychancetotakeplaceatatimethatmayrenderdifficulttherearingofthefutureprogeny。InastableinOpustherewasastallionthatusedtoservemareswhenfortyyearsold:hisforelegshadtobeliftedupfortheoperation。

Maresfirsttakethehorseinthespring-time。Afteramarehasfoaledshedoesnotgetimpregnatedatonceagain，butonlyafteraconsiderableinterval；infact，thefoalswillbeallthebetteriftheintervalextendoverfourorfiveyears。Itis，atallevents，absolutelynecessarytoallowanintervalofoneyear，andforthatperiodtoletherliefallow。Amare，then，breedsatintervals；ashe-assbreedsonandonwithoutintermission。Ofmaressomeareabsolutelysterile，othersarecapableofconceptionbutincapableofbringingthefoaltofullterm；itissaidtobeanindicationofthisconditioninamare，thatherfoalifdissectedisfoundtohaveotherkidney-shapedsubstancesroundaboutitskidneys，presentingtheappearanceofhavingfourkidneys。

Afterparturitionthemareatonceswallowstheafter-birth，andbitesoffthegrowth，calledthe\'hippomanes\'，thatisfoundontheforeheadofthefoal。Thisgrowthissomewhatsmallerthanadriedfig；andinshapeisbroadandround，andincolourblack。Ifanybystandergetspossessionofitbeforethemare，andthemaregetsasmellofit，shegoeswildandfranticatthesmell。Anditisforthisreasonthatvendersofdrugsandsimplesholdthesubstanceinhighrequestandincludeitamongtheirstores。

Ifanasscoveramareafterthemarehasbeencoveredbyahorse，theasswilldestroythepreviouslyformedembryo。

(Horse-trainersdonotappointahorseasleadertoatroop，asherdsmenappointabullasleadertoaherd，andforthisreasonthatthehorseisnotsteadybutquick-temperedandskittish。)

23

Theassofbothsexesiscapableofbreeding，andshedsitsfirstteethattheageoftwoandahalfyears；itshedsitssecondteethwithinsixmonths，itsthirdwithinanothersixmonths，andthefourthafterthelikeinterval。Thesefourthteetharetermedthegnomonsorage-indicators。

Ashe-asshasbeenknowntoconceivewhenayearold，andthefoaltobereared。Afterintercoursewiththemaleitwilldischargethegenitalspermunlessitbehindered，andforthisreasonitisusuallybeatenaftersuchintercourseandchasedabout。Itcastsitsyounginthetwelfthmonth。Itusuallybearsbutonefoal，andthatisitsnaturalnumber，occasionallyhoweveritbearstwins。Theassifitcoveramaredestroys，ashasbeensaid，theembryopreviouslybegottenbythehorse；but，afterthemarehasbeencoveredbytheass，thehorsesuperveningwillnotspoiltheembryo。Theshe-asshasmilkinthetenthmonthofpregnancy。Sevendaysaftercastingafoaltheshe-asssubmitstothemale，andisalmostsuretoconceiveifputtothemaleonthisparticularday；thesameresult，however，isquitepossiblelateron。Theshe-asswillrefusetocastherfoalwithanyonelookingonorinthedaylightandjustbeforefoalingshehastobeledawayintoadarkplace。Iftheshe-asshashadyoungbeforethesheddingoftheindex-teeth，shewillbearallherlifethrough；butifnot，thenshewillneitherconceivenorbearfortherestofherdays。Theasslivesformorethanthirtyyears，andtheshe-assliveslongerthanthemale。

Whenthereisacrossbetweenahorseandashe-assorajackassandamare，thereismuchgreaterchanceofamiscarriagethanwherethecommerceisnormal。Theperiodforgestationinthecaseofacrossdependsonthemale，andisjustwhatitwouldhavebeenifthemalehadhadcommercewithafemaleofhisownkind。Inregardtosize，looks，andvigour，thefoalismoreapttoresemblethemotherthanthesire。Ifsuchhybridconnexionsbecontinuedwithoutintermittence，thefemalewillsoongosterile；andforthisreasontrainersalwaysallowofintervalsbetweenbreedingtimes。Amarewillnottaketheass，norasheassthehorse，unlesstheassorshe-assshallhavebeensuckledbyamare；andforthisreasontrainersputfoalsoftheshe-assundermares，whichfoalsaretechnicallyspokenofas\'mare-suckled\'。Theseasses，thusreared，mountthemaresintheopenpastures，masteringthembyforceasthestallionsdo。

24

Amuleisfittedforcommercewiththefemaleafterthefirstsheddingofitsteeth，andattheageofsevenwillimpregnateeffectually；andwhereconnexionhastakenplacewithamare，a\'hinny\'hasbeenknowntobeproduced。Aftertheseventhyearithasnofurtherintercoursewiththefemale。Afemalemulehasbeenknowntobeimpregnated，butwithouttheimpregnationbeingfollowedupbyparturition。InSyrophoeniciashe-mulessubmittothemuleandbearyoung；butthebreed，thoughitresemblestheordinaryone，isdifferentandspecific。Thehinnyorstuntedmuleisfoaledbyamarewhenshehasgonesickduringgestation，andcorrespondstothedwarfinthehumanspeciesandtotheafter-pigorscutinswine；

andasisthecasewithdwarfs，thesexualorganofthehinnyisabnormallylarge。

Themulelivesforanumberofyears。Thereareonrecordcasesofmuleslivingtotheageofeighty，asdidoneinAthensatthetimeofthebuildingofthetemple；thismuleonaccountofitsagewasletgofree，butcontinuedtoassistindraggingburdens，andwouldgosidebysidewiththeotherdraught-beastsandstimulatethemtotheirwork；andinconsequenceapublicdecreewaspassedforbiddinganybakerdrivingthecreatureawayfromhisbread-tray。Theshe-mulegrowsoldmoreslowlythanthemule。Someassertthattheshe-mulemenstruatesbytheactofvoidingherurine，andthatthemuleowestheprematurityofhisdecaytohishabitofsmellingattheurine。Somuchforthemodesofgenerationinconnexionwiththeseanimals。

25

Breedersandtrainerscandistinguishbetweenyoungandoldquadrupeds。If，whendrawnbackfromthejaw，theskinatoncegoesbacktoitsplace，theanimalisyoung；ifitremainslongwrinkledup，theanimalisold。

26

Thecamelcarriesitsyoungfortenmonths，andbearsbutoneatatimeandnevermore；theyoungcamelisremovedfromthemotherwhenayearold。Theanimallivesforalongperiod，morethanfiftyyears。

Itbearsinspring-time，andgivesmilkuntilthetimeofthenextconception。Itsfleshandmilkareexceptionallypalatable。Themilkisdrunkmixedwithwaterintheproportionofeithertwotooneorthreetoone。

27

Theelephantofeithersexisfittedforbreedingbeforereachingtheageoftwenty。Thefemalecarriesheryoung，accordingtosomeaccounts，fortwoandahalfyears；accordingtoothers，forthreeyears；andthediscrepancyintheassignedperiodsisduetothefactthatthereareneverhumaneyewitnessestothecommercebetweenthesexes。Thefemalesettlesdownonitsreartocastitsyoung，andobviouslysuffersgreatlyduringtheprocess。Theyoungone，immediatelyafterbirth，sucksthemother，notwithitstrunkbutwiththemouth；andcanwalkaboutandseedistinctlythemomentitisborn。

28

Thewildsowsubmitstotheboaratthebeginningofwinter，andinthespring-timeretreatsforparturitiontoalairinsomedistrictinaccessibletointrusion，hemmedinwithsheercliffsandchasmsandovershadowedbytrees。Theboarusuallyremainsbythesowforthirtydays。Thenumberofthelitterandtheperiodgestationisthesameasinthecaseofthedomesticatedcongener。Thesoundofthegruntalsoissimilar；onlythatthesowgruntscontinually，andtheboarbutseldom。Ofthewildboarssuchasarecastratedgrowtothelargestsizeandbecomefiercest:towhichcircumstanceHomeralludeswhenhesays:-

\'Herearedagainsthimawildcastratedboar:itwasnotlikeafood-devouringbrute，butlikeaforest-cladpromontory。\'

Wildboarsbecomecastratedowingtoanitchbefallingtheminearlylifeintheregionofthetesticles，andthecastrationissuperinducedbytheirrubbingthemselvesagainstthetrunksoftrees。

29

Thehind，ashasbeenstated，submitstothestagasaruleonlyundercompulsion，assheisunabletoendurethemaleoftenowingtotherigidityofthepenis。However，theydooccasionallysubmittothestagastheewesubmitsram；andwhentheyareinheatthehindsavoidoneanother。Thestagisnotconstanttooneparticularhind，butafterawhilequitsoneandmateswithothers。ThebreedingtimeisaftertherisingofArcturus，duringthemonthsofBoedromionandMaimacterion。Theperiodofgestationlastsforeightmonths。

Conceptioncomesonafewdaysafterintercourse；andanumberofhindscanbeimpregnatedbyasinglemale。Thehind，asarule，bearsbutonefawn，althoughinstanceshavebeenknownofhercastingtwo。Outofdreadofwildbeastsshecastsheryoungbythesideofthehigh-road。Theyoungfawngrowswithrapidity。

Menstruationoccursatnoothertimewiththehind；ittakesplaceonlyafterparturition，andthesubstanceisphlegm-like。

Thehindleadsthefawntoherlair；thisisherplaceofrefuge，acavewithasingleinlet，insidewhichshesheltersherselfagainstattack。

Fabulousstoriesaretoldconcerningthelongevityoftheanimal，butthestorieshaveneverbeenverified，andthebrevityoftheperiodofgestationandtherapidityofgrowthinthefawnwouldnotleadonetoattributeextremelongevitytothiscreature。

InthemountaincalledElaphoeisorDeerMountain，whichisinArginussainAsiaMinor-theplace，bytheway，whereAlcibiadeswasassassinated-allthehindshavetheearsplit，sothat，iftheystraytoadistance，theycanberecognizedbythismark；andtheembryoactuallyhasthemarkwhileyetinthewombofthemother。

Thehindhasfourteatslikethecow。Afterthehindshavebecomepregnant，themalesallsegregateonebyone，andinconsequenceoftheviolenceoftheirsexualpassionstheykeepeachonetohimself，digaholeintheground，andbellowfromtimetotime；inalltheseparticularstheyresemblethegoat，andtheirforeheadsfromgettingwettedbecomeblack，asisalsothecasewiththegoat。Inthiswaytheypassthetimeuntiltherainfalls，afterwhichtimetheyturntopasture。Theanimalactsinthiswayowingtoitssexualwantonnessandalsotoitsobesity；forinsummer-timeitbecomessoexceptionallyfatastobeunabletorun:infactatthisperiodtheycanbeovertakenbythehuntersthatpursuethemonfootinthesecondorthirdrun；and，bytheway，inconsequenceoftheheatoftheweatherandtheirgettingoutofbreaththeyalwaysmakeforwaterintheirruns。Intheruttingseason，thefleshofthedeerisunsavouryandrank，likethefleshofthehe-goat。Inwinter-timethedeerbecomesthinandweak，buttowardstheapproachofthespringheisathisbestforrunning。Whenontherunthedeerkeepspausingfromtimetotime，andwaitsuntilhispursuerdrawsuponhim，whereuponhestartsoffagain。Thishabitappearsduetosomeinternalpain:atallevents，thegutissoslenderandweakthat，ifyoustriketheanimaleversosoftly，itisapttobreakasunder，thoughthehideoftheanimalremainssoundanduninjured。

30

Bears，ashasbeenpreviouslystated，donotcopulatewiththemalemountingthebackofthefemale，butwiththefemalelyingdownunderthemale。Theshe-beargoeswithyoungforthirtydays。Shebringsforthsometimesonecub，sometimestwocubs，andatmostfive。Ofallanimalsthenewlyborncuboftheshebearisthesmallestinproportiontothesizeofthemother；thatistosay，itislargerthanamousebutsmallerthanaweasel。Itisalsosmoothandblind，anditslegsandmostofitsorgansareasyetinarticulate。PairingtakesPlaceinthemonthofElaphebolion，andparturitionaboutthetimeforretiringintowinterquarters；aboutthistimethebearandtheshe-bearareatthefattest。Aftertheshe-bearhasrearedheryoung，shecomesoutofherwinterlairinthethirdmonth，whenitisalreadyspring。Thefemaleporcupine，bytheway，hibernatesandgoeswithyoungthesamenumberofdaysastheshe-bear，andinallrespectsastoparturitionresemblesthisanimal。

Whenashe-beariswithyoung，itisaveryhardtasktocatchher。

31

Ithasalreadybeenstatedthatthelionandlionesscopulaterearwards，andthattheseanimalsareopisthuretic。Theydonotcopulatenorbringforthatallseasonsindiscriminately，butonceintheyearonly。Thelionessbringsforthinthespring，generallytwocubsatatime，andsixattheverymost；butsometimesonlyone。Thestoryaboutthelionessdischargingherwombintheactofparturitionisapurefable，andwasmerelyinventedtoaccountforthescarcityoftheanimal；fortheanimalis，asiswellknown，arareanimal，andisnotfoundinmanycountries。Infact，inthewholeofEuropeitisonlyfoundinthestripbetweentheriversAchelousandNessus。Thecubsofthelionesswhennewlybornareexceedinglysmall，andcanscarcelywalkwhentwomonthsold。TheSyrianlionbearscubsfivetimes:fivecubsatthefirstlitter，thenfour，thenthree，thentwo，andlastlyone；afterthisthelionessceasestobearfortherestofherdays。Thelionesshasnomane，butthisappendageispeculiartothelion。Thelionshedsonlythefourso-calledcanines，twointheupperjawandtwointhelower；anditshedsthemwhenitissixmonthsold。

32

Thehyenaincolourresemblesthewolf，butismoreshaggy，andisfurnishedwithamanerunningallalongthespine。Whatisrecountedconcerningitsgenitalorgans，totheeffectthateveryhyenaisfurnishedwiththeorganbothofthemaleandthefemale，isuntrue。Thefactisthatthesexualorganofthemalehyenaresemblesthesameorganinthewolfandinthedog；thepartresemblingthefemalegenitalorganliesunderneaththetail，anddoestosomeextentresemblethefemaleorgan，butitisunprovidedwithductorpassage，andthepassagefortheresiduumcomesunderneathit。

Thefemalehyenahasthepartthatresemblestheorganofthemale，and，asinthecaseofthemale，hasitunderneathhertail，unprovidedwithductorpassage；andafteritthepassagefortheresiduum，andunderneaththisthetruefemalegenitalorgan。Thefemalehyenahasawomb，likeallotherfemaleanimalsofthesamekind。Itisanexceedinglyrarecircumstancetomeetwithafemalehyena。Atleastahuntersaidthatoutofelevenhyenashehadcaught，onlyonewasafemale。

33

Harescopulateinarearwardposture，ashasbeenstated，fortheanimalisopisthuretic。Theybreedandbearatallseasons，superfoetateduringpregnancy，andbearyoungeverymonth。Theydonotgivebirthtotheiryoungonesalltogetheratonetime，butbringthemforthatintervalsoverasmanydaysasthecircumstancesofeachcasemayrequire。Thefemaleissuppliedwithmilkbeforeparturition；

andafterbearingsubmitsimmediatelytothemale，andiscapableofconceptionwhilesucklingheryoung。Themilkinconsistencyresemblessow\'smilk。Theyoungarebornblind，asisthecasewiththegreaterpartOfthefissipedsortoedanimals。

34

Thefoxmountsthevixenincopulation，andthevixenbearsyoungliketheshe-bear；infact，heryoungonesareevenmoreinarticulatelyformed。Beforeparturitionsheretirestosequesteredplaces，sothatitisagreatrarityforavixentobecaughtwhilepregnant。Afterparturitionshewarmsheryoungandgetsthemintoshapebylickingthem。Shebearsfouratmostatabirth。

35

Thewolfresemblesthedoginregardtothetimeofconceptionandparturition，thenumberofthelitter，andtheblindnessofthenewbornyoung。Thesexescoupleatonespecialperiod，andthefemalebringsforthatthebeginningofthesummer。Thereisanaccountgivenoftheparturitionoftheshe-wolfthatbordersonthefabulous，totheeffectthatsheconfinesherlying-intowithintwelveparticulardaysoftheyear。Andtheygivethereasonforthisintheformofamyth，viz。thatwhentheytransportedLetoinsomanydaysfromthelandoftheHyperboreanstotheislandofDelos，sheassumedtheformofashe-wolftoescapetheangerofHere。

Whethertheaccountbecorrectornothasnotyetbeenverified；I

giveitmerelyasitiscurrentlytold。Thereisnomoreoftruthinthecurrentstatementthattheshe-wolfbearsonceandonlyonceinherlifetime。

Thecatandtheichneumonbearasmanyyoungasthedog，andliveonthesamefood；theyliveaboutsixyears。Thecubsofthepantherarebornblindlikethoseofthewolf，andthefemalebearsfouratthemostatonebirth。Theparticularsofconceptionarethesameforthethos，orcivet，asforthedog；thecubsoftheanimalarebornblind，andthefemalebearstwo，orthree，orfouratabirth。Itislonginthebodyandlowinstature；butnotwithstandingtheshortnessofitslegsitisexceptionallyfleetoffoot，owingtothesupplenessofitsframeanditscapacityforleaping。

36

ThereisfoundinSyriaaso-calledmule。Itisnotthesameasthecrossbetweenthehorseandass，butresemblesitjustasawildassresemblesthedomesticatedcongener，andderivesitsnamefromtheresemblance。Likethewildass，thiswildmuleisremarkableforitsspeed。Theanimalsofthisspeciesinterbreedwithoneanother；andaproofofthisstatementmaybegatheredfromthefactthatacertainnumberofthemwerebroughtintoPhrygiainthetimeofPharnaces，thefatherofPharnabazus，andtheanimalistherestill。Thenumberoriginallyintroducedwasnine，andtherearethreethereatthepresentday。

37

Thephenomenaofgenerationinregardtothemousearethemostastonishingbothforthenumberoftheyoungandfortherapidityofrecurrenceinthebirths。Ononeoccasionashe-mouseinastateofpregnancywasshutupbyaccidentinajarcontainingmillet-seed，andafteralittlewhilethelidofthejarwasremovedandupwardsofonehundredandtwentymicewerefoundinsideit。

Therateofpropagationoffieldmiceincountryplaces，andthedestructionthattheycause，arebeyondalltelling。Inmanyplacestheirnumberissoincalculablethatbutverylittleofthecorn-cropislefttothefarmer；andsorapidistheirmodeofproceedingthatsometimesasmallfarmerwillonedayobservethatitistimeforreaping，andonthefollowingmorning，whenhetakeshisreapersafield，hefindshisentirecropdevoured。Theirdisappearanceisunaccountable:inafewdaysnotamousewilltherebetobeseen。Andyetinthetimebeforethesefewdaysmenfailtokeepdowntheirnumbersbyfumigatingandunearthingthem，orbyregularlyhuntingthemandturninginswineuponthem；forpigs，bytheway，turnupthemouse-holesbyrootingwiththeirsnouts。Foxesalsohuntthem，andthewildferretsinparticulardestroythem，buttheymakenowayagainsttheprolificqualitiesoftheanimalandtherapidityofitsbreeding。Whentheyaresuper-abundant，nothingsucceedsinthinningthemdownexcepttherain；butafterheavyrainstheydisappearrapidly。

InacertaindistrictofPersiawhenafemalemouseisdissectedthefemaleembryosappeartobepregnant。Somepeopleassert，andpositivelyassert，thatafemalemousebylickingsaltcanbecomepregnantwithouttheinterventionofthemale。

MiceinEgyptarecoveredwithbristleslikethehedgehog。Thereisalsoadifferentbreedofmicethatwalkontheirtwohind-legs；

theirfrontlegsaresmallandtheirhind-legslong；thebreedisexceedinglynumerous。Therearemanyotherbreedsofmicethanareherereferredto。

BookVII

1

AstoMan\'sgrowth，firstwithinhismother\'swombandafterwardtooldage，thecourseofnature，insofarasmanisspeciallyconcerned，isafterthefollowingmanner。And，bytheway，thedifferenceofmaleandfemaleandoftheirrespectiveorganshasbeendealtwithheretofore。Whentwicesevenyearsold，inthemostofcases，themalebeginstoengenderseed；andatthesametimehairappearsuponthepubes，inlikemanner，soAlcmaeonofCrotonremarks，asplantsfirstblossomandthenseed。Aboutthesametime，thevoicebeginstoalter，gettingharsherandmoreuneven，neithershrillasformerlynordeepasafterward，noryetofanyeventone，butlikeaninstrumentwhosestringsarefrayedandoutoftune；anditiscalled，bywayofby-word，thebleatofthebilly-goat。Nowthisbreakingofthevoiceisthemoreapparentinthosewhoaremakingtrialoftheirsexualpowers；forinthosewhoarepronetolustfulnessthevoiceturnsintothevoiceofaman，butnotsointhecontinent。Forifaladstrivediligentlytohinderhisvoicefrombreaking，assomedoofthosewhodevotethemselvestomusic，thevoicelastsalongwhileunbrokenandmayevenpersistwithlittlechange。Andthebreastsswellandlikewisetheprivateparts，alteringinsizeandshape。(Andbytheway，atthistimeoflifethosewhotrybyfrictiontoprovokeemissionofseedareapttoexperiencepainaswellasvoluptuoussensations。)Atthesameageinthefemale，thebreastsswellandtheso-calledcatameniacommencetoflow；andthisfluidresemblesfreshblood。Thereisanotherdischarge，awhiteone，bytheway，whichoccursingirlsevenataveryearlyage，moreespeciallyiftheirdietbelargelyofafluidnature；andthismaladycausesarrestofgrowthandlossofflesh。Inthemajorityofcasesthecatameniaarenoticedbythetimethebreastshavegrowntotheheightoftwofingers\'breadth。Ingirls，too，aboutthistimethevoicechangestoadeepernote；forwhileingeneralthewoman\'svoiceishigherthantheman\'s，soalsothevoicesofgirlsarepitchedinahigherkeythantheelderwomen\'s，justastheboy\'sarehigherthanthemen\'s；andthegirls\'voicesareshrillerthantheboys\'，andamaid\'sfluteistunedsharperthanalad\'s。

Girlsofthisagehavemuchneedofsurveillance。Fortheninparticulartheyfeelanaturalimpulsetomakeusageofthesexualfacultiesthataredevelopinginthem；sothatunlesstheyguardagainstanyfurtherimpulsebeyondthatinevitableonewhichtheirbodilydevelopmentofitselfsupplies，eveninthecaseofthosewhoabstainaltogetherfrompassionateindulgence，theycontracthabitswhichareapttocontinueintolaterlife。Forgirlswhogivewaytowantonnessgrowmoreandmorewanton；andthesameistrueofboys，unlesstheybesafeguardedfromonetemptationandanother；forthepassagesbecomedilatedandsetupalocalfluxorrunning，andbesidesthistherecollectionofpleasureassociatedwithformerindulgencecreatesalongingforitsrepetition。

Somemenarecongenitallyimpotentowingtostructuraldefect；

andinlikemannerwomenalsomaysufferfromcongenitalincapacity。

Bothmenandwomenareliabletoconstitutionalchange，growinghealthierormoresickly，oralteringinthewayofleanness，stoutness，andvigour；thus，afterpubertysomeladswhowerethinbeforegrowstoutandhealthy，andtheconversealsohappens；andthesameisequallytrueofgirls。Forwheninboyorgirlthebodyisloadedwithsuperfluousmatter，then，whensuchsuperfluitiesaregotridofinthespermaticorcatamenialdischarge，theirbodiesimproveinhealthandconditionowingtotheremovalofwhathadactedasanimpedimenttohealthandpropernutrition；butinsuchasareofoppositehabittheirbodiesbecomeemaciatedandoutofhealth，forthenthespermaticdischargeintheonecaseandthecatamenialflowintheothertakeplaceatthecostofnaturalhealthyconditions。

Furthermore，inthecaseofmaidenstheconditionofthebreastsisdiverseindifferentindividuals，fortheyaresometimesquitebigandsometimeslittle；andasageneralruletheirsizedependsonwhetherornotthebodywasburthenedinchildhoodwithsuperfluousmaterial。Forwhenthesignsofwomanhoodarenighbutnotcome，themoretherebeofmoisturethemorewillitcausethebreaststoswell，eventotheburstingpoint；andtheresultisthatthebreastsremainduringafter-lifeofthebulkthattheythenacquired。Andamongmen，thebreastsgrowmoreconspicuousandmoreliketothoseofwomen，bothinyoungmenandold，whentheindividualtemperamentismoistandsleekandthereverseofsinewy，andallthemoreamongthedark-complexionedthanthefair。

Attheoutsetandtilltheageofoneandtwentythespermaticdischargeisdevoidoffecundity；afterwardsitbecomesfertile，butyoungmenandwomenproduceundersizedandimperfectprogeny，asisthecasealsowiththecommonrunofanimals。Youngwomenconceivereadily，but，havingconceived，theirlabourinchildbedisapttobedifficult。

Theframefailsofreachingitsfulldevelopmentandagesquicklyinmenofintemperatelustsandinwomenwhobecomemothersofmanychildren；foritappearstobethecasethatgrowthceaseswhenthewomanhasgivenbirthtothreechildren。Womenofalasciviousdispositiongrowmoresedateandvirtuousaftertheyhaveborneseveralchildren。

Aftertheageoftwenty-onewomenarefullyripeforchild-bearing，butmengoonincreasinginvigour。Whenthespermaticfluidisofathinconsistencyitisinfertile；whengranularitisfertileandlikelytoproducemalechildren，butwhenthinandunclotteditisapttoproducefemaleoffspring。Anditisaboutthistimeoflifethatinmenthebeardmakesitsappearance。

2

Theonsetofthecatameniainwomentakesplacetowardstheendofthemonth；andonthisaccountthewiseacresassertthatthemoonisfeminine，becausethedischargeinwomenandthewaningofthemoonhappenatoneandthesametime，andafterthewaneandthedischargebothoneandtheothergrowwholeagain。(Insomewomenthecatameniaoccurregularlybutsparselyeverymonth，andmoreabundantlyeverythirdmonth。)Withthoseinwhomtheailmentlastsbutalittlewhile，twodaysorthree，recoveryiseasy；butwherethedurationislonger，theailmentismoretroublesome。Forwomenareailingduringthesedays；andsometimesthedischargeissuddenandsometimesgradual，butinallcasesalikethereisbodilydistressuntiltheattackbeover。Inmanycasesatthecommencementoftheattack，whenthedischargeisabouttoappear，thereoccurspasmsandrumblingnoiseswithinthewombuntilsuchtimeasthedischargemanifestsitself。

Undernaturalconditionsitisafterrecoveryfromthesesymptomsthatconceptiontakesplaceinwomen，andwomeninwhomthesignsdonotmanifestthemselvesforthemostpartremainchildless。

Buttheruleisnotwithoutexception，forsomeconceiveinspiteoftheabsenceofthesesymptoms；andthesearecasesinwhichasecretionaccumulates，notinsuchawayasactuallytoissueforth，butinamountequaltotheresiduumleftinthecaseofchild-bearingwomenafterthenormaldischargehastakenplace。Andsomeconceivewhilethesignsareonbutnotafterwards，thosenamelyinwhomthewombclosesupimmediatelyafterthedischarge。

Insomecasesthemensespersistduringpregnancyuptotheverylast；

buttheresultinthesecasesisthattheoffspringarepoor，andeitherfailtosurviveorgrowupweakly。

Inmanycases，owingtoexcessivedesire，arisingeitherfromyouthfulimpetuosityorfromlengthenedabstinence，prolapsionofthewombtakesplaceandthecatameniaappearrepeatedly，thriceinthemonth，untilconceptionoccurs；andthenthewombwithdrawsupwardsagaintoitsproperplace……

Aswehaveremarkedabove，thedischargeiswonttobemoreabundantinwomenthaninthefemalesofanyotheranimals。Increaturesthatdonotbringforththeiryoungalivenothingofthesortmanifestsitself，thisparticularsuperfluitybeingconvertedintobodilysubstance；andbytheway，insuchanimalsthefemalesaresometimeslargerthanthemales；andmoreover，thematerialisusedupsometimesforscutesandsometimesforscales，andsometimesfortheabundantcoveringoffeathers，whereasintheviviparapossessedoflimbsitisturnedintohairandintobodilysubstance(formanaloneamongthemissmooth-skinned)，andintourine，forthisexcretionisinthemajorityofsuchanimalsthickandcopious。Onlyinthecaseofwomenisthesuperfluityturnedintoadischargeinsteadofbeingutilizedintheseotherways。

Thereissomethingsimilartoberemarkedofmen:forinproportiontohissizemanemitsmoreseminalfluidthananyotheranimal(forwhichreasonmanisthesmoothestofanimals)，especiallysuchmenasareofamoisthabitandnotovercorpulent，andfairmeningreaterdegreethandark。Itislikewisewithwomen；

forinthestout，greatpartoftheexcretiongoestonourishthebody。Intheactofintercourse，womenofafaircomplexiondischargeamoreplentifulsecretionthanthedark；andfurthermore，awateryandpungentdietconducestothisphenomenon。

3

Itisasignofconceptioninwomenwhentheplaceisdryimmediatelyafterintercourse。Ifthelipsoftheorificebesmoothconceptionisdifficult，forthematterslipsoff；andiftheybethickitisalsodifficult。Butifondigitalexaminationthelipsfeelsomewhatroughandadherent，andiftheybelikewisethin，thenthechancesareinfavourofconception。Accordingly，ifconceptionbedesired，wemustbringthepartsintosuchaconditionaswehavejustdescribed；butifonthecontrarywewanttoavoidconceptionthenwemustbringaboutacontrarydisposition。Wherefore，sinceifthepartsbesmoothconceptionisprevented，someanointthatpartofthewombonwhichtheseedfallswithoilofcedar，orwithointmentofleadorwithfrankincense，commingledwitholiveoil。Iftheseedremainwithinforsevendaysthenitiscertainthatconceptionhastakenplace；foritisduringthatperiodthatwhatisknownaseffluxiontakesplace。

Inmostcasesthemenstrualdischargerecursforsometimeafterconceptionhastakenplace，itsdurationbeingmostlythirtydaysinthecaseofafemaleandaboutfortydaysinthecaseofamalechild。

Afterparturitionalsoitiscommonforthedischargetobewithheldforanequalnumberofdays，butnotinallcaseswithequalexactitude。Afterconception，andwhentheabove-mentioneddaysarepast，thedischargenolongertakesitsnaturalcoursebutfindsitswaytothebreastsandturnstomilk。Thefirstappearanceofmilkinthebreastsisscantinquantityandsotospeakcobwebbyorinterspersedwithlittlethreads。Andwhenconceptionhastakenplace，thereisapttobeasortoffeelingintheregionoftheflanks，whichinsomecasesquicklyswellupalittle，especiallyinthinpersons，andalsointhegroin。

Inthecaseofmalechildrenthefirstmovementusuallyoccursontheright-handsideofthewombandaboutthefortiethday，butifthechildbeafemalethenontheleft-handsideandabouttheninetiethday。However，wemustbynomeansassumethistobeanaccuratestatementoffact，fortherearemanyexceptions，inwhichthemovementismanifestedontheright-handsidethoughafemalechildbecoming，andontheleft-handsidethoughtheinfantbeamale。Andinshort，theseandallsuchlikephenomenaareusuallysubjecttodifferencesthatmaybesummedupasdifferencesofdegree。

Aboutthisperiodtheembryobeginstoresolveintodistinctparts，ithavinghithertoconsistedofafleshlikesubstancewithoutdistinctionofparts。

Whatiscalledeffluxionisadestructionoftheembryowithinthefirstweek，whileabortionoccursuptothefortiethday；andthegreaternumberofsuchembryosasperishdosowithinthespaceofthesefortydays。

Inthecaseofamaleembryoabortedatthefortiethday，ifitbeplacedincoldwateritholdstogetherinasortofmembrane，butifitbeplacedinanyotherfluiditdissolvesanddisappears。Ifthemembranebepulledtobitstheembryoisrevealed，asbigasoneofthelargekindofants；andallthelimbsareplaintosee，includingthepenis，andtheeyesalso，whichasinotheranimalsareofgreatsize。Butthefemaleembryo，ifitsufferabortionduringthefirstthreemonths，isasarulefoundtobeundifferentiated；

ifhoweveritreachthefourthmonthitcomestobesubdividedandquicklyattainsfurtherdifferentiation。Inshort，whilewithinthewomb，thefemaleinfantaccomplishesthewholedevelopmentofitspartsmoreslowlythanthemale，andmorefrequentlythantheman-childtakestenmonthstocometoperfection。Butafterbirth，thefemalespassmorequicklythanthemalesthroughyouthandmaturityandage；andthisisespeciallytrueofthosethatbearmanychildren，asindeedIhavealreadysaid。

4

Whenthewombhasconceivedtheseed，straightwayinthemajorityofcasesitclosesupuntilsevenmonthsarefulfilled；butintheeighthmonthitopens，andtheembryo，ifitbefertile，descendsintheeighthmonth。Butsuchembryosasarenotfertilebutaredevoidofbreathateightmonthsold，theirmothersdonotbringintotheworldbyparturitionateightmonths，neitherdoestheembryodescendwithinthewombatthatperiodnordoesthewombopen。Anditisasignthattheembryoisnotcapableoflifeifitbeformedwithouttheabove-namedcircumstancestakingplace。

Afterconceptionwomenarepronetoafeelingofheavinessinallpartsoftheirbodies，andforinstancetheyexperienceasensationofdarknessinfrontoftheeyesandsufferalsofromheadache。Thesesymptomsappearsoonerorlater，sometimesasearlyasthetenthday，accordingasthepatientbemoreorlessburthenedwithsuperfluoushumours。Nauseaalsoandsicknessaffectthemostofwomen，andespeciallysuchasthosethatwehavejustnowmentioned，afterthemenstrualdischargehasceasedandbeforeitisyetturnedinthedirectionofthebreasts。

Moreover，somewomensuffermostatthebeginningoftheirpregnancyandsomeatalaterperiodwhentheembryohashadtimetogrow；andinsomewomenitisacommonoccurrencetosufferfromstrangurytowardstheendoftheirtime。Asageneralrulewomenwhoarepregnantofamalechildescapecomparativelyeasilyandretainacomparativelyhealthylook，butitisotherwisewiththosewhoseinfantisafemale；fortheselatterlookasarulepalerandsuffermorepain，andinmanycasestheyaresubjecttoswellingsofthelegsanderuptionsonthebody。Neverthelesstheruleissubjecttoexceptions。

Womeninpregnancyareapreytoallsortsoflongingsandtorapidchangesofmood，andsomefolkscallthisthe\'ivy-sickness\'；

andwiththemothersoffemaleinfantsthelongingsaremoreacute，andtheyarelesscontentedwhentheyhavegotwhattheydesired。

Inacertainfewcasesthepatientfeelsunusuallywellduringpregnancy。Theworsttimeofallisjustwhenthechild\'shairisbeginningtogrow。

Inpregnantwomentheirownnaturalhairisinclinedtogrowthinandfallout，butontheotherhandhairtendstogrowonpartsofthebodywhereitwasnotwonttobe。Asageneralrule，aman-childismorepronetomovementwithinitsmother\'swombthanafemalechild，anditisusuallybornsooner。Andlabourinthecaseoffemalechildrenisapttobeprotractedandsluggish，whileinthecaseofmalechildrenitisacuteandbyalongwaymoredifficult。

Womenwhohaveconnexionwiththeirhusbandsshortlybeforechildbirtharedeliveredallthemorequickly。Occasionallywomenseemtobeinthepainsoflabourthoughlabourhasnotinfactcommenced，whatseemedlikethecommencementoflabourbeingreallytheresultofthefoetusturningitshead。

Nowallotheranimalsbringthetimeofpregnancytoanendinauniformway；inotherwords，onesingletermofpregnancyisdefinedforeachofthem。Butinthecaseofmankindaloneofallanimalsthetimesarediverse；forpregnancymaybeofsevenmonths\'duration，orofeightmonthsorofnine，andstillmorecommonlyoftenmonths，whilesomefewwomengoevenintotheeleventhmonth。

Childrenthatcomeintotheworldbeforesevenmonthscanundernocircumstancessurvive。Theseven-months\'childrenaretheearliestthatarecapableoflife，andmostofthemareweakly-forwhichreason，bytheway，itiscustomarytoswaddletheminwool，-andmanyofthemarebornwithsomeoftheorificesofthebodyimperforate，forinstancetheearsorthenostrils。Butastheygetbiggertheybecomemoreperfectlydeveloped，andmanyofthemgrowup。

InEgypt，andinsomeotherplaceswherethewomenarefruitfulandarewonttobearandbringforthmanychildrenwithoutdifficulty，andwherethechildrenwhenbornarecapableoflivingeveniftheybebornsubjecttodeformity，intheseplacestheeight-months\'childrenliveandarebroughtup，butinGreeceitisonlyafewofthemthatsurvivewhilemostperish。Andthisbeingthegeneralexperience，whensuchachilddoeshappentosurvivethemotherisapttothinkthatitwasnotaneightmonths\'childafterall，butthatshehadconceivedatanearlierperiodwithoutbeingawareofit。

Womensuffermostpainaboutthefourthandtheeighthmonths，andifthefoetusperishesinthefourthorintheeighthmonththemotheralsosuccumbsasageneralrule；sothatnotonlydotheeight-months\'

childrennotlive，butwhentheydietheirmothersareingreatdangeroftheirownlives。Inlikemannerchildrenthatareapparentlybornatalatertermthanelevenmonthsareheldtobeindoubtfulcase；

inasmuchaswiththemalsothebeginningofconceptionmayhaveescapedthenoticeofthemother。WhatImeantosayisthatoftenthewombgetsfilledwithwind，andthenwhenatalaterperiodconnexionandconceptiontakeplace，theythinkthattheformercircumstancewasthebeginningofconceptionfromthesimilarityofthesymptomsthattheyexperienced。

Suchthenarethedifferencesbetweenmankindandotheranimalsinregardtothemanyvariousmodesofcompletionofthetermofpregnancy。Furthermore，someanimalsproduceoneandsomeproducemanyatabirth，butthehumanspeciesdoessometimestheoneandsometimestheother。Asageneralruleandamongmostnationsthewomenbearonechildabirth；butfrequentlyandinmanylandstheybeartwins，asforinstanceinEgyptespecially。

Sometimeswomenbringforththreeandevenfourchildren，andespeciallyincertainpartsoftheworld，ashasalreadybeenstated。Thelargestnumbereverbroughtforthisfive，andsuchanoccurrencehasbeenwitnessedonseveraloccasions。Therewasonceuponatimeacertainwomenwhohadtwentychildrenatfourbirths；

eachtimeshehadfive，andmostofthemgrewup。

Nowamongotheranimals，ifapairoftwinshappentobemaleandfemaletheyhaveasgoodachanceofsurvivingasthoughbothhadbeenmalesorbothfemales；butamongmankindveryfewtwinssurviveifonehappentobeaboyandtheotheragirl。

Ofallanimalsthewomanandthemarearemostinclinedtoreceivethecommerceofthemaleduringpregnancy；whileallotheranimalswhentheyarepregnantavoidthemale，savethoseinwhichthephenomenonofsuperfoetationoccurs，suchasthehare。Unlikethatanimal，themareafteronceconceivingcannotberenderedpregnantagain，butbringsforthonefoalonly，atleastasageneralrule；

inthehumanspeciescasesofsuperfoetationarerare，buttheydohappennowandthen。

Anembryoconceivedsomeconsiderabletimeafterapreviousconceptiondoesnotcometoperfection，butgivesrisetopainandcausesthedestructionoftheearlierembryo；and，bytheway，acasehasbeenknowntooccurwhereowingtothisdestructiveinfluencenolessthantwelveembryosconceivedbysuperfoetationhavebeendischarged。Butifthesecondconceptiontakeplaceatashortinterval，thenthemotherbearsthatwhichwaslaterconceived，andbringsforththetwochildrenlikeactualtwins，ashappened，accordingtothelegend，inthecaseofIphiclesandHercules。Thefollowingalsoisastrikingexample:acertainwoman，havingcommittedadultery，broughtforththeonechildresemblingherhusbandandtheotherresemblingtheadulterouslover。

Thecasehasalsooccurredwhereawoman，beingpregnantoftwins，hassubsequentlyconceivedathirdchild；andincourseoftimeshebroughtforththetwinsperfectandatfullterm，butthethirdafive-months\'child；andthislastdiedthereandthen。Andinanothercaseithappenedthatthewomanwasfirstdeliveredofaseven-months\'child，andthenoftwowhichwereoffullterm；andofthesethefirstdiedandtheothertwosurvived。

Somealsohavebeenknowntoconceivewhileabouttomiscarry，andtheyhavelosttheonechildandbeendeliveredoftheother。

Ifwomenwhilegoingwithchildcohabitaftertheeighthmonththechildisinmostcasesborncoveredoverwithaslimyfluid。Oftenalsothechildisfoundtoberepletewithfoodofwhichthemotherhadpartaken。

5

Whenwomenhavepartakenofsaltinoverabundancetheirchildrenareapttobeborndestituteofnails。

Milkthatisproducedearlierthantheseventhmonthisunfitforuse；butassoonasthechildisfittolivethemilkisfittouse。Thefirstofthemilkissaltish，asitislikewisewithsheep。

Mostwomenaresensiblyaffectedbywineduringpregnancy，foriftheypartakeofittheygrowrelaxedanddebilitated。

Thebeginningofchild-bearinginwomenandofthecapacitytoprocreateinmen，andthecessationofthesefunctionsinbothcases，coincideintheonecasewiththeemissionofseedandintheotherwiththedischargeofthecatamenia:withthisqualificationthatthereisalackoffertilityatthecommencementofthesesymptoms，andagaintowardstheirclosewhentheemissionsbecomescantyandweak。Theageatwhichthesexualpowersbeginhasbeenrelatedalready。Asfortheirend，themenstrualdischargesceasesinmostwomenabouttheirfortiethyear；butwiththoseinwhomitgoesonlongeritlastseventothefiftiethyear，andwomenofthatagehavebeenknowntobearchildren。Butbeyondthatagethereisnocaseonrecord。

6

Meninmostcasescontinuetobesexuallycompetentuntiltheyaresixtyyearsold，andifthatlimitbeoverpassedthenuntilseventyyears；andmenhavebeenactuallyknowntoprocreatechildrenatseventyyearsofage。Withmanymenandmanywomenitsohappensthattheyareunabletoproducechildrentooneanother，whiletheyareabletodosoinunionwithotherindividuals。Thesamethinghappenswithregardtotheproductionofmaleandfemaleoffspring；

forsometimesmenandwomeninunionwithoneanotherproducemalechildrenorfemale，asthecasemaybe，butchildrenoftheoppositesexwhenotherwisemated。Andtheyareapttochangeinthisrespectwithadvancingage:forsometimesahusbandandwifewhiletheyareyoungproducefemalechildrenandinlaterlifemalechildren；andinothercasestheverycontraryoccurs。Andjustthesamethingistrueinregardtothegenerativefaculty:forsomewhileyoungarechildless，buthavechildrenwhentheygrowolder；andsomehavechildrentobeginwith，andlateronnomore。

Therearecertainwomenwhoconceivewithdifficulty，butiftheydoconceive，bringthechildtomaturity；whileothersagainconceivereadily，butareunabletobringthechildtobirth。

Furthermore，somemenandsomewomenproducefemaleoffspringandsomemale，asforinstanceinthestoryofHercules，whoamongallhistwoandseventychildrenissaidtohavebegottenbutonegirl。

Thosewomenwhoareunabletoconceive，savewiththehelpofmedicaltreatmentorsomeotheradventitiouscircumstance，areasageneralruleapttobearfemalechildrenratherthanmale。

Itisacommonthingwithmentobeatfirstsexuallycompetentandafterwardsimpotent，andthenagaintoreverttotheirformerpowers。

Fromdeformedparentscomedeformedchildren，lamefromlameandblindfromblind，and，speakinggenerally，childrenofteninheritanythingthatispeculiarintheirparentsandarebornwithsimilarmarks，suchaspimplesorscars。Suchthingshavebeenknowntobehandeddownthroughthreegenerations；forinstance，acertainmanhadamarkonhisarmwhichhissondidnotpossess，buthisgrandsonhaditinthesamespotthoughnotverydistinct。

Suchcases，however，arefew；forthechildrenofcripplesaremostlysound，andthereisnohardandfastruleregardingthem。Whilechildrenmostlyresembletheirparentsortheirancestors，itsometimeshappensthatnosuchresemblanceistobetraced。Butparentsmaypassonresemblanceafterseveralgenerations，asinthecaseofthewomaninElis，whocommittedadulterywithanegro；inthiscaseitwasnotthewoman\'sowndaughterbutthedaughter\'schildthatwasablackamoor。

Asarulethedaughtershaveatendencytotakeafterthemother，andtheboysafterthefather；butsometimesitistheotherway，theboystakingafterthemotherandthegirlsafterthefather。Andtheymayresemblebothparentsinparticularfeatures。

Therehavebeenknowncasesoftwinsthathadnoresemblancetooneanother，buttheyarealikeasageneralrule。Therewasonceuponatimeawomanwhohadintercoursewithherhusbandaweekaftergivingbirthtoachildandsheconceivedandboreasecondchildaslikethefirstasanytwin。Somewomenhaveatendencytoproducechildrenthattakeafterthemselves，andotherschildrenthattakeafterthehusband；andthislattercaseislikethatofthecelebratedmareinPharsalus，thatgotthenameoftheHonestWife。

7

Intheemissionofspermthereisapreliminarydischargeofair，andtheoutflowismanifestlycausedbyablastofair；fornothingiscasttoadistancesavebypneumaticpressure。Aftertheseedreachesthewombandremainsthereforawhile，amembraneformsaroundit；forwhenithappenstoescapebeforeitisdistinctlyformed，itlookslikeaneggenvelopedinitsmembraneafterremovaloftheeggshell；andthemembraneisfullofveins。

Allanimalswhatsoever，whethertheyflyorswimorwalkupondryland，whethertheybringforththeiryoungaliveorintheegg，developinthesameway:saveonlythatsomehavethenavelattachedtothewomb，namelytheviviparousanimals，andsomehaveitattachedtotheegg，andsometobothpartsalike，asinacertainsortoffishes。Andinsomecasesmembranousenvelopessurroundtheegg，andinothercasesthechorionsurroundsit。Andfirstofalltheanimaldevelopswithintheinnermostenvelope，andthenanothermembraneappearsaroundtheformerone，whichlatterisforthemostpartattachedtothewomb，butisinpartseparatedfromitandcontainsfluid。Inbetweenisawateryorsanguineousfluid，whichthewomenfolkcalltheforewaters。

8

Allanimals，orallsuchashaveanavel，growbythenavel。Andthenavelisattachedtothecotyledoninallsuchaspossesscotyledons，andtothewombitselfbyaveininallsuchashavethewombsmooth。Andasregardstheirshapewithinthewomb，thefour-footedanimalsallliestretchedout，andthefootlessanimalslieontheirsides，asforinstancefishes；buttwo-leggedanimalslieinabentposition，asforinstancebirds；andhumanembryosliebent，withnosebetweenthekneesandeyesupontheknees，andtheearsfreeatthesides。

Allanimalsalikehavetheheadupwardstobeginwith；butastheygrowandapproachthetermofegressfromthewombtheyturndownwards，andbirthinthenaturalcourseofthingstakesplaceinallanimalsheadforemost；butinabnormalcasesitmaytakeplaceinabentposition，orfeetforemost。

Theyoungofquadrupedswhentheyareneartheirfulltimecontainexcrements，bothliquidandintheformofsolidlumps，thelatterinthelowerpartofthebowelandtheurineinthebladder。

Inthoseanimalsthathavecotyledonsinthewombthecotyledonsgrowlessastheembryogrowsbigger，andatlengththeydisappearaltogether。Thenavel-stringisasheathwrappedaboutblood-vesselswhichhavetheirorigininthewomb，fromthecotyledonsinthoseanimalswhichpossessthemandfromablood-vesselinthosewhichdonot。Inthelargeranimals，suchastheembryosofoxen，thevesselsarefourinnumber，andinsmalleranimalstwo；intheverylittleones，suchasfowls，onevesselonly。

Ofthefourvesselsthatrunintotheembryo，twopassthroughtheliverwheretheso-calledgatesor\'portae\'are，runninginthedirectionofthegreatvein，andtheothertworuninthedirectionoftheaortatowardsthepointwhereitdividesandbecomestwovesselsinsteadofone。Aroundeachpairofblood-vesselsaremembranes，andsurroundingthesemembranesisthenavel-stringitself，afterthemannerofasheath。Andastheembryogrows，theveinsthemselvestendmoreandmoretodwindleinsize。Andalsoastheembryomaturesitcomesdownintothehollowofthewombandisobservedtomovehere，andsometimesrollsoverinthevicinityofthegroin。

9

Whenwomenareinlabour，theirpainsdeterminetowardsmanydiverspartsofthebody，andinmostcasestooneorotherofthethighs。Thosearethequickesttobedeliveredwhoexperienceseverepainsintheregionofthebelly；andparturitionisdifficultinthosewhobeginbysufferingpainintheloins，andspeedywhenthepainisabdominal。Ifthechildabouttobebornbeamale，thepreliminaryfloodiswateryandpaleincolour，butifagirlitistingedwithblood，thoughstillwatery。Insomecasesoflabourtheselatterphenomenadonotoccur，eitheronewayortheother。

Inotheranimalsparturitionisunaccompaniedbypain，andthedamisplainlyseentosufferbutmoderateinconvenience。Inwomen，however，thepainsaremoresevere，andthisisespeciallythecaseinpersonsofsedentaryhabits，andinthosewhoareweak-chestedandshortofbreath。Labourisapttobeespeciallydifficultifduringtheprocessthewomanwhileexertingforcewithherbreathfailstoholditin。

Firstofall，whentheembryostartstomoveandthemembranesburst，thereissuesforththewateryflood；thenafterwardscomestheembryo，whilethewombevertsandtheafterbirthcomesoutfromwithin。

10

Thecuttingofthenavel-string，whichisthenurse\'sduty，isamattercallingfornolittlecareandskill。Fornotonlyincasesofdifficultlabourmustshebeabletorenderassistancewithskilfulhand，butshemustalsohaveherwitsaboutherinallcontingencies，andespeciallyintheoperationoftyingthecord。

Foriftheafterbirthhavecomeaway，thenavelisligaturedofffromtheafterbirthwithawoollenthreadandisthencutabovetheligature；andattheplacewhereithasbeentiedithealsup，andtheremainingportiondropsoff。(Iftheligaturecomeloosethechilddiesfromlossofblood。)Butiftheafterbirthhasnotyetcomeaway，butremainsafterthechilditselfisextruded，itiscutawaywithinaftertheligaturingofthecord。

Itoftenhappensthatthechildappearstohavebeenborndeadwhenitismerelyweak，andwhenbeforetheumbilicalcordhasbeenligatured，thebloodhasrunoutintothecordanditssurroundings。

Butexperiencedmidwiveshavebeenknowntosqueezebackthebloodintothechild\'sbodyfromthecord，andimmediatelythechildthatamomentbeforewasbloodlesscamebacktolifeagain。

Itisthenaturalrule，aswehavementionedabove，forallanimalstocomeintotheworldheadforemost，andchildren，moreover，havetheirhandsstretchedoutbytheirsides。Andthechildgivesacryandputsitshandsuptoitsmouthassoonasitissuesforth。

Moreoverthechildvoidsexcrementsometimesatonce，sometimesalittlelater，butinallcasesduringthefirstday；andthisexcrementisundulycopiousincomparisonwiththesizeofthechild；itiswhatthemidwivescallthemeconiumor\'poppy-juice\'。

Incolouritresemblesblood，extremelydarkandpitch-like，butlateronitbecomesmilky，forthechildtakesatoncetothebreast。Beforebirththechildmakesnosound，eventhoughindifficultlabouritputforthitsheadwhiletherestofthebodyremainswithin。

Incaseswherefloodingtakesplaceratherbeforeitstime，itisapttobefollowedbydifficultparturition。Butifdischargetakeplaceafterbirthinsmallquantity，andincaseswhereitonlytakesplaceatthebeginninganddoesnotcontinuetillthefortiethday，theninsuchcaseswomenmakeabetterrecoveryandarethesoonerreadytoconceiveagain。

Untilthechildisfortydaysolditneitherlaughsnorweepsduringwakinghours，butofnightsitsometimesdoesboth；andforthemostpartitdoesnotevennoticebeingtickled，butpassesmostofitstimeinsleep。Asitkeepsongrowing，itgetsmoreandmorewakeful；andmoreoveritshowssignsofdreaming，thoughitislongafterwardsbeforeitrememberswhatitdreams。

Inotheranimalsthereisnocontrastingdifferencebetweenoneboneandanother，butallareproperlyformed；butinchildrenthefrontpartoftheheadissoftandlateofossifying。Andbytheway，someanimalsarebornwithteeth，butchildrenbegintocuttheirteethintheseventhmonth；andthefrontteetharethefirsttocomethrough，sometimestheupperandsometimesthelowerones。Andthewarmerthenurses\'milksomuchthequickerarethechildren\'steethtocome。

11

Afterparturitionandthecleasingfloodthemilkcomesinplenty，andinsomewomenitflowsnotonlyfromthenipplesbutatdiverspartsofthebreasts，andinsomecasesevenfromthearmpits。Andforsometimeafterwardstherecontinuetobecertaininduratedpartsofthebreastcalledstrangalides，or\'knots\'，whichoccurwhenitsohappensthatthemoistureisnotconcocted，orwhenitfindsnooutletbutaccumulateswithin。Forthewholebreastissospongythatifawomanindrinkinghappentoswallowahair，shegetsapaininherbreast，whichailmentiscalled\'trichia\'；andthepainlaststillthehaireitherfinditsownwayoutorbesuckedoutwiththemilk。Womencontinuetohavemilkuntiltheirnextconception；andthenthemilkstopscomingandgoesdry，alikeinthehumanspeciesandinthequadrupedalvivipara。Solongasthereisaflowofmilkthemenstrualpurgationsdonottakeplace，atleastasageneralrule，thoughthedischargehasbeenknowntooccurduringtheperiodofsuckling。For，speakinggenerally，adeterminationofmoisturedoesnottakeplaceatoneandthesametimeinseveraldirections；asforinstancethemenstrualpurgationstendtobescantyinpersonssufferingfromhaemorrhoids。Andinsomewomenthelikehappensowingtotheirsufferingfromvarices，whenthefluidsissuefromthepelvicregionbeforeenteringintothewomb。Andpatientswhoduringsuppressionofthemenseshappentovomitbloodarenowhittheworse。