第3章

Thegoodsoffortunealsoarethoughttocontributetowardspride。

Formenwhoarewell-bornarethoughtworthyofhonour，andsoarethosewhoenjoypowerorwealth；fortheyareinasuperiorposition，andeverythingthathasasuperiorityinsomethinggoodisheldingreaterhonour。Henceevensuchthingsmakemenprouder；fortheyarehonouredbysomeforhavingthem；butintruththegoodmanaloneistobehonoured；he，however，whohasbothadvantagesisthoughtthemoreworthyofhonour。Butthosewhowithoutvirtuehavesuchgoodsareneitherjustifiedinmakinggreatclaimsnorentitledtothenameof\'proud\'；forthesethingsimplyperfectvirtue。

Disdainfulandinsolent，however，eventhosewhohavesuchgoodsbecome。Forwithoutvirtueitisnoteasytobeargracefullythegoodsoffortune；and，beingunabletobearthem，andthinkingthemselvessuperiortoothers，theydespiseothersandthemselvesdowhattheyplease。Theyimitatetheproudmanwithoutbeinglikehim，andthistheydowheretheycan；sotheydonotactvirtuously，buttheydodespiseothers。Fortheproudmandespisesjustly(sincehethinkstruly)，butthemanydosoatrandom。

Hedoesnotrunintotriflingdangers，norishefondofdanger，becausehehonoursfewthings；buthewillfacegreatdangers，andwhenheisindangerheisunsparingofhislife，knowingthatthereareconditionsonwhichlifeisnotworthhaving。Andheisthesortofmantoconferbenefits，butheisashamedofreceivingthem；fortheoneisthemarkofasuperior，theotherofaninferior。Andheisapttoconfergreaterbenefitsinreturn；forthustheoriginalbenefactorbesidesbeingpaidwillincuradebttohim，andwillbethegainerbythetransaction。Theyseemalsotorememberanyservicetheyhavedone，butnotthosetheyhavereceived(forhewhoreceivesaserviceisinferiortohimwhohasdoneit，buttheproudmanwishestobesuperior)，andtohearoftheformerwithpleasure，ofthelatterwithdispleasure；this，itseems，iswhyThetisdidnotmentiontoZeustheservicesshehaddonehim，andwhytheSpartansdidnotrecounttheirservicestotheAthenians，butthosetheyhadreceived。Itisamarkoftheproudmanalsotoaskfornothingorscarcelyanything，buttogivehelpreadily，andtobedignifiedtowardspeoplewhoenjoyhighpositionandgoodfortune，butunassumingtowardsthoseofthemiddleclass；foritisadifficultandloftythingtobesuperiortotheformer，buteasytobesotothelatter，andaloftybearingovertheformerisnomarkofill-breeding，butamonghumblepeopleitisasvulgarasadisplayofstrengthagainsttheweak。Again，itischaracteristicoftheproudmannottoaimatthethingscommonlyheldinhonour，orthethingsinwhichothersexcel；tobesluggishandtoholdbackexceptwheregreathonouroragreatworkisatstake，andtobeamanoffewdeeds，butofgreatandnotableones。Hemustalsobeopeninhishateandinhislove(fortoconcealone\'sfeelings，i。e。tocarelessfortruththanforwhatpeoplewillthink，isacoward\'spart)，andmustspeakandactopenly；forheisfreeofspeechbecauseheiscontemptuous，andheisgiventotellingthetruth，exceptwhenhespeaksinironytothevulgar。Hemustbeunabletomakehisliferevolveroundanother，unlessitbeafriend；forthisisslavish，andforthisreasonallflatterersareservileandpeoplelackinginself-respectareflatterers。Norishegiventoadmiration；fornothingtohimisgreat。Norishemindfulofwrongs；foritisnotthepartofaproudmantohavealongmemory，especiallyforwrongs，butrathertooverlookthem。Norisheagossip；forhewillspeakneitherabouthimselfnoraboutanother，sincehecaresnottobepraisednorforotherstobeblamed；noragainishegiventopraise；andforthesamereasonheisnotanevil-speaker，evenabouthisenemies，exceptfromhaughtiness。Withregardtonecessaryorsmallmattersheisleastofallmegiventolamentationortheaskingoffavours；

foritisthepartofonewhotakessuchmattersseriouslytobehavesowithrespecttothem。Heisonewhowillpossessbeautifulandprofitlessthingsratherthanprofitableandusefulones；forthisismorepropertoacharacterthatsufficestoitself。

Further，aslowstepisthoughtpropertotheproudman，adeepvoice，andalevelutterance；forthemanwhotakesfewthingsseriouslyisnotlikelytobehurried，northemanwhothinksnothinggreattobeexcited，whileashrillvoiceandarapidgaitaretheresultsofhurryandexcitement。

Such，then，istheproudman；themanwhofallsshortofhimisundulyhumble，andthemanwhogoesbeyondhimisvain。Noweventhesearenotthoughttobebad(fortheyarenotmalicious)，butonlymistaken。Fortheundulyhumbleman，beingworthyofgoodthings，robshimselfofwhathedeserves，andtohavesomethingbadabouthimfromthefactthathedoesnotthinkhimselfworthyofgoodthings，andseemsalsonottoknowhimself；elsehewouldhavedesiredthethingshewasworthyof，sincetheseweregood。Yetsuchpeoplearenotthoughttobefools，butratherundulyretiring。Suchareputation，however，seemsactuallytomakethemworse；foreachclassofpeopleaimsatwhatcorrespondstoitsworth，andthesepeoplestandbackevenfromnobleactionsandundertakings，deemingthemselvesunworthy，andfromexternalgoodsnoless。Vainpeople，ontheotherhand，arefoolsandignorantofthemselves，andthatmanifestly；for，notbeingworthyofthem，theyattempthonourableundertakings，andthenarefoundout；andtetadornthemselveswithclothingandoutwardshowandsuchthings，andwishtheirstrokesofgoodfortunetobemadepublic，andspeakaboutthemasiftheywouldbehonouredforthem。Butunduehumilityismoreopposedtopridethanvanityis；foritisbothcommonerandworse。

Pride，then，isconcernedwithhonouronthegrandscale，ashasbeensaid。

4

Thereseemstobeinthesphereofhonouralso，aswassaidinourfirstremarksonthesubject，avirtuewhichwouldappeartoberelatedtoprideasliberalityistomagnificence。Forneitherofthesehasanythingtodowiththegrandscale，butbothdisposeusasisrightwithregardtomiddlingandunimportantobjects；asingettingandgivingofwealththereisameanandanexcessanddefect，sotoohonourmaybedesiredmorethanisright，orless，orfromtherightsourcesandintherightway。Weblameboththeambitiousmanasamathonourmorethanisrightandfromwrongsources，andtheunambitiousmanasnotwillingtobehonouredevenfornoblereasons。Butsometimeswepraisetheambitiousmanasbeingmanlyandaloverofwhatisnoble，andtheunambitiousmanasbeingmoderateandself-controlled，aswesaidinourfirsttreatmentofthesubject。Evidently，since\'fondofsuchandsuchanobject\'hasmorethanonemeaning，wedonotassigntheterm\'ambition\'or\'loveofhonour\'alwaystothesamething，butwhenwepraisethequalitywethinkofthemanwholoveshonourmorethanmostpeople，andwhenweblameitwethinkofhimwholovesitmorethanisright。Themeanbeingwithoutaname，theextremesseemtodisputeforitsplaceasthoughthatwerevacantbydefault。Butwherethereisexcessanddefect，thereisalsoanintermediate；nowmendesirehonourbothmorethantheyshouldandless；thereforeitispossiblealsotodosoasoneshould；atalleventsthisisthestateofcharacterthatispraised，beinganunnamedmeaninrespectofhonour。Relativelytoambitionitseemstobeunambitiousness，andrelativelytounambitiousnessitseemstobeambition，whilerelativelytobothseverallyitseemsinasensetobebothtogether。Thisappearstobetrueoftheothervirtuesalso。Butinthiscasetheextremesseemtobecontradictoriesbecausethemeanhasnotreceivedaname。

5

Goodtemperisameanwithrespecttoanger；themiddlestatebeingunnamed，andtheextremesalmostwithoutanameaswell，weplacegoodtemperinthemiddleposition，thoughitinclinestowardsthedeficiency，whichiswithoutaname。Theexcessmightcalledasortof\'irascibility\'。Forthepassionisanger，whileitscausesaremanyanddiverse。

Themanwhoisangryattherightthingsandwiththerightpeople，and，further，asheought，whenheought，andaslongasheought，ispraised。Thiswillbethegood-temperedman，then，sincegoodtemperispraised。Forthegood-temperedmantendstobeunperturbedandnottobeledbypassion，buttobeangryinthemanner，atthethings，andforthelengthoftime，thattheruledictates；butheisthoughttoerrratherinthedirectionofdeficiency；forthegood-temperedmanisnotrevengeful，butrathertendstomakeallowances。

Thedeficiency，whetheritisasortof\'inirascibility\'orwhateveritis，isblamed。Forthosewhoarenotangryatthethingstheyshouldbeangryatarethoughttobefools，andsoarethosewhoarenotangryintherightway，attherighttime，orwiththerightpersons；forsuchamanisthoughtnottofeelthingsnortobepainedbythem，and，sincehedoesnotgetangry，heisthoughtunlikelytodefendhimself；andtoendurebeinginsultedandputupwithinsulttoone\'sfriendsisslavish。

Theexcesscanbemanifestedinallthepointsthathavebeennamed(foronecanbeangrywiththewrongpersons，atthewrongthings，morethanisright，tooquickly，ortoolong)；yetallarenotfoundinthesameperson。Indeedtheycouldnot；forevildestroysevenitself，andifitiscompletebecomesunbearable。Nowhot-temperedpeoplegetangryquicklyandwiththewrongpersonsandatthewrongthingsandmorethanisright，buttheirangerceasesquickly-whichisthebestpointaboutthem。Thishappenstothembecausetheydonotrestraintheirangerbutretaliateopenlyowingtotheirquicknessoftemper，andthentheirangerceases。Byreasonofexcesscholericpeoplearequick-temperedandreadytobeangrywitheverythingandoneveryoccasion；whencetheirname。Sulkypeoplearehardtoappease，andretaintheirangerlong；fortheyrepresstheirpassion。Butitceaseswhentheyretaliate；forrevengerelievesthemoftheiranger，producinginthempleasureinsteadofpain。Ifthisdoesnothappentheyretaintheirburden；forowingtoitsnotbeingobviousnooneevenreasonswiththem，andtodigestone\'sangerinoneselftakestime。Suchpeoplearemosttroublesometothemselvesandtotheirdearestfriends。Wecallhad-temperedthosewhoareangryatthewrongthings，morethanisright，andlonger，andcannotbeappeaseduntiltheyinflictvengeanceorpunishment。

Togoodtemperweopposetheexcessratherthanthedefect；fornotonlyisitcommonersincerevengeisthemorehuman)，butbad-temperedpeopleareworsetolivewith。

Whatwehavesaidinourearliertreatmentofthesubjectisplainalsofromwhatwearenowsaying；viz。thatitisnoteasytodefinehow，withwhom，atwhat，andhowlongoneshouldbeangry，andatwhatpointrightactionceasesandwrongbegins。Forthemanwhostraysalittlefromthepath，eithertowardsthemoreortowardstheless，isnotblamed；sincesometimeswepraisethosewhoexhibitthedeficiency，andcallthemgood-tempered，andsometimeswecallangrypeoplemanly，asbeingcapableofruling。Howfar，therefore，andhowamanmuststraybeforehebecomesblameworthy，itisnoteasytostateinwords；forthedecisiondependsontheparticularfactsandonperception。Butsomuchatleastisplain，thatthemiddlestateispraiseworthy-thatinvirtueofwhichweareangrywiththerightpeople，attherightthings，intherightway，andsoon，whiletheexcessesanddefectsareblameworthy-slightlysoiftheyarepresentinalowdegree，moreifinahigherdegree，andverymuchifinahighdegree。Evidently，then，wemustclingtothemiddlestate-Enoughofthestatesrelativetoanger。

6

Ingatheringsofmen，insociallifeandtheinterchangeofwordsanddeeds，somemenarethoughttobeobsequious，viz。thosewhotogivepleasurepraiseeverythingandneveroppose，butthinkittheirduty\'togivenopaintothepeopletheymeet\'；whilethosewho，onthecontrary，opposeeverythingandcarenotawhitaboutgivingpainarecalledchurlishandcontentious。Thatthestateswehavenamedareculpableisplainenough，andthatthemiddlestateislaudable-thatinvirtueofwhichamanwillputupwith，andwillresent，therightthingsandintherightway；butnonamehasbeenassignedtoit，thoughitmostresemblesfriendship。Forthemanwhocorrespondstothismiddlestateisverymuchwhat，withaffectionadded，wecallagoodfriend。Butthestateinquestiondiffersfromfriendshipinthatitimpliesnopassionoraffectionforone\'sassociates；sinceitisnotbyreasonoflovingorhatingthatsuchamantakeseverythingintherightway，butbybeingamanofacertainkind。Forhewillbehavesoaliketowardsthoseheknowsandthosehedoesnotknow，towardsintimatesandthosewhoarenotso，exceptthatineachofthesecaseshewillbehaveasisbefitting；foritisnotpropertohavethesamecareforintimatesandforstrangers，noragainisitthesameconditionsthatmakeitrighttogivepaintothem。Nowwehavesaidgenerallythathewillassociatewithpeopleintherightway；butitisbyreferencetowhatishonourableandexpedientthathewillaimatnotgivingpainoratcontributingpleasure。Forheseemstobeconcernedwiththepleasuresandpainsofsociallife；andwhereveritisnothonourable，orisharmful，forhimtocontributepleasure，hewillrefuse，andwillchooserathertogivepain；alsoifhisacquiescenceinanother\'sactionwouldbringdisgrace，andthatinahighdegree，orinjury，onthatother，whilehisoppositionbringsalittlepain，hewillnotacquiescebutwilldecline。Hewillassociatedifferentlywithpeopleinhighstationandwithordinarypeople，withcloserandmoredistantacquaintances，andsotoowithregardtoallotherdifferences，renderingtoeachclasswhatisbefitting，andwhileforitsownsakehechoosestocontributepleasure，andavoidsthegivingofpain，hewillbeguidedbytheconsequences，ifthesearegreater，i。e。honourandexpediency。Forthesakeofagreatfuturepleasure，too，hewillinflictsmallpains。

Themanwhoattainsthemean，then，issuchaswehavedescribed，buthasnotreceivedaname；ofthosewhocontributepleasure，themanwhoaimsatbeingpleasantwithnoulteriorobjectisobsequious，butthemanwhodoessoinorderthathemaygetsomeadvantageinthedirectionofmoneyorthethingsthatmoneybuysisaflatterer；whilethemanwhoquarrelswitheverythingis，ashasbeensaid，churlishandcontentious。Andtheextremesseemtobecontradictorytoeachotherbecausethemeaniswithoutaname。

7

Themeanopposedtoboastfulnessisfoundinalmostthesamesphere；

andthisalsoiswithoutaname。Itwillbenobadplantodescribethesestatesaswell；forweshallbothknowthefactsaboutcharacterbetterifwegothroughthemindetail，andweshallbeconvincedthatthevirtuesaremeansifweseethistobesoinallcases。Inthefieldofsociallifethosewhomakethegivingofpleasureorpaintheirobjectinassociatingwithothershavebeendescribed；letusnowdescribethosewhopursuetruthorfalsehoodalikeinwordsanddeedsandintheclaimstheyputforward。Theboastfulman，then，isthoughttobeapttoclaimthethingsthatbringglory，whenhehasnotgotthem，ortoclaimmoreofthemthanhehas，andthemock-modestmanontheotherhandtodisclaimwhathehasorbelittleit，whilethemanwhoobservesthemeanisonewhocallsathingbyitsownname，beingtruthfulbothinlifeandinword，owningtowhathehas，andneithermorenorless。Noweachofthesecoursesmaybeadoptedeitherwithorwithoutanobject。Buteachmanspeaksandactsandlivesinaccordancewithhischaracter，ifheisnotactingforsomeulteriorobject。Andfalsehoodisinitselfmeanandculpable，andtruthnobleandworthyofpraise。Thusthetruthfulmanisanothercaseofamanwho，beinginthemean，isworthyofpraise，andbothformsofuntruthfulmanareculpable，andparticularlytheboastfulman。

Letusdiscussthemboth，butfirstofallthetruthfulman。Wearenotspeakingofthemanwhokeepsfaithinhisagreements，i。e。inthethingsthatpertaintojusticeorinjustice(forthiswouldbelongtoanothervirtue)，butthemanwhointhemattersinwhichnothingofthissortisatstakeistruebothinwordandinlifebecausehischaracterissuch。Butsuchamanwouldseemtobeasamatteroffactequitable。Forthemanwholovestruth，andistruthfulwherenothingisatstake，willstillmorebetruthfulwheresomethingisatstake；hewillavoidfalsehoodassomethingbase，seeingthatheavoideditevenforitsownsake；andsuchamanisworthyofpraise。Heinclinesrathertounderstatethetruth；forthisseemsinbettertastebecauseexaggerationsarewearisome。

Hewhoclaimsmorethanhehaswithnoulteriorobjectisacontemptiblesortoffellow(otherwisehewouldnothavedelightedinfalsehood)，butseemsfutileratherthanbad；butifhedoesitforanobject，hewhodoesitforthesakeofreputationorhonouris(foraboaster)notverymuchtobeblamed，buthewhodoesitformoney，orthethingsthatleadtomoney，isanugliercharacter(itisnotthecapacitythatmakestheboaster，butthepurpose；foritisinvirtueofhisstateofcharacterandbybeingamanofacertainkindthatheisboaster)；asonemanisaliarbecauseheenjoysthelieitself，andanotherbecausehedesiresreputationorgain。Nowthosewhoboastforthesakeofreputationclaimsuchqualitiesaswillpraiseorcongratulation，butthosewhoseobjectisgainclaimqualitieswhichareofvaluetoone\'sneighboursandone\'slackofwhichisnoteasilydetected，e。g。thepowersofaseer，asage，oraphysician。Forthisreasonitissuchthingsasthesethatmostpeopleclaimandboastabout；forinthemtheabove-mentionedqualitiesarefound。

Mock-modestpeople，whounderstatethings，seemmoreattractiveincharacter；fortheyarethoughttospeaknotforgainbuttoavoidparade；andheretooitisqualitieswhichbringreputationthattheydisclaim，asSocratesusedtodo。Thosewhodisclaimtriflingandobviousqualitiesarecalledhumbugsandaremorecontemptible；andsometimesthisseemstobeboastfulness，liketheSpartandress；forbothexcessandgreatdeficiencyareboastful。Butthosewhouseunderstatementwithmoderationandunderstateaboutmattersthatdonotverymuchforcethemselvesonournoticeseemattractive。Anditistheboasterthatseemstobeopposedtothetruthfulman；forheistheworsecharacter。

8

Sincelifeincludesrestaswellasactivity，andinthisisincludedleisureandamusement，thereseemsherealsotobeakindofintercoursewhichistasteful；thereissuchathingassaying-

andagainlisteningto-whatoneshouldandasoneshould。Thekindofpeopleoneisspeakingorlisteningtowillalsomakeadifference。Evidentlyherealsothereisbothanexcessandadeficiencyascomparedwiththemean。Thosewhocarryhumourtoexcessarethoughttobevulgarbuffoons，strivingafterhumouratallcosts，andaimingratheratraisingalaughthanatsayingwhatisbecomingandatavoidingpaintotheobjectoftheirfun；whilethosewhocanneithermakeajokethemselvesnorputupwiththosewhodoarethoughttobeboorishandunpolished。Butthosewhojokeinatastefulwayarecalledready-witted，whichimpliesasortofreadinesstoturnthiswayandthat；forsuchsalliesarethoughttobemovementsofthecharacter，andasbodiesarediscriminatedbytheirmovements，sotooarecharacters。Theridiculoussideofthingsisnotfartoseek，however，andmostpeopledelightmorethantheyshouldinamusementandinjestinly。andsoevenbuffoonsarecalledready-wittedbecausetheyarefoundattractive；butthattheydifferfromtheready-wittedman，andtonosmallextent，isclearfromwhathasbeensaid。

Tothemiddlestatebelongsalsotact；itisthemarkofatactfulmantosayandlistentosuchthingsasbefitagoodandwell-bredman；fortherearesomethingsthatitbefitssuchamantosayandtohearbywayofjest，andthewell-bredman\'sjestingdiffersfromthatofavulgarman，andthejokingofaneducatedmanfromthatofanuneducated。Onemayseethisevenfromtheoldandthenewcomedies；

totheauthorsoftheformerindecencyoflanguagewasamusing，tothoseofthelatterinnuendoismoreso；andthesedifferinnosmalldegreeinrespectofpropriety。Nowshouldwedefinethemanwhojokeswellbyhissayingwhatisnotunbecomingtoawell-bredman，orbyhisnotgivingpain，orevengivingdelight，tothehearer？Oristhelatterdefinition，atanyrate，itselfindefinite，sincedifferentthingsarehatefulorpleasanttodifferentpeople？Thekindofjokeshewilllistentowillbethesame；forthekindhecanputupwitharealsothekindheseemstomake。Thereare，then，jokeshewillnotmake；forthejestisasortofabuse，andtherearethingsthatlawgiversforbidustoabuse；andtheyshould，perhaps，haveforbiddenuseventomakeajestofsuch。Therefinedandwell-bredman，therefore，willbeaswehavedescribed，beingasitwerealawtohimself。

Such，then，isthemanwhoobservesthemean，whetherhebecalledtactfulorready-witted。Thebuffoon，ontheotherhand，istheslaveofhissenseofhumour，andsparesneitherhimselfnorothersifhecanraisealaugh，andsaysthingsnoneofwhichamanofrefinementwouldsay，andtosomeofwhichhewouldnotevenlisten。Theboor，again，isuselessforsuchsocialintercourse；forhecontributesnothingandfindsfaultwitheverything。Butrelaxationandamusementarethoughttobeanecessaryelementinlife。

Themeansinlifethathavebeendescribed，then，arethreeinnumber，andareallconcernedwithaninterchangeofwordsanddeedsofsomekind。Theydiffer，however，inthatoneisconcernedwithtruth；andtheothertwowithpleasantness。Ofthoseconcernedwithpleasure，oneisdisplayedinjests，theotherinthegeneralsocialintercourseoflife。

9

Shameshouldnotbedescribedasavirtue；foritismorelikeafeelingthanastateofcharacter。Itisdefined，atanyrate，asakindoffearofdishonour，andproducesaneffectsimilartothatproducedbyfearofdanger；forpeoplewhofeeldisgracedblush，andthosewhofeardeathturnpale。Both，therefore，seemtobeinasensebodilyconditions，whichisthoughttobecharacteristicoffeelingratherthanofastateofcharacter。

Thefeelingisnotbecomingtoeveryage，butonlytoyouth。Forwethinkyoungpeopleshouldbepronetothefeelingofshamebecausetheylivebyfeelingandthereforecommitmanyerrors，butarerestrainedbyshame；andwepraiseyoungpeoplewhoarepronetothisfeeling，butanolderpersonnoonewouldpraiseforbeingpronetothesenseofdisgrace，sincewethinkheshouldnotdoanythingthatneedcausethissense。Forthesenseofdisgraceisnotevencharacteristicofagoodman，sinceitisconsequentonbadactions(forsuchactionsshouldnotbedone；andifsomeactionsaredisgracefulinverytruthandothersonlyaccordingtocommonopinion，thismakesnodifference；forneitherclassofactionsshouldbedone，sothatnodisgraceshouldbefelt)；anditisamarkofabadmaneventobesuchastodoanydisgracefulaction。Tobesoconstitutedastofeeldisgracedifonedoessuchanaction，andforthisreasontothinkoneselfgood，isabsurd；foritisforvoluntaryactionsthatshameisfelt，andthegoodmanwillnevervoluntarilydobadactions。Butshamemaybesaidtobeconditionallyagoodthing；ifagoodmandoessuchactions，hewillfeeldisgraced；butthevirtuesarenotsubjecttosuchaqualification。Andifshamelessness-nottobeashamedofdoingbaseactions-isbad，thatdoesnotmakeitgoodtobeashamedofdoingsuchactions。Continencetooisnotvirtue，butamixedsortofstate；thiswillbeshownlater。Now，however，letusdiscussjustice。

BOOKV

1

WITHregardstojusticeandinjusticewemust(1)considerwhatkindofactionstheyareconcernedwith，(2)whatsortofmeanjusticeis，and(3)betweenwhatextremesthejustactisintermediate。Ourinvestigationshallfollowthesamecourseastheprecedingdiscussions。

Weseethatallmenmeanbyjusticethatkindofstateofcharacterwhichmakespeopledisposedtodowhatisjustandmakesthemactjustlyandwishforwhatisjust；andsimilarlybyinjusticethatstatewhichmakesthemactunjustlyandwishforwhatisunjust。Letustoo，then，laythisdownasageneralbasis。Forthesameisnottrueofthesciencesandthefacultiesasofstatesofcharacter。Afacultyorasciencewhichisoneandthesameisheldtorelatetocontraryobjects，butastateofcharacterwhichisoneoftwocontrariesdoesnotproducethecontraryresults；e。g。asaresultofhealthwedonotdowhatistheoppositeofhealthy，butonlywhatishealthy；forwesayamanwalkshealthily，whenhewalksasahealthymanwould。

Nowoftenonecontrarystateisrecognizedfromitscontrary，andoftenstatesarerecognizedfromthesubjectsthatexhibitthem；for(A)ifgoodconditionisknown，badconditionalsobecomesknown，and(B)goodconditionisknownfromthethingsthatareingoodcondition，andtheyfromit。Ifgoodconditionisfirmnessofflesh，itisnecessaryboththatbadconditionshouldbeflabbinessoffleshandthatthewholesomeshouldbethatwhichcausesfirmnessinflesh。Anditfollowsforthemostpartthatifonecontraryisambiguoustheotheralsowillbeambiguous；e。g。if\'just\'isso，that\'unjust\'willbesotoo。

Now\'justice\'and\'injustice\'seemtobeambiguous，butbecausetheirdifferentmeaningsapproachneartooneanothertheambiguityescapesnoticeandisnotobviousasitis，comparatively，whenthemeaningsarefarapart，e。g。(forherethedifferenceinoutwardformisgreat)astheambiguityintheuseofkleisforthecollar-boneofananimalandforthatwithwhichwelockadoor。Letustakeasastarting-point，then，thevariousmeaningsof\'anunjustman\'。Boththelawlessmanandthegraspingandunfairmanarethoughttobeunjust，sothatevidentlyboththelaw-abidingandthefairmanwillbejust。Thejust，then，isthelawfulandthefair，theunjusttheunlawfulandtheunfair。

Sincetheunjustmanisgrasping，hemustbeconcernedwithgoods-notallgoods，butthosewithwhichprosperityandadversityhavetodo，whichtakenabsolutelyarealwaysgood，butforaparticularpersonarenotalwaysgood。Nowmenprayforandpursuethesethings；buttheyshouldnot，butshouldpraythatthethingsthataregoodabsolutelymayalsobegoodforthem，andshouldchoosethethingsthataregoodforthem。Theunjustmandoesnotalwayschoosethegreater，butalsotheless-inthecaseofthingsbadabsolutely；butbecausethelesserevilisitselfthoughttobeinasensegood，andgraspingnessisdirectedatthegood，thereforeheisthoughttobegrasping。Andheisunfair；forthiscontainsandiscommontoboth。

Sincethelawlessmanwasseentobeunjustandthelaw-abidingmanjust，evidentlyalllawfulactsareinasensejustacts；fortheactslaiddownbythelegislativeartarelawful，andeachofthese，wesay，isjust。Nowthelawsintheirenactmentsonallsubjectsaimatthecommonadvantageeitherofallorofthebestorofthosewhoholdpower，orsomethingofthesort；sothatinonesensewecallthoseactsjustthattendtoproduceandpreservehappinessanditscomponentsforthepoliticalsociety。Andthelawbidsusdoboththeactsofabraveman(e。g。nottodesertourpostnortaketoflightnorthrowawayourarms)，andthoseofatemperateman(e。g。nottocommitadulterynortogratifyone\'slust)，andthoseofagood-temperedman(e。g。nottostrikeanothernortospeakevil)，andsimilarlywithregardtotheothervirtuesandformsofwickedness，commandingsomeactsandforbiddingothers；andtherightly-framedlawdoesthisrightly，andthehastilyconceivedonelesswell。Thisformofjustice，then，iscompletevirtue，butnotabsolutely，butinrelationtoourneighbour。Andthereforejusticeisoftenthoughttobethegreatestofvirtues，and\'neithereveningnormorningstar\'issowonderful；andproverbially\'injusticeiseveryvirtuecomprehended\'。Anditiscompletevirtueinitsfullestsense，becauseitistheactualexerciseofcompletevirtue。Itiscompletebecausehewhopossessesitcanexercisehisvirtuenotonlyinhimselfbuttowardshisneighbouralso；formanymencanexercisevirtueintheirownaffairs，butnotintheirrelationstotheirneighbour。ThisiswhythesayingofBiasisthoughttobetrue，that\'rulewillshowtheman\'；forarulerisnecessarilyinrelationtoothermenandamemberofasociety。Forthissamereasonjustice，aloneofthevirtues，isthoughttobe\'another\'sgood\'，becauseitisrelatedtoourneighbour；foritdoeswhatisadvantageoustoanother，eitheraruleroracopartner。Nowtheworstmanishewhoexerciseshiswickednessbothtowardshimselfandtowardshisfriends，andthebestmanisnothewhoexerciseshisvirtuetowardshimselfbuthewhoexercisesittowardsanother；

forthisisadifficulttask。Justiceinthissense，then，isnotpartofvirtuebutvirtueentire，noristhecontraryinjusticeapartofvicebutviceentire。Whatthedifferenceisbetweenvirtueandjusticeinthissenseisplainfromwhatwehavesaid；theyarethesamebuttheiressenceisnotthesame；what，asarelationtoone\'sneighbour，isjusticeis，asacertainkindofstatewithoutqualification，virtue。

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Butatalleventswhatweareinvestigatingisthejusticewhichisapartofvirtue；forthereisajusticeofthiskind，aswemaintain。Similarlyitiswithinjusticeintheparticularsensethatweareconcerned。

Thatthereissuchathingisindicatedbythefactthatwhilethemanwhoexhibitsinactiontheotherformsofwickednessactswronglyindeed，butnotgraspingly(e。g。themanwhothrowsawayhisshieldthroughcowardiceorspeaksharshlythroughbadtemperorfailstohelpafriendwithmoneythroughmeanness)，whenamanactsgraspinglyheoftenexhibitsnoneofthesevices，-no，noralltogether，butcertainlywickednessofsomekind(forweblamehim)andinjustice。Thereis，then，anotherkindofinjusticewhichisapartofinjusticeinthewidesense，andauseoftheword\'unjust\'whichanswerstoapartofwhatisunjustinthewidesenseof\'contrarytothelaw\'。Againifonemancommitsadulteryforthesakeofgainandmakesmoneybyit，whileanotherdoessoatthebiddingofappetitethoughhelosesmoneyandispenalizedforit，thelatterwouldbeheldtobeself-indulgentratherthangrasping，buttheformerisunjust，butnotself-indulgent；evidently，therefore，heisunjustbyreasonofhismakinggainbyhisact。Again，allotherunjustactsareascribedinvariablytosomeparticularkindofwickedness，e。g。adulterytoself-indulgence，thedesertionofacomradeinbattletocowardice，physicalviolencetoanger；butifamanmakesgain，hisactionisascribedtonoformofwickednessbutinjustice。Evidently，therefore，thereisapartfrominjusticeinthewidesenseanother，\'particular\'，injusticewhichsharesthenameandnatureofthefirst，becauseitsdefinitionfallswithinthesamegenus；forthesignificanceofbothconsistsinarelationtoone\'sneighbour，buttheoneisconcernedwithhonourormoneyorsafety-orthatwhichincludesallthese，ifwehadasinglenameforit-anditsmotiveisthepleasurethatarisesfromgain；whiletheotherisconcernedwithalltheobjectswithwhichthegoodmanisconcerned。

Itisclear，then，thatthereismorethanonekindofjustice，andthatthereisonewhichisdistinctfromvirtueentire；wemusttrytograspitsgenusanddifferentia。

Theunjusthasbeendividedintotheunlawfulandtheunfair，andthejustintothelawfulandthefair。Totheunlawfulanswerstheafore-mentionedsenseofinjustice。Butsinceunfairandtheunlawfularenotthesame，butaredifferentasapartisfromitswhole(forallthatisunfairisunlawful，butnotallthatisunlawfulisunfair)，theunjustandinjusticeinthesenseoftheunfairarenotthesameasbutdifferentfromtheformerkind，aspartfromwhole；forinjusticeinthissenseisapartofinjusticeinthewidesense，andsimilarlyjusticeintheonesenseofjusticeintheother。Thereforewemustspeakalsoaboutparticularjusticeandparticularandsimilarlyaboutthejustandtheunjust。Thejustice，then，whichanswerstothewholeofvirtue，andthecorrespondinginjustice，onebeingtheexerciseofvirtueasawhole，andtheotherthatofviceasawhole，towardsone\'sneighbour，wemayleaveononeside。Andhowthemeaningsof\'just\'and\'unjust\'whichanswertothesearetobedistinguishedisevident；forpracticallythemajorityoftheactscommandedbythelawarethosewhichareprescribedfromthepointofviewofvirtuetakenasawhole；forthelawbidsuspractiseeveryvirtueandforbidsustopractiseanyvice。Andthethingsthattendtoproducevirtuetakenasawholearethoseoftheactsprescribedbythelawwhichhavebeenprescribedwithaviewtoeducationforthecommongood。Butwithregardtotheeducationoftheindividualassuch，whichmakeshimwithoutqualificationagoodman，wemustdeterminelaterwhetherthisisthefunctionofthepoliticalartorofanother；forperhapsitisnotthesametobeagoodmanandagoodcitizenofanystatetakenatrandom。

Ofparticularjusticeandthatwhichisjustinthecorrespondingsense，(A)onekindisthatwhichismanifestedindistributionsofhonourormoneyortheotherthingsthatfalltobedividedamongthosewhohaveashareintheconstitution(forintheseitispossibleforonemantohaveashareeitherunequalorequaltothatofanother)，and(B)oneisthatwhichplaysarectifyingpartintransactionsbetweenmanandman。Ofthistherearetwodivisions；

oftransactions(1)somearevoluntaryand(2)othersinvoluntary-voluntarysuchtransactionsassale，purchase，loanforconsumption，pledging，loanforuse，depositing，letting(theyarecalledvoluntarybecausetheoriginofthesetransactionsisvoluntary)，whileoftheinvoluntary(a)someareclandestine，suchastheft，adultery，poisoning，procuring，enticementofslaves，assassination，falsewitness，and(b)othersareviolent，suchasassault，imprisonment，murder，robberywithviolence，mutilation，abuse，insult。

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(A)Wehaveshownthatboththeunjustmanandtheunjustactareunfairorunequal；nowitisclearthatthereisalsoanintermediatebetweenthetwounequalsinvolvedineithercase。Andthisistheequal；forinanykindofactioninwhichthere\'samoreandalessthereisalsowhatisequal。If，then，theunjustisunequal，justisequal，asallmensupposeittobe，evenapartfromargument。Andsincetheequalisintermediate，thejustwillbeanintermediate。Nowequalityimpliesatleasttwothings。Thejust，then，mustbebothintermediateandequalandrelative(i。e。forcertainpersons)。Andsincetheequallintermediateitmustbebetweencertainthings(whicharerespectivelygreaterandless)；equal，itinvolvestwothings；quajust，itisforcertainpeople。Thejust，therefore，involvesatleastfourterms；forthepersonsforwhomitisinfactjustaretwo，andthethingsinwhichitismanifested，theobjectsdistributed，aretwo。Andthesameequalitywillexistbetweenthepersonsandbetweenthethingsconcerned；forasthelatterthethingsconcerned-arerelated，soaretheformer；iftheyarenotequal，theywillnothavewhatisequal，butthisistheoriginofquarrelsandcomplaints-wheneitherequalshaveandareawardedunequalshares，orunequalsequalshares。Further，thisisplainfromthefactthatawardsshouldbe\'accordingtomerit\'；forallmenagreethatwhatisjustindistributionmustbeaccordingtomeritinsomesense，thoughtheydonotallspecifythesamesortofmerit，butdemocratsidentifyitwiththestatusoffreeman，supportersofoligarchywithwealth(orwithnoblebirth)，andsupportersofaristocracywithexcellence。

Thejust，then，isaspeciesoftheproportionate(proportionbeingnotapropertyonlyofthekindofnumberwhichconsistsofabstractunits，butofnumberingeneral)。Forproportionisequalityofratios，andinvolvesfourtermsatleast(thatdiscreteproportioninvolvesfourtermsisplain，butsodoescontinuousproportion，foritusesonetermastwoandmentionsittwice；e。g。

\'asthelineAistothelineB，soisthelineBtothelineC\'；

thelineB，then，hasbeenmentionedtwice，sothatifthelineBbeassumedtwice，theproportionaltermswillbefour)；andthejust，too，involvesatleastfourterms，andtheratiobetweenonepairisthesameasthatbetweentheotherpair；forthereisasimilardistinctionbetweenthepersonsandbetweenthethings。AsthetermA，then，istoB，sowillCbetoD，andtherefore，alternando，asAistoC，BwillbetoD。Thereforealsothewholeisinthesameratiotothewhole；andthiscouplingthedistributioneffects，and，ifthetermsaresocombined，effectsjustly。Theconjunction，then，ofthetermAwithCandofBwithDiswhatisjustindistribution，andthisspeciesofthejustisintermediate，andtheunjustiswhatviolatestheproportion；fortheproportionalisintermediate，andthejustisproportional。(Mathematicianscallthiskindofproportiongeometrical；foritisingeometricalproportionthatitfollowsthatthewholeistothewholeaseitherpartistothecorrespondingpart。)Thisproportionisnotcontinuous；forwecannotgetasingletermstandingforapersonandathing。

This，then，iswhatthejustis-theproportional；theunjustiswhatviolatestheproportion。Henceonetermbecomestoogreat，theothertoosmall，asindeedhappensinpractice；forthemanwhoactsunjustlyhastoomuch，andthemanwhoisunjustlytreatedtoolittle，ofwhatisgood。Inthecaseofevilthereverseistrue；forthelesserevilisreckonedagoodincomparisonwiththegreaterevil，sincethelesserevilisrathertobechosenthanthegreater，andwhatisworthyofchoiceisgood，andwhatisworthierofchoiceagreatergood。

This，then，isonespeciesofthejust。

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(B)Theremainingoneistherectificatory，whicharisesinconnexionwithtransactionsbothvoluntaryandinvoluntary。Thisformofthejusthasadifferentspecificcharacterfromtheformer。

Forthejusticewhichdistributescommonpossessionsisalwaysinaccordancewiththekindofproportionmentionedabove(forinthecasealsoinwhichthedistributionismadefromthecommonfundsofapartnershipitwillbeaccordingtothesameratiowhichthefundsputintothebusinessbythepartnersbeartooneanother)；andtheinjusticeopposedtothiskindofjusticeisthatwhichviolatestheproportion。Butthejusticeintransactionsbetweenmanandmanisasortofequalityindeed，andtheinjusticeasortofinequality；notaccordingtothatkindofproportion，however，butaccordingtoarithmeticalproportion。Foritmakesnodifferencewhetheragoodmanhasdefraudedabadmanorabadmanagoodone，norwhetheritisagoodorabadmanthathascommittedadultery；thelawlooksonlytothedistinctivecharacteroftheinjury，andtreatsthepartiesasequal，ifoneisinthewrongandtheotherisbeingwronged，andifoneinflictedinjuryandtheotherhasreceivedit。Therefore，thiskindofinjusticebeinganinequality，thejudgetriestoequalizeit；

forinthecasealsoinwhichonehasreceivedandtheotherhasinflictedawound，oronehasslainandtheotherbeenslain，thesufferingandtheactionhavebeenunequallydistributed；butthejudgetriestoequalizebymeansofthepenalty，takingawayfromthegainoftheassailant。Fortheterm\'gain\'isappliedgenerallytosuchcases，evenifitbenotatermappropriatetocertaincases，e。g。tothepersonwhoinflictsawoundand\'loss\'tothesufferer；

atalleventswhenthesufferinghasbeenestimated，theoneiscalledlossandtheothergain。Thereforetheequalisintermediatebetweenthegreaterandtheless，butthegainandthelossarerespectivelygreaterandlessincontraryways；moreofthegoodandlessoftheevilaregain，andthecontraryisloss；intermediatebetweenthemis，aswesaw，equal，whichwesayisjust；thereforecorrectivejusticewillbetheintermediatebetweenlossandgain。Thisiswhy，whenpeopledispute，theytakerefugeinthejudge；andtogotothejudgeistogotojustice；forthenatureofthejudgeistobeasortofanimatejustice；andtheyseekthejudgeasanintermediate，andinsomestatestheycalljudgesmediators，ontheassumptionthatiftheygetwhatisintermediatetheywillgetwhatisjust。Thejust，then，isanintermediate，sincethejudgeisso。Nowthejudgerestoresequality；itisasthoughtherewerealinedividedintounequalparts，andhetookawaythatbywhichthegreatersegmentexceedsthehalf，andaddedittothesmallersegment。Andwhenthewholehasbeenequallydivided，thentheysaytheyhave\'theirown\'-i。e。

whentheyhavegotwhatisequal。Theequalisintermediatebetweenthegreaterandthelesserlineaccordingtoarithmeticalproportion。Itisforthisreasonalsothatitiscalledjust(sikaion)，becauseitisadivisionintotwoequalparts(sicha)，justasifoneweretocallitsichaion；andthejudge(sikastes)isonewhobisects(sichastes)。Forwhensomethingissubtractedfromoneoftwoequalsandaddedtotheother，theotherisinexcessbythesetwo；sinceifwhatwastakenfromtheonehadnotbeenaddedtotheother，thelatterwouldhavebeeninexcessbyoneonly。Itthereforeexceedstheintermediatebyone，andtheintermediateexceedsbyonethatfromwhichsomethingwastaken。Bythis，then，weshallrecognizebothwhatwemustsubtractfromthatwhichhasmore，andwhatwemustaddtothatwhichhasless；wemustaddtothelatterthatbywhichtheintermediateexceedsit，andsubtractfromthegreatestthatbywhichitexceedstheintermediate。LetthelinesAA\'，BB\'，CC\'beequaltooneanother；fromthelineAA\'letthesegmentAEhavebeensubtracted，andtothelineCC\'letthesegmentCDhavebeenadded，sothatthewholelineDCC\'exceedsthelineEA\'

bythesegmentCDandthesegmentCF；thereforeitexceedsthelineBB\'bythesegmentCD。(Seediagram。)

Thesenames，bothlossandgain，havecomefromvoluntaryexchange；fortohavemorethanone\'sowniscalledgaining，andtohavelessthanone\'soriginalshareiscalledlosing，e。g。inbuyingandsellingandinallothermattersinwhichthelawhasleftpeoplefreetomaketheirownterms；butwhentheygetneithermorenorlessbutjustwhatbelongstothemselves，theysaythattheyhavetheirownandthattheyneitherlosenorgain。

Thereforethejustisintermediatebetweenasortofgainandasortofloss，viz。thosewhichareinvoluntary；itconsistsinhavinganequalamountbeforeandafterthetransaction。

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Somethinkthatreciprocityiswithoutqualificationjust，asthePythagoreanssaid；fortheydefinedjusticewithoutqualificationasreciprocity。Now\'reciprocity\'fitsneitherdistributivenorrectificatoryjustice-yetpeoplewanteventhejusticeofRhadamanthustomeanthis:

Shouldamansufferwhathedid，rightjusticewouldbedone-forinmanycasesreciprocityandrectificatoryjusticearenotinaccord；e。g。(1)ifanofficialhasinflictedawound，heshouldnotbewoundedinreturn，andifsomeonehaswoundedanofficial，heoughtnottobewoundedonlybutpunishedinaddition。Further(2)

thereisagreatdifferencebetweenavoluntaryandaninvoluntaryact。Butinassociationsforexchangethissortofjusticedoesholdmentogether-reciprocityinaccordancewithaproportionandnotonthebasisofpreciselyequalreturn。Foritisbyproportionaterequitalthatthecityholdstogether。Menseektoreturneitherevilforevil-andiftheycananotdoso，thinktheirpositionmereslavery-orgoodforgood-andiftheycannotdosothereisnoexchange，butitisbyexchangethattheyholdtogether。ThisiswhytheygiveaprominentplacetothetempleoftheGraces-topromotetherequitalofservices；forthisischaracteristicofgrace-weshouldserveinreturnonewhohasshowngracetous，andshouldanothertimetaketheinitiativeinshowingit。

Nowproportionatereturnissecuredbycross-conjunction。LetAbeabuilder，Bashoemaker，Cahouse，Dashoe。Thebuilder，then，mustgetfromtheshoemakerthelatter\'swork，andmusthimselfgivehiminreturnhisown。If，then，firstthereisproportionateequalityofgoods，andthenreciprocalactiontakesplace，theresultwementionwillbeeffected。Ifnot，thebargainisnotequal，anddoesnothold；

forthereisnothingtopreventtheworkoftheonebeingbetterthanthatoftheother；theymustthereforebeequated。(Andthisistrueoftheotherartsalso；fortheywouldhavebeendestroyedifwhatthepatientsufferedhadnotbeenjustwhattheagentdid，andofthesameamountandkind。)Foritisnottwodoctorsthatassociateforexchange，butadoctorandafarmer，oringeneralpeoplewhoaredifferentandunequal；butthesemustbeequated。Thisiswhyallthingsthatareexchangedmustbesomehowcomparable。Itisforthisendthatmoneyhasbeenintroduced，anditbecomesinasenseanintermediate；foritmeasuresallthings，andthereforetheexcessandthedefect-howmanyshoesareequaltoahouseortoagivenamountoffood。Thenumberofshoesexchangedforahouse(orforagivenamountoffood)mustthereforecorrespondtotheratioofbuildertoshoemaker。Forifthisbenotso，therewillbenoexchangeandnointercourse。Andthisproportionwillnotbeeffectedunlessthegoodsaresomehowequal。Allgoodsmustthereforebemeasuredbysomeonething，aswesaidbefore。Nowthisunitisintruthdemand，whichholdsallthingstogether(forifmendidnotneedoneanother\'sgoodsatall，ordidnotneedthemequally，therewouldbeeithernoexchangeornotthesameexchange)；butmoneyhasbecomebyconventionasortofrepresentativeofdemand；andthisiswhyithasthename\'money\'(nomisma)-becauseitexistsnotbynaturebutbylaw(nomos)anditisinourpowertochangeitandmakeituseless。Therewill，then，bereciprocitywhenthetermshavebeenequatedsothatasfarmeristoshoemaker，theamountoftheshoemaker\'sworkistothatofthefarmer\'sworkforwhichitexchanges。Butwemustnotbringthemintoafigureofproportionwhentheyhavealreadyexchanged(otherwiseoneextremewillhavebothexcesses)，butwhentheystillhavetheirowngoods。Thustheyareequalsandassociatesjustbecausethisequalitycanbeeffectedintheircase。LetAbeafarmer，Cfood，Bashoemaker，DhisproductequatedtoC。Ifithadnotbeenpossibleforreciprocitytobethuseffected，therewouldhavebeennoassociationoftheparties。Thatdemandholdsthingstogetherasasingleunitisshownbythefactthatwhenmendonotneedoneanother，i。e。whenneitherneedstheotheroronedoesnotneedtheother，theydonotexchange，aswedowhensomeonewantswhatonehasoneself，e。g。whenpeoplepermittheexportationofcorninexchangeforwine。Thisequationthereforemustbeestablished。Andforthefutureexchange-thatifwedonotneedathingnowweshallhaveitifeverwedoneedit-moneyisasitwereoursurety；foritmustbepossibleforustogetwhatwewantbybringingthemoney。Nowthesamethinghappenstomoneyitselfastogoods-itisnotalwaysworththesame；yetittendstobesteadier。Thisiswhyallgoodsmusthaveapricesetonthem；forthentherewillalwaysbeexchange，andifso，associationofmanwithman。Money，then，actingasameasure，makesgoodscommensurateandequatesthem；forneitherwouldtherehavebeenassociationiftherewerenotexchange，norexchangeiftherewerenotequality，norequalityiftherewerenotcommensurability。Nowintruthitisimpossiblethatthingsdifferingsomuchshouldbecomecommensurate，butwithreferencetodemandtheymaybecomesosufficiently。Theremust，then，beaunit，andthatfixedbyagreement(forwhichreasonitiscalledmoney)；foritisthisthatmakesallthingscommensurate，sinceallthingsaremeasuredbymoney。LetA

beahouse，Btenminae，Cabed。AishalfofB，ifthehouseisworthfiveminaeorequaltothem；thebed，C，isatenthofB；itisplain，then，howmanybedsareequaltoahouse，viz。five。Thatexchangetookplacethusbeforetherewasmoneyisplain；foritmakesnodifferencewhetheritisfivebedsthatexchangeforahouse，orthemoneyvalueoffivebeds。

Wehavenowdefinedtheunjustandthejust。Thesehavingbeenmarkedofffromeachother，itisplainthatjustactionisintermediatebetweenactingunjustlyandbeingunjustlytreated；fortheoneistohavetoomuchandtheothertohavetoolittle。

Justiceisakindofmean，butnotinthesamewayastheothervirtues，butbecauseitrelatestoanintermediateamount，whileinjusticerelatestotheextremes。Andjusticeisthatinvirtueofwhichthejustmanissaidtobeadoer，bychoice，ofthatwhichisjust，andonewhowilldistributeeitherbetweenhimselfandanotherorbetweentwoothersnotsoastogivemoreofwhatisdesirabletohimselfandlesstohisneighbour(andconverselywithwhatisharmful)，butsoastogivewhatisequalinaccordancewithproportion；andsimilarlyindistributingbetweentwootherpersons。

Injusticeontheotherhandissimilarlyrelatedtotheunjust，whichisexcessanddefect，contrarytoproportion，oftheusefulorhurtful。Forwhichreasoninjusticeisexcessanddefect，viz。becauseitisproductiveofexcessanddefect-inone\'sowncaseexcessofwhatisinitsownnatureusefulanddefectofwhatishurtful，whileinthecaseofothersitisasawholelikewhatitisinone\'sowncase，butproportionmaybeviolatedineitherdirection。Intheunjustacttohavetoolittleistobeunjustlytreated；tohavetoomuchistoactunjustly。

Letthisbetakenasouraccountofthenatureofjusticeandinjustice，andsimilarlyofthejustandtheunjustingeneral。

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Sinceactingunjustlydoesnotnecessarilyimplybeingunjust，wemustaskwhatsortofunjustactsimplythatthedoerisunjustwithrespecttoeachtypeofinjustice，e。g。athief，anadulterer，orabrigand。Surelytheanswerdoesnotturnonthedifferencebetweenthesetypes。Foramanmightevenliewithawomanknowingwhoshewas，buttheoriginofhismightbenotdeliberatechoicebutpassion。

Heactsunjustly，then，butisnotunjust；e。g。amanisnotathief，yethestole，noranadulterer，yethecommittedadultery；

andsimilarlyinallothercases。

Nowwehavepreviouslystatedhowthereciprocalisrelatedtothejust；butwemustnotforgetthatwhatwearelookingforisnotonlywhatisjustwithoutqualificationbutalsopoliticaljustice。

Thisisfoundamongmenwhosharetheirlifewithaviewtoselfsufficiency，menwhoarefreeandeitherproportionatelyorarithmeticallyequal，sothatbetweenthosewhodonotfulfilthisconditionthereisnopoliticaljusticebutjusticeinaspecialsenseandbyanalogy。Forjusticeexistsonlybetweenmenwhosemutualrelationsaregovernedbylaw；andlawexistsformenbetweenwhomthereisinjustice；forlegaljusticeisthediscriminationofthejustandtheunjust。Andbetweenmenbetweenwhomthereisinjusticethereisalsounjustaction(thoughthereisnotinjusticebetweenallbetweenwhomthereisunjustaction)，andthisisassigningtoomuchtooneselfofthingsgoodinthemselvesandtoolittleofthingsevilinthemselves。Thisiswhywedonotallowamantorule，butrationalprinciple，becauseamanbehavesthusinhisowninterestsandbecomesatyrant。Themagistrateontheotherhandistheguardianofjustice，and，ifofjustice，thenofequalityalso。Andsinceheisassumedtohavenomorethanhisshare，ifheisjust(forhedoesnotassigntohimselfmoreofwhatisgoodinitself，unlesssuchashareisproportionaltohismerits-sothatitisforothersthathelabours，anditisforthisreasonthatmen，aswestatedpreviously，saythatjusticeis\'another\'sgood\')，thereforearewardmustbegivenhim，andthisishonourandprivilege；butthoseforwhomsuchthingsarenotenoughbecometyrants。

Thejusticeofamasterandthatofafatherarenotthesameasthejusticeofcitizens，thoughtheyarelikeit；fortherecanbenoinjusticeintheunqualifiedsensetowardsthingthatareone\'sown，butaman\'schattel，andhischilduntilitreachesacertainageandsetsupforitself，areasitwerepartofhimself，andnoonechoosestohurthimself(forwhichreasontherecanbenoinjusticetowardsoneself)。Thereforethejusticeorinjusticeofcitizensisnotmanifestedintheserelations；foritwasaswesawaccordingtolaw，andbetweenpeoplenaturallysubjecttolaw，andtheseaswesaw\'

arepeoplewhohaveanequalshareinrulingandbeingruled。Hencejusticecanmoretrulybemanifestedtowardsawifethantowardschildrenandchattels，fortheformerishouseholdjustice；buteventhisisdifferentfrompoliticaljustice。

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Ofpoliticaljusticepartisnatural，partlegal，natural，thatwhicheverywherehasthesameforceanddoesnotexistbypeople\'sthinkingthisorthat；legal，thatwhichisoriginallyindifferent，butwhenithasbeenlaiddownisnotindifferent，e。g。thataprisoner\'sransomshallbeamina，orthatagoatandnottwosheepshallbesacrificed，andagainallthelawsthatarepassedforparticularcases，e。g。thatsacrificeshallbemadeinhonourofBrasidas，andtheprovisionsofdecrees。Nowsomethinkthatalljusticeisofthissort，becausethatwhichisbynatureisunchangeableandhaseverywherethesameforce(asfireburnsbothhereandinPersia)，whiletheyseechangeinthethingsrecognizedasjust。This，however，isnottrueinthisunqualifiedway，butistrueinasense；orrather，withthegodsitisperhapsnottrueatall，whilewithusthereissomethingthatisjustevenbynature，yetallofitischangeable；butstillsomeisbynature，somenotbynature。Itisevidentwhichsortofthing，amongthingscapableofbeingotherwise，isbynature，andwhichisnotbutislegalandconventional，assumingthatbothareequallychangeable。Andinallotherthingsthesamedistinctionwillapply；bynaturetherighthandisstronger，yetitispossiblethatallmenshouldcometobeambidextrous。Thethingswhicharejustbyvirtueofconventionandexpediencyarelikemeasures；forwineandcornmeasuresarenoteverywhereequal，butlargerinwholesaleandsmallerinretailmarkets。Similarly，thethingswhicharejustnotbynaturebutbyhumanenactmentarenoteverywherethesame，sinceconstitutionsalsoarenotthesame，thoughthereisbutonewhichiseverywherebynaturethebest。Ofthingsjustandlawfuleachisrelatedastheuniversaltoitsparticulars；forthethingsthataredonearemany，butofthemeachisone，sinceitisuniversal。

Thereisadifferencebetweentheactofinjusticeandwhatisunjust，andbetweentheactofjusticeandwhatisjust；forathingisunjustbynatureorbyenactment；andthisverything，whenithasbeendone，isanactofinjustice，butbeforeitisdoneisnotyetthatbutisunjust。So，too，withanactofjustice(thoughthegeneraltermisrather\'justaction\'，and\'actofjustice\'isappliedtothecorrectionoftheactofinjustice)。

Eachofthesemustlaterbeexaminedseparatelywithregardtothenatureandnumberofitsspeciesandthenatureofthethingswithwhichitisconcerned。

8

Actsjustandunjustbeingaswehavedescribedthem，amanactsunjustlyorjustlywheneverhedoessuchactsvoluntarily；wheninvoluntarily，heactsneitherunjustlynorjustlyexceptinanincidentalway；forhedoesthingswhichhappentobejustorunjust。Whetheranactisorisnotoneofinjustice(orofjustice)

isdeterminedbyitsvoluntarinessorinvoluntariness；forwhenitisvoluntaryitisblamed，andatthesametimeisthenanactofinjustice；sothattherewillbethingsthatareunjustbutnotyetactsofinjustice，ifvoluntarinessbenotpresentaswell。BythevoluntaryImean，ashasbeensaidbefore，anyofthethingsinaman\'sownpowerwhichhedoeswithknowledge，i。e。notinignoranceeitherofthepersonactedonoroftheinstrumentusedoroftheendthatwillbeattained(e。g。whomheisstriking，withwhat，andtowhatend)，eachsuchactbeingdonenotincidentallynorundercompulsion(e。g。ifAtakesB\'shandandtherewithstrikesC，Bdoesnotactvoluntarily；fortheactwasnotinhisownpower)。Thepersonstruckmaybethestriker\'sfather，andthestrikermayknowthatitisamanoroneofthepersonspresent，butnotknowthatitishisfather；asimilardistinctionmaybemadeinthecaseoftheend，andwithregardtothewholeaction。Thereforethatwhichisdoneinignorance，orthoughnotdoneinignoranceisnotintheagent\'spower，orisdoneundercompulsion，isinvoluntary(formanynaturalprocesses，even，weknowinglybothperformandexperience，noneofwhichiseithervoluntaryorinvoluntary；e。g。growingoldordying)。Butinthecaseofunjustandjustactsaliketheinjusticeorjusticemaybeonlyincidental；foramanmightreturnadepositunwillinglyandfromfear，andthenhemustnotbesaideithertodowhatisjustortoactjustly，exceptinanincidentalway。

Similarlythemanwhoundercompulsionandunwillinglyfailstoreturnthedepositmustbesaidtoactunjustly，andtodowhatisunjust，onlyincidentally。Ofvoluntaryactswedosomebychoice，othersnotbychoice；bychoicethosewhichwedoafterdeliberation，notbychoicethosewhichwedowithoutpreviousdeliberation。Thustherearethreekindsofinjuryintransactionsbetweenmanandman；

thosedoneinignorancearemistakeswhenthepersonactedon，theact，theinstrument，ortheendthatwillbeattainedisotherthantheagentsupposed；theagentthoughteitherthathewasnothitinganyoneorthathewasnothittingwiththismissileornothittingthispersonortothisend，butaresultfollowedotherthanthatwhichhethoughtlikely(e。g。hethrewnotwithintenttowoundbutonlytoprick)，orthepersonhitorthemissilewasotherthanhesupposed。Nowwhen(1)theinjurytakesplacecontrarytoreasonableexpectation，itisamisadventure。When(2)itisnotcontrarytoreasonableexpectation，butdoesnotimplyvice，itisamistake(foramanmakesamistakewhenthefaultoriginatesinhim，butisthevictimofaccidentwhentheoriginliesoutsidehim)。When(3)

heactswithknowledgebutnotafterdeliberation，itisanactofinjustice-e。g。theactsduetoangerortootherpassionsnecessaryornaturaltoman；forwhenmendosuchharmfulandmistakenactstheyactunjustly，andtheactsareactsofinjustice，butthisdoesnotimplythatthedoersareunjustorwicked；fortheinjuryisnotduetovice。Butwhen(4)amanactsfromchoice，heisanunjustmanandaviciousman。

Henceactsproceedingfromangerarerightlyjudgednottobedoneofmaliceaforethought；foritisnotthemanwhoactsinangerbuthewhoenragedhimthatstartsthemischief。Again，thematterindisputeisnotwhetherthethinghappenedornot，butitsjustice；foritisapparentinjusticethatoccasionsrage。Fortheydonotdisputeabouttheoccurrenceoftheact-asincommercialtransactionswhereoneofthetwopartiesmustbevicious-unlesstheydosoowingtoforgetfulness；but，agreeingaboutthefact，theydisputeonwhichsidejusticelies(whereasamanwhohasdeliberatelyinjuredanothercannothelpknowingthathehasdoneso)，sothattheonethinksheisbeingtreatedunjustlyandtheotherdisagrees。

Butifamanharmsanotherbychoice，heactsunjustly；andthesearetheactsofinjusticewhichimplythatthedoerisanunjustman，providedthattheactviolatesproportionorequality。Similarly，amanisjustwhenheactsjustlybychoice；butheactsjustlyifhemerelyactsvoluntarily。

Ofinvoluntaryactssomeareexcusable，othersnot。Forthemistakeswhichmenmakenotonlyinignorancebutalsofromignoranceareexcusable，whilethosewhichmendonotfromignorancebut(thoughtheydotheminignorance)owingtoapassionwhichisneithernaturalnorsuchasmanisliableto，arenotexcusable。

9

Assumingthatwehavesufficientlydefinedthesufferinganddoingofinjustice，itmaybeasked(1)whetherthetruthinexpressedinEuripides\'paradoxicalwords:

Islewmymother，that\'smytaleinbrief。

Wereyoubothwilling，orunwillingboth？

Isittrulypossibletobewillinglytreatedunjustly，orisallsufferingofinjusticethecontraryinvoluntary，asallunjustactionisvoluntary？Andisallsufferingofinjusticeofthelatterkindorelsealloftheformer，orisitsometimesvoluntary，sometimesinvoluntary？So，too，withthecaseofbeingjustlytreated；

alljustactionisvoluntary，sothatitisreasonablethatthereshouldbeasimilaroppositionineithercase-thatbothbeingunjustlyandbeingjustlytreatedshouldbeeitheralikevoluntaryoralikeinvoluntary。Butitwouldbethoughtparadoxicaleveninthecaseofbeingjustlytreated，ifitwerealwaysvoluntary；forsomeareunwillinglytreatedjustly。(2)Onemightraisethisquestionalso，whethereveryonewhohassufferedwhatisunjustisbeingunjustlytreated，orontheotherhanditiswithsufferingaswithacting。

Inactionandinpassivityalikeitispossibletopartakeofjusticeincidentally，andsimilarly(itisplain)ofinjustice；fortodowhatisunjustisnotthesameastoactunjustly，nortosufferwhatisunjustastobetreatedunjustly，andsimilarlyinthecaseofactingjustlyandbeingjustlytreated；foritisimpossibletobeunjustlytreatediftheotherdoesnotactunjustly，orjustlytreatedunlessheactsjustly。Nowiftoactunjustlyissimplytoharmsomeonevoluntarily，and\'voluntarily\'means\'knowingthepersonactedon，theinstrument，andthemannerofone\'sacting\'，andtheincontinentmanvoluntarilyharmshimself，notonlywillhevoluntarilybeunjustlytreatedbutitwillbepossibletotreatoneselfunjustly。

(Thisalsoisoneofthequestionsindoubt，whetheramancantreathimselfunjustly。)Again，amanmayvoluntarily，owingtoincontinence，beharmedbyanotherwhoactsvoluntarily，sothatitwouldbepossibletobevoluntarilytreatedunjustly。Orisourdefinitionincorrect；mustweto\'harminganother，withknowledgebothofthepersonactedon，oftheinstrument，andofthemanner\'add\'contrarytothewishofthepersonactedon\'？Thenamanmaybevoluntarilyharmedandvoluntarilysufferwhatisunjust，butnooneisvoluntarilytreatedunjustly；fornoonewishestobeunjustlytreated，noteventheincontinentman。Heactscontrarytohiswish；

fornoonewishesforwhathedoesnotthinktobegood，buttheincontinentmandoesdothingsthathedoesnotthinkheoughttodo。Again，onewhogiveswhatishisown，asHomersaysGlaucusgaveDiomedeArmourofgoldforbrazen，thepriceofahundredbeevesfornine，isnotunjustlytreated；forthoughtogiveisinhispower，tobeunjustlytreatedisnot，buttheremustbesomeonetotreathimunjustly。Itisplain，then，thatbeingunjustlytreatedisnotvoluntary。

Ofthequestionsweintendedtodiscusstwostillremainfordiscussion；(3)whetheritisthemanwhohasassignedtoanothermorethanhissharethatactsunjustly，orhewhohastheexcessiveshare，and(4)whetheritispossibletotreatoneselfunjustly。Thequestionsareconnected；foriftheformeralternativeispossibleandthedistributoractsunjustlyandnotthemanwhohastheexcessiveshare，thenifamanassignsmoretoanotherthantohimself，knowinglyandvoluntarily，hetreatshimselfunjustly；whichiswhatmodestpeopleseemtodo，sincethevirtuousmantendstotakelessthanhisshare。Ordoesthisstatementtooneedqualification？For(a)

heperhapsgetsmorethanhisshareofsomeothergood，e。g。ofhonourorofintrinsicnobility。(b)Thequestionissolvedbyapplyingthedistinctionweappliedtounjustaction；forhesuffersnothingcontrarytohisownwish，sothatheisnotunjustlytreatedasfarasthisgoes，butatmostonlysuffersharm。

Itisplaintoothatthedistributoractsunjustly，butnotalwaysthemanwhohastheexcessiveshare；foritisnothetowhomwhatisunjustappertainsthatactsunjustly，buthetowhomitappertainstodotheunjustactvoluntarily，i。e。thepersoninwhomliestheoriginoftheaction，andthisliesinthedistributor，notinthereceiver。Again，sincetheword\'do\'isambiguous，andthereisasenseinwhichlifelessthings，orahand，oraservantwhoobeysanorder，maybesaidtoslay，hewhogetsanexcessivesharedoesnotactunjustly，thoughhe\'does\'whatisunjust。

Again，ifthedistributorgavehisjudgementinignorance，hedoesnotactunjustlyinrespectoflegaljustice，andhisjudgementisnotunjustinthissense，butinasenseitisunjust(forlegaljusticeandprimordialjusticearedifferent)；butifwithknowledgehejudgedunjustly，heishimselfaimingatanexcessiveshareeitherofgratitudeorofrevenge。Asmuch，then，asifheweretoshareintheplunder，themanwhohasjudgedunjustlyforthesereasonshasgottoomuch；thefactthatwhathegetsisdifferentfromwhathedistributesmakesnodifference，forevenifheawardslandwithaviewtosharingintheplunderhegetsnotlandbutmoney。

Menthinkthatactingunjustlyisintheirpower，andthereforethatbeingjustiseasy。Butitisnot；toliewithone\'sneighbour\'swife，towoundanother，todeliverabribe，iseasyandinourpower，buttodothesethingsasaresultofacertainstateofcharacterisneithereasynorinourpower。Similarlytoknowwhatisjustandwhatisunjustrequires，menthink，nogreatwisdom，becauseitisnothardtounderstandthemattersdealtwithbythelaws(thoughthesearenotthethingsthatarejust，exceptincidentally)；buthowactionsmustbedoneanddistributionseffectedinordertobejust，toknowthisisagreaterachievementthanknowingwhatisgoodforthehealth；

thougheventhere，whileitiseasytoknowthathoney，wine，hellebore，cautery，andtheuseoftheknifeareso，toknowhow，towhom，andwhentheseshouldbeappliedwithaviewtoproducinghealth，isnolessanachievementthanthatofbeingaphysician。

Again，forthisveryreasonmenthinkthatactingunjustlyischaracteristicofthejustmannolessthanoftheunjust，becausehewouldbenotlessbutevenmorecapableofdoingeachoftheseunjustacts；forhecouldliewithawomanorwoundaneighbour；andthebravemancouldthrowawayhisshieldandturntoflightinthisdirectionorinthat。Buttoplaythecowardortoactunjustlyconsistsnotindoingthesethings，exceptincidentally，butindoingthemastheresultofacertainstateofcharacter，justastopractisemedicineandhealingconsistsnotinapplyingornotapplyingtheknife，inusingornotusingmedicines，butindoingsoinacertainway。

Justactsoccurbetweenpeoplewhoparticipateinthingsgoodinthemselvesandcanhavetoomuchortoolittleofthem；forsomebeings(e。g。presumablythegods)cannothavetoomuchofthem，andtoothers，thosewhoareincurablybad，noteventhesmallestshareinthemisbeneficialbutallsuchgoodsareharmful，whiletootherstheyarebeneficialuptoapoint；thereforejusticeisessentiallysomethinghuman。

10

Ournextsubjectisequityandtheequitable(toepiekes)，andtheirrespectiverelationstojusticeandthejust。Foronexaminationtheyappeartobeneitherabsolutelythesamenorgenericallydifferent；andwhilewesometimepraisewhatisequitableandtheequitableman(sothatweapplythenamebywayofpraiseeventoinstancesoftheothervirtues，insteadof\'good\'meaningbyepieikestebonthatathingisbetter)，atothertimes，whenwereasonitout，itseemsstrangeiftheequitable，beingsomethingdifferentfromthejust，isyetpraiseworthy；foreitherthejustortheequitableisnotgood，iftheyaredifferent；or，ifbotharegood，theyarethesame。

These，then，areprettymuchtheconsiderationsthatgiverisetotheproblemabouttheequitable；theyareallinasensecorrectandnotopposedtooneanother；fortheequitable，thoughitisbetterthanonekindofjustice，yetisjust，anditisnotasbeingadifferentclassofthingthatitisbetterthanthejust。Thesamething，then，isjustandequitable，andwhilebotharegoodtheequitableissuperior。Whatcreatestheproblemisthattheequitableisjust，butnotthelegallyjustbutacorrectionoflegaljustice。Thereasonisthatalllawisuniversalbutaboutsomethingsitisnotpossibletomakeauniversalstatementwhichshallbecorrect。Inthosecases，then，inwhichitisnecessarytospeakuniversally，butnotpossibletodosocorrectly，thelawtakestheusualcase，thoughitisnotignorantofthepossibilityoferror。Anditisnonethelesscorrect；fortheerrorisinthelawnorinthelegislatorbutinthenatureofthething，sincethematterofpracticalaffairsisofthiskindfromthestart。Whenthelawspeaksuniversally，then，andacasearisesonitwhichisnotcoveredbytheuniversalstatement，thenitisright，wherethelegislatorfailsusandhaserredbyoversimplicity，tocorrecttheomission-tosaywhatthelegislatorhimselfwouldhavesaidhadhebeenpresent，andwouldhaveputintohislawifhehadknown。Hencetheequitableisjust，andbetterthanonekindofjustice-notbetterthanabsolutejusticebutbetterthantheerrorthatarisesfromtheabsolutenessofthestatement。Andthisisthenatureoftheequitable，acorrectionoflawwhereitisdefectiveowingtoitsuniversality。Infactthisisthereasonwhyallthingsarenotdeterminedbylaw，thataboutsomethingsitisimpossibletolaydownalaw，sothatadecreeisneeded。Forwhenthethingisindefinitetherulealsoisindefinite，liketheleadenruleusedinmakingtheLesbianmoulding；theruleadaptsitselftotheshapeofthestoneandisnotrigid，andsotoothedecreeisadaptedtothefacts。

Itisplain，then，whattheequitableis，andthatitisjustandisbetterthanonekindofjustice。Itisevidentalsofromthiswhotheequitablemanis；themanwhochoosesanddoessuchacts，andisnosticklerforhisrightsinabadsensebuttendstotakelessthanhissharethoughhehasthelawofthisside，isequitable，andthisstateofcharacterisequity，whichisasortofjusticeandnotadifferentstateofcharacter。

11

Whetheramancantreathimselfunjustlyornot，isevidentfromwhathasbeensaid。For(a)oneclassofjustactsarethoseactsinaccordancewithanyvirtuewhichareprescribedbythelaw；e。g。thelawdoesnotexpresslypermitsuicide，andwhatitdoesnotexpresslypermititforbids。Again，whenamaninviolationofthelawharmsanother(otherwisethaninretaliation)voluntarily，heactsunjustly，andavoluntaryagentisonewhoknowsboththepersonheisaffectingbyhisactionandtheinstrumentheisusing；andhewhothroughangervoluntarilystabshimselfdoesthiscontrarytotherightruleoflife，andthisthelawdoesnotallow；thereforeheisactingunjustly。Buttowardswhom？Surelytowardsthestate，nottowardshimself。Forhesuffersvoluntarily，butnooneisvoluntarilytreatedunjustly。Thisisalsothereasonwhythestatepunishes；acertainlossofcivilrightsattachestothemanwhodestroyshimself，onthegroundthatheistreatingthestateunjustly。

Further(b)inthatsenseof\'actingunjustly\'inwhichthemanwho\'actsunjustly\'isunjustonlyandnotbadallround，itisnotpossibletotreatoneselfunjustly(thisisdifferentfromtheformersense；theunjustmaninonesenseofthetermiswickedinaparticularizedwayjustasthecowardis，notinthesenseofbeingwickedallround，sothathis\'unjustact\'doesnotmanifestwickednessingeneral)。For(i)thatwouldimplythepossibilityofthesamething\'shavingbeensubtractedfromandaddedtothesamethingatthesametime；butthisisimpossible-thejustandtheunjustalwaysinvolvemorethanoneperson。Further，(ii)unjustactionisvoluntaryanddonebychoice，andtakestheinitiative(forthemanwhobecausehehassuffereddoesthesameinreturnisnotthoughttoactunjustly)；butifamanharmshimselfhesuffersanddoesthesamethingsatthesametime。Further，(iii)ifamancouldtreathimselfunjustly，hecouldbevoluntarilytreatedunjustly。Besides，(iv)nooneactsunjustlywithoutcommittingparticularactsofinjustice；butnoonecancommitadulterywithhisownwifeorhousebreakingonhisownhouseortheftonhisownproperty，Ingeneral，thequestion\'canamantreathimselfunjustly？\'issolvedalsobythedistinctionweappliedtothequestion\'canamanbevoluntarilytreatedunjustly？\'

(Itisevidenttoothatbotharebad，beingunjustlytreatedandactingunjustly；fortheonemeanshavinglessandtheotherhavingmorethantheintermediateamount，whichplaysthepartherethatthehealthydoesinthemedicalart，andthatgoodconditiondoesintheartofbodilytraining。Butstillactingunjustlyistheworse，foritinvolvesviceandisblameworthy-involvesvicewhichiseitherofthecompleteandunqualifiedkindoralmostso(wemustadmitthelatteralternative，becausenotallvoluntaryunjustactionimpliesinjusticeasastateofcharacter)，whilebeingunjustlytreateddoesnotinvolveviceandinjusticeinoneself。Initself，then，beingunjustlytreatedislessbad，butthereisnothingtopreventitsbeingincidentallyagreaterevil。Buttheorycaresnothingforthis；itcallspleurisyamoreseriousmischiefthanastumble；yetthelattermaybecomeincidentallythemoreserious，ifthefallduetoitleadstoyourbeingtakenprisonerorputtodeaththeenemy。)

Metaphoricallyandinvirtueofacertainresemblancethereisajustice，notindeedbetweenamanandhimself，butbetweencertainpartsofhim；yetnoteverykindofjusticebutthatofmasterandservantorthatofhusbandandwife。Forthesearetheratiosinwhichthepartofthesoulthathasarationalprinciplestandstotheirrationalpart；anditiswithaviewtothesepartsthatpeoplealsothinkamancanbeunjusttohimself，viz。becausethesepartsareliabletosuffersomethingcontrarytotheirrespectivedesires；thereisthereforethoughttobeamutualjusticebetweenthemasbetweenrulerandruled。

Letthisbetakenasouraccountofjusticeandtheother，i。e。

theothermoral，virtues。

BOOKVI

1

SINCEwehavepreviouslysaidthatoneoughttochoosethatwhichisintermediate，nottheexcessnorthedefect，andthattheintermediateisdeterminedbythedictatesoftherightrule，letusdiscussthenatureofthesedictates。Inallthestatesofcharacterwehavementioned，asinallothermatters，thereisamarktowhichthemanwhohastherulelooks，andheightensorrelaxeshisactivityaccordingly，andthereisastandardwhichdeterminesthemeanstateswhichwesayareintermediatebetweenexcessanddefect，beinginaccordancewiththerightrule。Butsuchastatement，thoughtrue，isbynomeansclear；fornotonlyherebutinallotherpursuitswhichareobjectsofknowledgeitisindeedtruetosaythatwemustnotexertourselvesnorrelaxoureffortstoomuchnortoolittle，buttoanintermediateextentandastherightruledictates；butifamanhadonlythisknowledgehewouldbenonethewisere。g。weshouldnotknowwhatsortofmedicinestoapplytoourbodyifsomeoneweretosay\'allthosewhichthemedicalartprescribes，andwhichagreewiththepracticeofonewhopossessestheart\'。Henceitisnecessarywithregardtothestatesofthesoulalsonotonlythatthistruestatementshouldbemade，butalsothatitshouldbedeterminedwhatistherightruleandwhatisthestandardthatfixesit。

Wedividedthevirtuesofthesoulandasaidthatsomearevirtuesofcharacterandothersofintellect。Nowwehavediscussedindetailthemoralvirtues；withregardtotheothersletusexpressourviewasfollows，beginningwithsomeremarksaboutthesoul。Wesaidbeforethattherearetwopartsofthesoul-thatwhichgraspsaruleorrationalprinciple，andtheirrational；letusnowdrawasimilardistinctionwithinthepartwhichgraspsarationalprinciple。Andletitbeassumedthattherearetwopartswhichgrasparationalprinciple-onebywhichwecontemplatethekindofthingswhoseoriginativecausesareinvariable，andonebywhichwecontemplatevariablethings；forwhereobjectsdifferinkindthepartofthesoulansweringtoeachofthetwoisdifferentinkind，sinceitisinvirtueofacertainlikenessandkinshipwiththeirobjectsthattheyhavetheknowledgetheyhave。Letoneofthesepartsbecalledthescientificandtheotherthecalculative；fortodeliberateandtocalculatearethesamething，butnoonedeliberatesabouttheinvariable。Thereforethecalculativeisonepartofthefacultywhichgraspsarationalprinciple。Wemust，then，learnwhatisthebeststateofeachofthesetwoparts；forthisisthevirtueofeach。

2

Thevirtueofathingisrelativetoitsproperwork。Nowtherearethreethingsinthesoulwhichcontrolactionandtruth-sensation，reason，desire。

Ofthesesensationoriginatesnoaction；thisisplainfromthefactthattheloweranimalshavesensationbutnoshareinaction。

Whataffirmationandnegationareinthinking，pursuitandavoidanceareindesire；sothatsincemoralvirtueisastateofcharacterconcernedwithchoice，andchoiceisdeliberatedesire，thereforeboththereasoningmustbetrueandthedesireright，ifthechoiceistobegood，andthelattermustpursuejustwhattheformerasserts。

Nowthiskindofintellectandoftruthispractical；oftheintellectwhichiscontemplative，notpracticalnorproductive，thegoodandthebadstatearetruthandfalsityrespectively(forthisistheworkofeverythingintellectual)；whileofthepartwhichispracticalandintellectualthegoodstateistruthinagreementwithrightdesire。

Theoriginofaction-itsefficient，notitsfinalcause-ischoice，andthatofchoiceisdesireandreasoningwithaviewtoanend。Thisiswhychoicecannotexisteitherwithoutreasonandintellectorwithoutamoralstate；forgoodactionanditsoppositecannotexistwithoutacombinationofintellectandcharacter。Intellectitself，however，movesnothing，butonlytheintellectwhichaimsatanendandispractical；forthisrulestheproductiveintellect，aswell，sinceeveryonewhomakesmakesforanend，andthatwhichismadeisnotanendintheunqualifiedsense(butonlyanendinaparticularrelation，andtheendofaparticularoperation)-onlythatwhichisdoneisthat；forgoodactionisanend，anddesireaimsatthis。Hencechoiceiseitherdesiderativereasonorratiocinativedesire，andsuchanoriginofactionisaman。(Itistobenotedthatnothingthatispastisanobjectofchoice，e。g。noonechoosestohavesackedTroy；fornoonedeliberatesaboutthepast，butaboutwhatisfutureandcapableofbeingotherwise，whilewhatispastisnotcapableofnothavingtakenplace；henceAgathonisrightinsayingForthisaloneislackingeventoGod，Tomakeundonethingsthathaveoncebeendone。)

Theworkofboththeintellectualparts，then，istruth。Thereforethestatesthataremoststrictlythoseinrespectofwhicheachofthesepartswillreachtrutharethevirtuesofthetwoparts。

3

Letusbegin，then，fromthebeginning，anddiscussthesestatesoncemore。Letitbeassumedthatthestatesbyvirtueofwhichthesoulpossessestruthbywayofaffirmationordenialarefiveinnumber，i。e。art，scientificknowledge，practicalwisdom，philosophicwisdom，intuitivereason；wedonotincludejudgementandopinionbecauseinthesewemaybemistaken。

Nowwhatscientificknowledgeis，ifwearetospeakexactlyandnotfollowmeresimilarities，isplainfromwhatfollows。Weallsupposethatwhatweknowisnotevencapableofbeingotherwise；ofthingscapableofbeingotherwisewedonotknow，whentheyhavepassedoutsideourobservation，whethertheyexistornot。Thereforetheobjectofscientificknowledgeisofnecessity。Thereforeitiseternal；forthingsthatareofnecessityintheunqualifiedsensearealleternal；andthingsthatareeternalareungeneratedandimperishable。Again，everyscienceisthoughttobecapableofbeingtaught，anditsobjectofbeinglearned。Andallteachingstartsfromwhatisalreadyknown，aswemaintainintheAnalyticsalso；

foritproceedssometimesthroughinductionandsometimesbysyllogism。Nowinductionisthestarting-pointwhichknowledgeevenoftheuniversalpresupposes，whilesyllogismproceedsfromuniversals。

Therearethereforestarting-pointsfromwhichsyllogismproceeds，whicharenotreachedbysyllogism；itisthereforebyinductionthattheyareacquired。Scientificknowledgeis，then，astateofcapacitytodemonstrate，andhastheotherlimitingcharacteristicswhichwespecifyintheAnalytics，foritiswhenamanbelievesinacertainwayandthestarting-pointsareknowntohimthathehasscientificknowledge，sinceiftheyarenotbetterknowntohimthantheconclusion，hewillhavehisknowledgeonlyincidentally。

Letthis，then，betakenasouraccountofscientificknowledge。