下载辰思小说免费APP
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EVERYartandeveryinquiry，andsimilarlyeveryactionandpursuit，isthoughttoaimatsomegood；andforthisreasonthegoodhasrightlybeendeclaredtobethatatwhichallthingsaim。Butacertaindifferenceisfoundamongends；someareactivities，othersareproductsapartfromtheactivitiesthatproducethem。Wherethereareendsapartfromtheactions，itisthenatureoftheproductstobebetterthantheactivities。Now，astherearemanyactions，arts，andsciences，theirendsalsoaremany；theendofthemedicalartishealth，thatofshipbuildingavessel，thatofstrategyvictory，thatofeconomicswealth。Butwheresuchartsfallunderasinglecapacity-asbridle-makingandtheotherartsconcernedwiththeequipmentofhorsesfallundertheartofriding，andthisandeverymilitaryactionunderstrategy，inthesamewayotherartsfallunderyetothers-inallofthesetheendsofthemasterartsaretobepreferredtoallthesubordinateends；foritisforthesakeoftheformerthatthelatterarepursued。Itmakesnodifferencewhethertheactivitiesthemselvesaretheendsoftheactions，orsomethingelseapartfromtheactivities，asinthecaseofthesciencesjustmentioned。
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If，then，thereissomeendofthethingswedo，whichwedesireforitsownsake(everythingelsebeingdesiredforthesakeofthis)，andifwedonotchooseeverythingforthesakeofsomethingelse(foratthatratetheprocesswouldgoontoinfinity，sothatourdesirewouldbeemptyandvain)，clearlythismustbethegoodandthechiefgood。Willnottheknowledgeofit，then，haveagreatinfluenceonlife？Shallwenot，likearcherswhohaveamarktoaimat，bemorelikelytohituponwhatisright？Ifso，wemusttry，inoutlineatleast，todeterminewhatitis，andofwhichofthesciencesorcapacitiesitistheobject。Itwouldseemtobelongtothemostauthoritativeartandthatwhichismosttrulythemasterart。Andpoliticsappearstobeofthisnature；foritisthisthatordainswhichofthesciencesshouldbestudiedinastate，andwhicheachclassofcitizensshouldlearnanduptowhatpointtheyshouldlearnthem；andweseeeventhemosthighlyesteemedofcapacitiestofallunderthis，e。g。strategy，economics，rhetoric；now，sincepoliticsusestherestofthesciences，andsince，again，itlegislatesastowhatwearetodoandwhatwearetoabstainfrom，theendofthissciencemustincludethoseoftheothers，sothatthisendmustbethegoodforman。Foreveniftheendisthesameforasinglemanandforastate，thatofthestateseemsatalleventssomethinggreaterandmorecompletewhethertoattainortopreserve；thoughitisworthwhiletoattaintheendmerelyforoneman，itisfinerandmoregodliketoattainitforanationorforcity-states。These，then，aretheendsatwhichourinquiryaims，sinceitispoliticalscience，inonesenseofthatterm。
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Ourdiscussionwillbeadequateifithasasmuchclearnessasthesubject-matteradmitsof，forprecisionisnottobesoughtforalikeinalldiscussions，anymorethaninalltheproductsofthecrafts。Nowfineandjustactions，whichpoliticalscienceinvestigates，admitofmuchvarietyandfluctuationofopinion，sothattheymaybethoughttoexistonlybyconvention，andnotbynature。Andgoodsalsogiverisetoasimilarfluctuationbecausetheybringharmtomanypeople；forbeforenowmenhavebeenundonebyreasonoftheirwealth，andothersbyreasonoftheircourage。Wemustbecontent，then，inspeakingofsuchsubjectsandwithsuchpremissestoindicatethetruthroughlyandinoutline，andinspeakingaboutthingswhichareonlyforthemostparttrueandwithpremissesofthesamekindtoreachconclusionsthatarenobetter。Inthesamespirit，therefore，shouldeachtypeofstatementbereceived；foritisthemarkofaneducatedmantolookforprecisionineachclassofthingsjustsofarasthenatureofthesubjectadmits；itisevidentlyequallyfoolishtoacceptprobablereasoningfromamathematicianandtodemandfromarhetoricianscientificproofs。
Noweachmanjudgeswellthethingsheknows，andoftheseheisagoodjudge。Andsothemanwhohasbeeneducatedinasubjectisagoodjudgeofthatsubject，andthemanwhohasreceivedanall-roundeducationisagoodjudgeingeneral。Henceayoungmanisnotaproperheareroflecturesonpoliticalscience；forheisinexperiencedintheactionsthatoccurinlife，butitsdiscussionsstartfromtheseandareaboutthese；and，further，sincehetendstofollowhispassions，hisstudywillbevainandunprofitable，becausetheendaimedatisnotknowledgebutaction。Anditmakesnodifferencewhetherheisyounginyearsoryouthfulincharacter；
thedefectdoesnotdependontime，butonhisliving，andpursuingeachsuccessiveobject，aspassiondirects。Fortosuchpersons，astotheincontinent，knowledgebringsnoprofit；buttothosewhodesireandactinaccordancewitharationalprincipleknowledgeaboutsuchmatterswillbeofgreatbenefit。
Theseremarksaboutthestudent，thesortoftreatmenttobeexpected，andthepurposeoftheinquiry，maybetakenasourpreface。
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Letusresumeourinquiryandstate，inviewofthefactthatallknowledgeandeverypursuitaimsatsomegood，whatitisthatwesaypoliticalscienceaimsatandwhatisthehighestofallgoodsachievablebyaction。Verballythereisverygeneralagreement；forboththegeneralrunofmenandpeopleofsuperiorrefinementsaythatitishappiness，andidentifylivingwellanddoingwellwithbeinghappy；butwithregardtowhathappinessistheydiffer，andthemanydonotgivethesameaccountasthewise。Fortheformerthinkitissomeplainandobviousthing，likepleasure，wealth，orhonour；
theydiffer，however，fromoneanother-andofteneventhesamemanidentifiesitwithdifferentthings，withhealthwhenheisill，withwealthwhenheispoor；but，consciousoftheirignorance，theyadmirethosewhoproclaimsomegreatidealthatisabovetheircomprehension。Nowsomethoughtthatapartfromthesemanygoodsthereisanotherwhichisself-subsistentandcausesthegoodnessofalltheseaswell。Toexaminealltheopinionsthathavebeenheldwereperhapssomewhatfruitless；enoughtoexaminethosethataremostprevalentorthatseemtobearguable。
Letusnotfailtonotice，however，thatthereisadifferencebetweenargumentsfromandthosetothefirstprinciples。ForPlato，too，wasrightinraisingthisquestionandasking，asheusedtodo，\'areweonthewayfromortothefirstprinciples？\'Thereisadifference，asthereisinarace-coursebetweenthecoursefromthejudgestotheturning-pointandthewayback。For，whilewemustbeginwithwhatisknown，thingsareobjectsofknowledgeintwosenses-
sometous，somewithoutqualification。Presumably，then，wemustbeginwiththingsknowntous。Henceanyonewhoistolistenintelligentlytolecturesaboutwhatisnobleandjust，andgenerally，aboutthesubjectsofpoliticalsciencemusthavebeenbroughtupingoodhabits。Forthefactisthestarting-point，andifthisissufficientlyplaintohim，hewillnotatthestartneedthereasonaswell；andthemanwhohasbeenwellbroughtuphasorcaneasilygetstartingpoints。Andasforhimwhoneitherhasnorcangetthem，lethimhearthewordsofHesiod:
Farbestishewhoknowsallthingshimself；
Good，hethathearkenswhenmencounselright；
Buthewhoneitherknows，norlaystoheartAnother\'swisdom，isauselesswight。
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Letus，however，resumeourdiscussionfromthepointatwhichwedigressed。Tojudgefromthelivesthatmenlead，mostmen，andmenofthemostvulgartype，seem(notwithoutsomeground)toidentifythegood，orhappiness，withpleasure；whichisthereasonwhytheylovethelifeofenjoyment。Forthereare，wemaysay，threeprominenttypesoflife-thatjustmentioned，thepolitical，andthirdlythecontemplativelife。Nowthemassofmankindareevidentlyquiteslavishintheirtastes，preferringalifesuitabletobeasts，buttheygetsomegroundfortheirviewfromthefactthatmanyofthoseinhighplacessharethetastesofSardanapallus。Aconsiderationoftheprominenttypesoflifeshowsthatpeopleofsuperiorrefinementandofactivedispositionidentifyhappinesswithhonour；forthisis，roughlyspeaking，theendofthepoliticallife。Butitseemstoosuperficialtobewhatwearelookingfor，sinceitisthoughttodependonthosewhobestowhonourratherthanonhimwhoreceivesit，butthegoodwedivinetobesomethingpropertoamanandnoteasilytakenfromhim。Further，menseemtopursuehonourinorderthattheymaybeassuredoftheirgoodness；atleastitisbymenofpracticalwisdomthattheyseektobehonoured，andamongthosewhoknowthem，andonthegroundoftheirvirtue；clearly，then，accordingtothem，atanyrate，virtueisbetter。Andperhapsonemightevensupposethistobe，ratherthanhonour，theendofthepoliticallife。
Buteventhisappearssomewhatincomplete；forpossessionofvirtueseemsactuallycompatiblewithbeingasleep，orwithlifelonginactivity，and，further，withthegreatestsufferingsandmisfortunes；butamanwhowaslivingsonoonewouldcallhappy，unlessheweremaintainingathesisatallcosts。Butenoughofthis；forthesubjecthasbeensufficientlytreatedeveninthecurrentdiscussions。Thirdcomesthecontemplativelife，whichweshallconsiderlater。
Thelifeofmoney-makingisoneundertakenundercompulsion，andwealthisevidentlynotthegoodweareseeking；foritismerelyusefulandforthesakeofsomethingelse。Andsoonemightrathertaketheaforenamedobjectstobeends；fortheyarelovedforthemselves。Butitisevidentthatnoteventheseareends；yetmanyargumentshavebeenthrownawayinsupportofthem。Letusleavethissubject，then。
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Wehadperhapsbetterconsidertheuniversalgoodanddiscussthoroughlywhatismeantbyit，althoughsuchaninquiryismadeanuphillonebythefactthattheFormshavebeenintroducedbyfriendsofourown。Yetitwouldperhapsbethoughttobebetter，indeedtobeourduty，forthesakeofmaintainingthetrutheventodestroywhattouchesusclosely，especiallyaswearephilosophersorloversofwisdom；for，whilebotharedear，pietyrequiresustohonourtruthaboveourfriends。
ThemenwhointroducedthisdoctrinedidnotpositIdeasofclasseswithinwhichtheyrecognizedpriorityandposteriority(whichisthereasonwhytheydidnotmaintaintheexistenceofanIdeaembracingallnumbers)；buttheterm\'good\'isusedbothinthecategoryofsubstanceandinthatofqualityandinthatofrelation，andthatwhichisperse，i。e。substance，ispriorinnaturetotherelative(forthelatterislikeanoffshootandaccidentofbeing)；sothattherecouldnotbeacommonIdeasetoverallthesegoods。Further，since\'good\'hasasmanysensesas\'being\'(foritispredicatedbothinthecategoryofsubstance，asofGodandofreason，andinquality，i。e。ofthevirtues，andinquantity，i。e。
ofthatwhichismoderate，andinrelation，i。e。oftheuseful，andintime，i。e。oftherightopportunity，andinplace，i。e。oftherightlocalityandthelike)，clearlyitcannotbesomethinguniversallypresentinallcasesandsingle；forthenitcouldnothavebeenpredicatedinallthecategoriesbutinoneonly。Further，sinceofthethingsansweringtooneIdeathereisonescience，therewouldhavebeenonescienceofallthegoods；butasitistherearemanysciencesevenofthethingsthatfallunderonecategory，e。g。ofopportunity，foropportunityinwarisstudiedbystrategicsandindiseasebymedicine，andthemoderateinfoodisstudiedbymedicineandinexercisebythescienceofgymnastics。Andonemightaskthequestion，whatintheworldtheymeanby\'athingitself\'，is(asisthecase)in\'manhimself\'andinaparticularmantheaccountofmanisoneandthesame。Forinsofarastheyareman，theywillinnorespectdiffer；andifthisisso，neitherwill\'gooditself\'andparticulargoods，insofarastheyaregood。Butagainitwillnotbegoodanythemoreforbeingeternal，sincethatwhichlastslongisnowhiterthanthatwhichperishesinaday。ThePythagoreansseemtogiveamoreplausibleaccountofthegood，whentheyplacetheoneinthecolumnofgoods；anditistheythatSpeusippusseemstohavefollowed。
Butletusdiscussthesematterselsewhere；anobjectiontowhatwehavesaid，however，maybediscernedinthefactthatthePlatonistshavenotbeenspeakingaboutallgoods，andthatthegoodsthatarepursuedandlovedforthemselvesarecalledgoodbyreferencetoasingleForm，whilethosewhichtendtoproduceortopreservethesesomehowortopreventtheircontrariesarecalledsobyreferencetothese，andinasecondarysense。Clearly，then，goodsmustbespokenofintwoways，andsomemustbegoodinthemselves，theothersbyreasonofthese。Letusseparate，then，thingsgoodinthemselvesfromthingsuseful，andconsiderwhethertheformerarecalledgoodbyreferencetoasingleIdea。Whatsortofgoodswouldonecallgoodinthemselves？Isitthosethatarepursuedevenwhenisolatedfromothers，suchasintelligence，sight，andcertainpleasuresandhonours？Certainly，ifwepursuethesealsoforthesakeofsomethingelse，yetonewouldplacethemamongthingsgoodinthemselves。OrisnothingotherthantheIdeaofgoodgoodinitself？InthatcasetheFormwillbeempty。Butifthethingswehavenamedarealsothingsgoodinthemselves，theaccountofthegoodwillhavetoappearassomethingidenticalinthemall，asthatofwhitenessisidenticalinsnowandinwhitelead。Butofhonour，wisdom，andpleasure，justinrespectoftheirgoodness，theaccountsaredistinctanddiverse。Thegood，therefore，isnotsomecommonelementansweringtooneIdea。
Butwhatthendowemeanbythegood？Itissurelynotlikethethingsthatonlychancetohavethesamename。Aregoodsone，then，bybeingderivedfromonegoodorbyallcontributingtoonegood，oraretheyratheronebyanalogy？Certainlyassightisinthebody，soisreasoninthesoul，andsooninothercases。Butperhapsthesesubjectshadbetterbedismissedforthepresent；forperfectprecisionaboutthemwouldbemoreappropriatetoanotherbranchofphilosophy。AndsimilarlywithregardtotheIdea；evenifthereissomeonegoodwhichisuniversallypredicableofgoodsoriscapableofseparateandindependentexistence，clearlyitcouldnotbeachievedorattainedbyman；butwearenowseekingsomethingattainable。Perhaps，however，someonemightthinkitworthwhiletorecognizethiswithaviewtothegoodsthatareattainableandachievable；forhavingthisasasortofpatternweshallknowbetterthegoodsthataregoodforus，andifweknowthemshallattainthem。Thisargumenthassomeplausibility，butseemstoclashwiththeprocedureofthesciences；forallofthese，thoughtheyaimatsomegoodandseektosupplythedeficiencyofit，leaveononesidetheknowledgeofthegood。Yetthatalltheexponentsoftheartsshouldbeignorantof，andshouldnotevenseek，sogreatanaidisnotprobable。Itishard，too，toseehowaweaveroracarpenterwillbebenefitedinregardtohisowncraftbyknowingthis\'gooditself\'，orhowthemanwhohasviewedtheIdeaitselfwillbeabetterdoctororgeneralthereby。Foradoctorseemsnoteventostudyhealthinthisway，butthehealthofman，orperhapsratherthehealthofaparticularman；itisindividualsthatheishealing。Butenoughofthesetopics。
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Letusagainreturntothegoodweareseeking，andaskwhatitcanbe。Itseemsdifferentindifferentactionsandarts；itisdifferentinmedicine，instrategy，andintheotherartslikewise。
Whatthenisthegoodofeach？Surelythatforwhosesakeeverythingelseisdone。Inmedicinethisishealth，instrategyvictory，inarchitectureahouse，inanyotherspheresomethingelse，andineveryactionandpursuittheend；foritisforthesakeofthisthatallmendowhateverelsetheydo。Therefore，ifthereisanendforallthatwedo，thiswillbethegoodachievablebyaction，andiftherearemorethanone，thesewillbethegoodsachievablebyaction。
Sotheargumenthasbyadifferentcoursereachedthesamepoint；
butwemusttrytostatethisevenmoreclearly。Sincethereareevidentlymorethanoneend，andwechoosesomeofthese(e。g。wealth，flutes，andingeneralinstruments)forthesakeofsomethingelse，clearlynotallendsarefinalends；butthechiefgoodisevidentlysomethingfinal。Therefore，ifthereisonlyonefinalend，thiswillbewhatweareseeking，andiftherearemorethanone，themostfinalofthesewillbewhatweareseeking。Nowwecallthatwhichisinitselfworthyofpursuitmorefinalthanthatwhichisworthyofpursuitforthesakeofsomethingelse，andthatwhichisneverdesirableforthesakeofsomethingelsemorefinalthanthethingsthataredesirablebothinthemselvesandforthesakeofthatotherthing，andthereforewecallfinalwithoutqualificationthatwhichisalwaysdesirableinitselfandneverforthesakeofsomethingelse。
Nowsuchathinghappiness，aboveallelse，isheldtobe；forthiswechoosealwaysforselfandneverforthesakeofsomethingelse，buthonour，pleasure，reason，andeveryvirtuewechooseindeedforthemselves(forifnothingresultedfromthemweshouldstillchooseeachofthem)，butwechoosethemalsoforthesakeofhappiness，judgingthatbymeansofthemweshallbehappy。Happiness，ontheotherhand，noonechoosesforthesakeofthese，nor，ingeneral，foranythingotherthanitself。
Fromthepointofviewofself-sufficiencythesameresultseemstofollow；forthefinalgoodisthoughttobeself-sufficient。Nowbyself-sufficientwedonotmeanthatwhichissufficientforamanbyhimself，foronewholivesasolitarylife，butalsoforparents，children，wife，andingeneralforhisfriendsandfellowcitizens，sincemanisbornforcitizenship。Butsomelimitmustbesettothis；
forifweextendourrequirementtoancestorsanddescendantsandfriends\'friendsweareinforaninfiniteseries。Letusexaminethisquestion，however，onanotheroccasion；theself-sufficientwenowdefineasthatwhichwhenisolatedmakeslifedesirableandlackinginnothing；andsuchwethinkhappinesstobe；andfurtherwethinkitmostdesirableofallthings，withoutbeingcountedasonegoodthingamongothers-ifitweresocounteditwouldclearlybemademoredesirablebytheadditionofeventheleastofgoods；forthatwhichisaddedbecomesanexcessofgoods，andofgoodsthegreaterisalwaysmoredesirable。Happiness，then，issomethingfinalandself-sufficient，andistheendofaction。
Presumably，however，tosaythathappinessisthechiefgoodseemsaplatitude，andacleareraccountofwhatitisstilldesired。Thismightperhapsbegiven，ifwecouldfirstascertainthefunctionofman。Forjustasforaflute-player，asculptor，oranartist，and，ingeneral，forallthingsthathaveafunctionoractivity，thegoodandthe\'well\'isthoughttoresideinthefunction，sowoulditseemtobeforman，ifhehasafunction。Havethecarpenter，then，andthetannercertainfunctionsoractivities，andhasmannone？Ishebornwithoutafunction？Oraseye，hand，foot，andingeneraleachofthepartsevidentlyhasafunction，mayonelayitdownthatmansimilarlyhasafunctionapartfromallthese？Whatthencanthisbe？Lifeseemstobecommoneventoplants，butweareseekingwhatispeculiartoman。Letusexclude，therefore，thelifeofnutritionandgrowth。Nexttherewouldbealifeofperception，butitalsoseemstobecommoneventothehorse，theox，andeveryanimal。
Thereremains，then，anactivelifeoftheelementthathasarationalprinciple；ofthis，oneparthassuchaprincipleinthesenseofbeingobedienttoone，theotherinthesenseofpossessingoneandexercisingthought。And，as\'lifeoftherationalelement\'alsohastwomeanings，wemuststatethatlifeinthesenseofactivityiswhatwemean；forthisseemstobethemorepropersenseoftheterm。Nowifthefunctionofmanisanactivityofsoulwhichfollowsorimpliesarationalprinciple，andifwesay\'so-and-so-and\'agoodso-and-so\'haveafunctionwhichisthesameinkind，e。g。alyre，andagoodlyre-player，andsowithoutqualificationinallcases，eminenceinrespectofgoodnessbeingiddedtothenameofthefunction(forthefunctionofalyre-playeristoplaythelyre，andthatofagoodlyre-playeristodosowell):ifthisisthecase，andwestatethefunctionofmantobeacertainkindoflife，andthistobeanactivityoractionsofthesoulimplyingarationalprinciple，andthefunctionofagoodmantobethegoodandnobleperformanceofthese，andifanyactioniswellperformedwhenitisperformedinaccordancewiththeappropriateexcellence:ifthisisthecase，humangoodturnsouttobeactivityofsoulinaccordancewithvirtue，andiftherearemorethanonevirtue，inaccordancewiththebestandmostcomplete。
Butwemustadd\'inacompletelife。\'Foroneswallowdoesnotmakeasummer，nordoesoneday；andsotoooneday，orashorttime，doesnotmakeamanblessedandhappy。
Letthisserveasanoutlineofthegood；forwemustpresumablyfirstsketchitroughly，andthenlaterfillinthedetails。Butitwouldseemthatanyoneiscapableofcarryingonandarticulatingwhathasoncebeenwelloutlined，andthattimeisagooddiscovererorpartnerinsuchawork；towhichfactstheadvancesoftheartsaredue；foranyonecanaddwhatislacking。Andwemustalsorememberwhathasbeensaidbefore，andnotlookforprecisioninallthingsalike，butineachclassofthingssuchprecisionasaccordswiththesubject-matter，andsomuchasisappropriatetotheinquiry。
Foracarpenterandageometerinvestigatetherightangleindifferentways；theformerdoessoinsofarastherightangleisusefulforhiswork，whilethelatterinquireswhatitisorwhatsortofthingitis；forheisaspectatorofthetruth。Wemustactinthesameway，then，inallothermattersaswell，thatourmaintaskmaynotbesubordinatedtominorquestions。Normustwedemandthecauseinallmattersalike；itisenoughinsomecasesthatthefactbewellestablished，asinthecaseofthefirstprinciples；thefactistheprimarythingorfirstprinciple。Nowoffirstprinciplesweseesomebyinduction，somebyperception，somebyacertainhabituation，andotherstooinotherways。Buteachsetofprincipleswemusttrytoinvestigateinthenaturalway，andwemusttakepainstostatethemdefinitely，sincetheyhaveagreatinfluenceonwhatfollows。Forthebeginningisthoughttobemorethanhalfofthewhole，andmanyofthequestionsweaskareclearedupbyit。
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Wemustconsiderit，however，inthelightnotonlyofourconclusionandourpremisses，butalsoofwhatiscommonlysaidaboutit；forwithatrueviewallthedataharmonize，butwithafalseonethefactssoonclash。Nowgoodshavebeendividedintothreeclasses，andsomearedescribedasexternal，othersasrelatingtosoulortobody；wecallthosethatrelatetosoulmostproperlyandtrulygoods，andpsychicalactionsandactivitiesweclassasrelatingtosoul。Thereforeouraccountmustbesound，atleastaccordingtothisview，whichisanoldoneandagreedonbyphilosophers。Itiscorrectalsointhatweidentifytheendwithcertainactionsandactivities；forthusitfallsamonggoodsofthesoulandnotamongexternalgoods。Anotherbeliefwhichharmonizeswithouraccountisthatthehappymanliveswellanddoeswell；forwehavepracticallydefinedhappinessasasortofgoodlifeandgoodaction。Thecharacteristicsthatarelookedforinhappinessseemalso，allofthem，tobelongtowhatwehavedefinedhappinessasbeing。Forsomeidentifyhappinesswithvirtue，somewithpracticalwisdom，otherswithakindofphilosophicwisdom，otherswiththese，oroneofthese，accompaniedbypleasureornotwithoutpleasure；whileothersincludealsoexternalprosperity。Nowsomeoftheseviewshavebeenheldbymanymenandmenofold，othersbyafeweminentpersons；
anditisnotprobablethateitheroftheseshouldbeentirelymistaken，butratherthattheyshouldberightinatleastsomeonerespectoreveninmostrespects。
Withthosewhoidentifyhappinesswithvirtueorsomeonevirtueouraccountisinharmony；fortovirtuebelongsvirtuousactivity。Butitmakes，perhaps，nosmalldifferencewhetherweplacethechiefgoodinpossessionorinuse，instateofmindorinactivity。Forthestateofmindmayexistwithoutproducinganygoodresult，asinamanwhoisasleeporinsomeotherwayquiteinactive，buttheactivitycannot；foronewhohastheactivitywillofnecessitybeacting，andactingwell。AndasintheOlympicGamesitisnotthemostbeautifulandthestrongestthatarecrownedbutthosewhocompete(foritissomeofthesethatarevictorious)，sothosewhoactwin，andrightlywin，thenobleandgoodthingsinlife。
Theirlifeisalsoinitselfpleasant。Forpleasureisastateofsoul，andtoeachmanthatwhichheissaidtobealoverofispleasant；e。g。notonlyisahorsepleasanttotheloverofhorses，andaspectacletotheloverofsights，butalsointhesamewayjustactsarepleasanttotheloverofjusticeandingeneralvirtuousactstotheloverofvirtue。Nowformostmentheirpleasuresareinconflictwithoneanotherbecausethesearenotbynaturepleasant，buttheloversofwhatisnoblefindpleasantthethingsthatarebynaturepleasant；andvirtuousactionsaresuch，sothatthesearepleasantforsuchmenaswellasintheirownnature。Theirlife，therefore，hasnofurtherneedofpleasureasasortofadventitiouscharm，buthasitspleasureinitself。For，besideswhatwehavesaid，themanwhodoesnotrejoiceinnobleactionsisnotevengood；
sincenoonewouldcallamanjustwhodidnotenjoyactingjustly，noranymanliberalwhodidnotenjoyliberalactions；andsimilarlyinallothercases。Ifthisisso，virtuousactionsmustbeinthemselvespleasant。Buttheyarealsogoodandnoble，andhaveeachoftheseattributesinthehighestdegree，sincethegoodmanjudgeswellabouttheseattributes；hisjudgementissuchaswehavedescribed。Happinessthenisthebest，noblest，andmostpleasantthingintheworld，andtheseattributesarenotseveredasintheinscriptionatDelos-
Mostnobleisthatwhichisjustest，andbestishealth；
Butpleasantestisittowinwhatwelove。
Forallthesepropertiesbelongtothebestactivities；andthese，orone-thebest-ofthese，weidentifywithhappiness。
Yetevidently，aswesaid，itneedstheexternalgoodsaswell；
foritisimpossible，ornoteasy，todonobleactswithouttheproperequipment。Inmanyactionsweusefriendsandrichesandpoliticalpowerasinstruments；andtherearesomethingsthelackofwhichtakesthelustrefromhappiness，asgoodbirth，goodlychildren，beauty；forthemanwhoisveryuglyinappearanceorill-bornorsolitaryandchildlessisnotverylikelytobehappy，andperhapsamanwouldbestilllesslikelyifhehadthoroughlybadchildrenorfriendsorhadlostgoodchildrenorfriendsbydeath。Aswesaid，then，happinessseemstoneedthissortofprosperityinaddition；forwhichreasonsomeidentifyhappinesswithgoodfortune，thoughothersidentifyitwithvirtue。
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Forthisreasonalsothequestionisasked，whetherhappinessistobeacquiredbylearningorbyhabituationorsomeothersortoftraining，orcomesinvirtueofsomedivineprovidenceoragainbychance。Nowifthereisanygiftofthegodstomen，itisreasonablethathappinessshouldbegod-given，andmostsurelygod-givenofallhumanthingsinasmuchasitisthebest。Butthisquestionwouldperhapsbemoreappropriatetoanotherinquiry；
happinessseems，however，evenifitisnotgod-sentbutcomesasaresultofvirtueandsomeprocessoflearningortraining，tobeamongthemostgodlikethings；forthatwhichistheprizeandendofvirtueseemstobethebestthingintheworld，andsomethinggodlikeandblessed。
Itwillalsoonthisviewbeverygenerallyshared；forallwhoarenotmaimedasregardstheirpotentialityforvirtuemaywinitbyacertainkindofstudyandcare。Butifitisbettertobehappythusthanbychance，itisreasonablethatthefactsshouldbeso，sinceeverythingthatdependsontheactionofnatureisbynatureasgoodasitcanbe，andsimilarlyeverythingthatdependsonartoranyrationalcause，andespeciallyifitdependsonthebestofallcauses。Toentrusttochancewhatisgreatestandmostnoblewouldbeaverydefectivearrangement。
Theanswertothequestionweareaskingisplainalsofromthedefinitionofhappiness；forithasbeensaidtobeavirtuousactivityofsoul，ofacertainkind。Oftheremaininggoods，somemustnecessarilypre-existasconditionsofhappiness，andothersarenaturallyco-operativeandusefulasinstruments。Andthiswillbefoundtoagreewithwhatwesaidattheoutset；forwestatedtheendofpoliticalsciencetobethebestend，andpoliticalsciencespendsmostofitspainsonmakingthecitizenstobeofacertaincharacter，viz。goodandcapableofnobleacts。
Itisnatural，then，thatwecallneitheroxnorhorsenoranyotheroftheanimalshappy；fornoneofthemiscapableofsharinginsuchactivity。Forthisreasonalsoaboyisnothappy；forheisnotyetcapableofsuchacts，owingtohisage；andboyswhoarecalledhappyarebeingcongratulatedbyreasonofthehopeswehaveforthem。
Forthereisrequired，aswesaid，notonlycompletevirtuebutalsoacompletelife，sincemanychangesoccurinlife，andallmannerofchances，andthemostprosperousmayfallintogreatmisfortunesinoldage，asistoldofPriamintheTrojanCycle；andonewhohasexperiencedsuchchancesandhasendedwretchedlynoonecallshappy。
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Mustnooneatall，then，becalledhappywhilehelives；mustwe，asSolonsays，seetheend？Evenifwearetolaydownthisdoctrine，isitalsothecasethatamanishappywhenheisdead？
Orisnotthisquiteabsurd，especiallyforuswhosaythathappinessisanactivity？Butifwedonotcallthedeadmanhappy，andifSolondoesnotmeanthis，butthatonecanthensafelycallamanblessedasbeingatlastbeyondevilsandmisfortunes，thisalsoaffordsmatterfordiscussion；forbothevilandgoodarethoughttoexistforadeadman，asmuchasforonewhoisalivebutnotawareofthem；e。g。honoursanddishonoursandthegoodorbadfortunesofchildrenandingeneralofdescendants。Andthisalsopresentsaproblem；forthoughamanhaslivedhappilyuptooldageandhashadadeathworthyofhislife，manyreversesmaybefallhisdescendants-someofthemmaybegoodandattainthelifetheydeserve，whilewithotherstheoppositemaybethecase；andclearlytoothedegreesofrelationshipbetweenthemandtheirancestorsmayvaryindefinitely。Itwouldbeodd，then，ifthedeadmanweretoshareinthesechangesandbecomeatonetimehappy，atanotherwretched；whileitwouldalsobeoddifthefortunesofthedescendantsdidnotforsometimehavesomeeffectonthehappinessoftheirancestors。
Butwemustreturntoourfirstdifficulty；forperhapsbyaconsiderationofitourpresentproblemmightbesolved。Nowifwemustseetheendandonlythencallamanhappy，notasbeinghappybutashavingbeensobefore，surelythisisaparadox，thatwhenheishappytheattributethatbelongstohimisnottobetrulypredicatedofhimbecausewedonotwishtocalllivingmenhappy，onaccountofthechangesthatmaybefallthem，andbecausewehaveassumedhappinesstobesomethingpermanentandbynomeanseasilychanged，whileasinglemanmaysuffermanyturnsoffortune\'swheel。Forclearlyifweweretokeeppacewithhisfortunes，weshouldoftencallthesamemanhappyandagainwretched，makingthehappymanouttobechameleonandinsecurelybased。Oristhiskeepingpacewithhisfortunesquitewrong？Successorfailureinlifedoesnotdependonthese，buthumanlife，aswesaid，needstheseasmereadditions，whilevirtuousactivitiesortheiroppositesarewhatconstitutehappinessorthereverse。
Thequestionwehavenowdiscussedconfirmsourdefinition。Fornofunctionofmanhassomuchpermanenceasvirtuousactivities(thesearethoughttobemoredurableeventhanknowledgeofthesciences)，andofthesethemselvesthemostvaluablearemoredurablebecausethosewhoarehappyspendtheirlifemostreadilyandmostcontinuouslyinthese；forthisseemstobethereasonwhywedonotforgetthem。Theattributeinquestion，then，willbelongtothehappyman，andhewillbehappythroughouthislife；foralways，orbypreferencetoeverythingelse，hewillbeengagedinvirtuousactionandcontemplation，andhewillbearthechancesoflifemostnoblyandaltogetherdecorously，ifheis\'trulygood\'and\'foursquarebeyondreproach\'。
Nowmanyeventshappenbychance，andeventsdifferinginimportance；smallpiecesofgoodfortuneorofitsoppositeclearlydonotweighdownthescalesoflifeonewayortheother，butamultitudeofgreateventsiftheyturnoutwellwillmakelifehappier(fornotonlyaretheythemselvessuchastoaddbeautytolife，butthewayamandealswiththemmaybenobleandgood)，whileiftheyturnoutilltheycrushandmaimhappiness；fortheybothbringpainwiththemandhindermanyactivities。Yeteveninthesenobilityshinesthrough，whenamanbearswithresignationmanygreatmisfortunes，notthroughinsensibilitytopainbutthroughnobilityandgreatnessofsoul。
Ifactivitiesare，aswesaid，whatgiveslifeitscharacter，nohappymancanbecomemiserable；forhewillneverdotheactsthatarehatefulandmean。Forthemanwhoistrulygoodandwise，wethink，bearsallthechanceslifebecominglyandalwaysmakesthebestofcircumstances，asagoodgeneralmakesthebestmilitaryuseofthearmyathiscommandandagoodshoemakermakesthebestshoesoutofthehidesthataregivenhim；andsowithallothercraftsmen。Andifthisisthecase，thehappymancanneverbecomemiserable；
thoughhewillnotreachblessedness，ifhemeetwithfortuneslikethoseofPriam。
Nor，again，ishemany-colouredandchangeable；forneitherwillhebemovedfromhishappystateeasilyorbyanyordinarymisadventures，butonlybymanygreatones，nor，ifhehashadmanygreatmisadventures，willherecoverhishappinessinashorttime，butifatall，onlyinalongandcompleteoneinwhichhehasattainedmanysplendidsuccesses。
Whenthenshouldwenotsaythatheishappywhoisactiveinaccordancewithcompletevirtueandissufficientlyequippedwithexternalgoods，notforsomechanceperiodbutthroughoutacompletelife？Ormustweadd\'andwhoisdestinedtolivethusanddieasbefitshislife\'？Certainlythefutureisobscuretous，whilehappiness，weclaim，isanendandsomethingineverywayfinal。Ifso，weshallcallhappythoseamonglivingmeninwhomtheseconditionsare，andaretobe，fulfilled-buthappymen。Somuchforthesequestions。
11
Thatthefortunesofdescendantsandofallaman\'sfriendsshouldnotaffecthishappinessatallseemsaveryunfriendlydoctrine，andoneopposedtotheopinionsmenhold；butsincetheeventsthathappenarenumerousandadmitofallsortsofdifference，andsomecomemoreneartousandotherslessso，itseemsalong-nay，aninfinite-tasktodiscusseachindetail；ageneraloutlinewillperhapssuffice。If，then，assomeofaman\'sownmisadventureshaveacertainweightandinfluenceonlifewhileothersare，asitwere，lighter，sotootherearedifferencesamongthemisadventuresofourfriendstakenasawhole，anditmakesadifferencewhetherthevarioussufferingbefallthelivingorthedead(muchmoreeventhanwhetherlawlessandterribledeedsarepresupposedinatragedyordoneonthestage)，thisdifferencealsomustbetakenintoaccount；
orrather，perhaps，thefactthatdoubtisfeltwhetherthedeadshareinanygoodorevil。Foritseems，fromtheseconsiderations，thatevenifanythingwhethergoodorevilpenetratestothem，itmustbesomethingweakandnegligible，eitherinitselforforthem，orifnot，atleastitmustbesuchindegreeandkindasnottomakehappythosewhoarenothappynortotakeawaytheirblessednessfromthosewhoare。Thegoodorbadfortunesoffriends，then，seemtohavesomeeffectsonthedead，buteffectsofsuchakindanddegreeasneithertomakethehappyunhappynortoproduceanyotherchangeofthekind。
12
Thesequestionshavingbeendefinitelyanswered，letusconsiderwhetherhappinessisamongthethingsthatarepraisedorratheramongthethingsthatareprized；forclearlyitisnottobeplacedamongpotentialities。Everythingthatispraisedseemstobepraisedbecauseitisofacertainkindandisrelatedsomehowtosomethingelse；
forwepraisethejustorbravemanandingeneralboththegoodmanandvirtueitselfbecauseoftheactionsandfunctionsinvolved，andwepraisethestrongman，thegoodrunner，andsoon，becauseheisofacertainkindandisrelatedinacertainwaytosomethinggoodandimportant。Thisisclearalsofromthepraisesofthegods；foritseemsabsurdthatthegodsshouldbereferredtoourstandard，butthisisdonebecausepraiseinvolvesareference，tosomethingelse。
Butififpraiseisforthingssuchaswehavedescribed，clearlywhatappliestothebestthingsisnotpraise，butsomethinggreaterandbetter，asisindeedobvious；forwhatwedotothegodsandthemostgodlikeofmenistocallthemblessedandhappy。Andsotoowithgoodthings；noonepraiseshappinessashedoesjustice，butrathercallsitblessed，asbeingsomethingmoredivineandbetter。
Eudoxusalsoseemstohavebeenrightinhismethodofadvocatingthesupremacyofpleasure；hethoughtthatthefactthat，thoughagood，itisnotpraisedindicatedittobebetterthanthethingsthatarepraised，andthatthisiswhatGodandthegoodare；forbyreferencetotheseallotherthingsarejudged。Praiseisappropriatetovirtue，forasaresultofvirtuementendtodonobledeeds，butencomiaarebestowedonacts，whetherofthebodyorofthesoul。Butperhapsnicetyinthesemattersismorepropertothosewhohavemadeastudyofencomia；tousitisclearfromwhathasbeensaidthathappinessisamongthethingsthatareprizedandperfect。Itseemstobesoalsofromthefactthatitisafirstprinciple；foritisforthesakeofthisthatwealldoallthatwedo，andthefirstprincipleandcauseofgoodsis，weclaim，somethingprizedanddivine。
13
Sincehappinessisanactivityofsoulinaccordancewithperfectvirtue，wemustconsiderthenatureofvirtue；forperhapsweshallthusseebetterthenatureofhappiness。Thetruestudentofpolitics，too，isthoughttohavestudiedvirtueaboveallthings；forhewishestomakehisfellowcitizensgoodandobedienttothelaws。AsanexampleofthiswehavethelawgiversoftheCretansandtheSpartans，andanyothersofthekindthattheremayhavebeen。Andifthisinquirybelongstopoliticalscience，clearlythepursuitofitwillbeinaccordancewithouroriginalplan。Butclearlythevirtuewemuststudyishumanvirtue；forthegoodwewereseekingwashumangoodandthehappinesshumanhappiness。Byhumanvirtuewemeannotthatofthebodybutthatofthesoul；andhappinessalsowecallanactivityofsoul。Butifthisisso，clearlythestudentofpoliticsmustknowsomehowthefactsaboutsoul，asthemanwhoistohealtheeyesorthebodyasawholemustknowabouttheeyesorthebody；andallthemoresincepoliticsismoreprizedandbetterthanmedicine；butevenamongdoctorsthebesteducatedspendmuchlabouronacquiringknowledgeofthebody。Thestudentofpolitics，then，muststudythesoul，andmuststudyitwiththeseobjectsinview，anddosojusttotheextentwhichissufficientforthequestionswearediscussing；forfurtherprecisionisperhapssomethingmorelaboriousthanourpurposesrequire。
Somethingsaresaidaboutit，adequatelyenough，eveninthediscussionsoutsideourschool，andwemustusethese；e。g。thatoneelementinthesoulisirrationalandonehasarationalprinciple。
Whethertheseareseparatedasthepartsofthebodyorofanythingdivisibleare，oraredistinctbydefinitionbutbynatureinseparable，likeconvexandconcaveinthecircumferenceofacircle，doesnotaffectthepresentquestion。
Oftheirrationalelementonedivisionseemstobewidelydistributed，andvegetativeinitsnature，Imeanthatwhichcausesnutritionandgrowth；foritisthiskindofpowerofthesoulthatonemustassigntoallnurslingsandtoembryos，andthissamepowertofullgrowncreatures；thisismorereasonablethantoassignsomedifferentpowertothem。Nowtheexcellenceofthisseemstobecommontoallspeciesandnotspecificallyhuman；forthispartorfacultyseemstofunctionmostinsleep，whilegoodnessandbadnessareleastmanifestinsleep(whencecomesthesayingthatthehappyarenotbetteroffthanthewretchedforhalftheirlives；andthishappensnaturallyenough，sincesleepisaninactivityofthesoulinthatrespectinwhichitiscalledgoodorbad)，unlessperhapstoasmallextentsomeofthemovementsactuallypenetratetothesoul，andinthisrespectthedreamsofgoodmenarebetterthanthoseofordinarypeople。Enoughofthissubject，however；letusleavethenutritivefacultyalone，sinceithasbyitsnaturenoshareinhumanexcellence。
Thereseemstobealsoanotherirrationalelementinthesoul-onewhichinasense，however，sharesinarationalprinciple。Forwepraisetherationalprincipleofthecontinentmanandoftheincontinent，andthepartoftheirsoulthathassuchaprinciple，sinceiturgesthemarightandtowardsthebestobjects；butthereisfoundinthemalsoanotherelementnaturallyopposedtotherationalprinciple，whichfightsagainstandresiststhatprinciple。
Forexactlyasparalysedlimbswhenweintendtomovethemtotherightturnonthecontrarytotheleft，soisitwiththesoul；theimpulsesofincontinentpeoplemoveincontrarydirections。Butwhileinthebodyweseethatwhichmovesastray，inthesoulwedonot。Nodoubt，however，wemustnonethelesssupposethatinthesoultoothereissomethingcontrarytotherationalprinciple，resistingandopposingit。Inwhatsenseitisdistinctfromtheotherelementsdoesnotconcernus。Noweventhisseemstohaveashareinarationalprinciple，aswesaid；atanyrateinthecontinentmanitobeystherationalprincipleandpresumablyinthetemperateandbravemanitisstillmoreobedient；forinhimitspeaks，onallmatters，withthesamevoiceastherationalprinciple。
Thereforetheirrationalelementalsoappearstobetwo-fold。Forthevegetativeelementinnowaysharesinarationalprinciple，buttheappetitiveandingeneralthedesiringelementinasensesharesinit，insofarasitlistenstoandobeysit；thisisthesenseinwhichwespeakof\'takingaccount\'ofone\'sfatherorone\'sfriends，notthatinwhichwespeakof\'accountingforamathematicalproperty。
Thattheirrationalelementisinsomesensepersuadedbyarationalprincipleisindicatedalsobythegivingofadviceandbyallreproofandexhortation。Andifthiselementalsomustbesaidtohavearationalprinciple，thatwhichhasarationalprinciple(aswellasthatwhichhasnot)willbetwofold，onesubdivisionhavingitinthestrictsenseandinitself，andtheotherhavingatendencytoobeyasonedoesone\'sfather。
Virtuetooisdistinguishedintokindsinaccordancewiththisdifference；forwesaythatsomeofthevirtuesareintellectualandothersmoral，philosophicwisdomandunderstandingandpracticalwisdombeingintellectual，liberalityandtemperancemoral。Forinspeakingaboutaman\'scharacterwedonotsaythatheiswiseorhasunderstandingbutthatheisgood-temperedortemperate；yetwepraisethewisemanalsowithrespecttohisstateofmind；andofstatesofmindwecallthosewhichmeritpraisevirtues。
BOOKII
1
VIRTUE，then，beingoftwokinds，intellectualandmoral，intellectualvirtueinthemainowesbothitsbirthanditsgrowthtoteaching(forwhichreasonitrequiresexperienceandtime)，whilemoralvirtuecomesaboutasaresultofhabit，whencealsoitsname(ethike)isonethatisformedbyaslightvariationfromthewordethos(habit)。Fromthisitisalsoplainthatnoneofthemoralvirtuesarisesinusbynature；fornothingthatexistsbynaturecanformahabitcontrarytoitsnature。Forinstancethestonewhichbynaturemovesdownwardscannotbehabituatedtomoveupwards，notevenifonetriestotrainitbythrowingituptenthousandtimes；norcanfirebehabituatedtomovedownwards，norcananythingelsethatbynaturebehavesinonewaybetrainedtobehaveinanother。Neitherbynature，then，norcontrarytonaturedothevirtuesariseinus；ratherweareadaptedbynaturetoreceivethem，andaremadeperfectbyhabit。
Again，ofallthethingsthatcometousbynaturewefirstacquirethepotentialityandlaterexhibittheactivity(thisisplaininthecaseofthesenses；foritwasnotbyoftenseeingoroftenhearingthatwegotthesesenses，butonthecontrarywehadthembeforeweusedthem，anddidnotcometohavethembyusingthem)；butthevirtueswegetbyfirstexercisingthem，asalsohappensinthecaseoftheartsaswell。Forthethingswehavetolearnbeforewecandothem，welearnbydoingthem，e。g。menbecomebuildersbybuildingandlyreplayersbyplayingthelyre；sotoowebecomejustbydoingjustacts，temperatebydoingtemperateacts，bravebydoingbraveacts。
Thisisconfirmedbywhathappensinstates；forlegislatorsmakethecitizensgoodbyforminghabitsinthem，andthisisthewishofeverylegislator，andthosewhodonoteffectitmisstheirmark，anditisinthisthatagoodconstitutiondiffersfromabadone。
Again，itisfromthesamecausesandbythesamemeansthateveryvirtueisbothproducedanddestroyed，andsimilarlyeveryart；foritisfromplayingthelyrethatbothgoodandbadlyre-playersareproduced。Andthecorrespondingstatementistrueofbuildersandofalltherest；menwillbegoodorbadbuildersasaresultofbuildingwellorbadly。Forifthiswerenotso，therewouldhavebeennoneedofateacher，butallmenwouldhavebeenborngoodorbadattheircraft。This，then，isthecasewiththevirtuesalso；bydoingtheactsthatwedoinourtransactionswithothermenwebecomejustorunjust，andbydoingtheactsthatwedointhepresenceofdanger，andbeinghabituatedtofeelfearorconfidence，webecomebraveorcowardly。Thesameistrueofappetitesandfeelingsofanger；somemenbecometemperateandgood-tempered，othersself-indulgentandirascible，bybehavinginonewayortheotherintheappropriatecircumstances。Thus，inoneword，statesofcharacterariseoutoflikeactivities。Thisiswhytheactivitiesweexhibitmustbeofacertainkind；itisbecausethestatesofcharactercorrespondtothedifferencesbetweenthese。Itmakesnosmalldifference，then，whetherweformhabitsofonekindorofanotherfromourveryyouth；itmakesaverygreatdifference，orratherallthedifference。
2
Since，then，thepresentinquirydoesnotaimattheoreticalknowledgeliketheothers(forweareinquiringnotinordertoknowwhatvirtueis，butinordertobecomegood，sinceotherwiseourinquirywouldhavebeenofnouse)，wemustexaminethenatureofactions，namelyhowweoughttodothem；forthesedeterminealsothenatureofthestatesofcharacterthatareproduced，aswehavesaid。Now，thatwemustactaccordingtotherightruleisacommonprincipleandmustbeassumed-itwillbediscussedlater，i。e。bothwhattherightruleis，andhowitisrelatedtotheothervirtues。
Butthismustbeagreeduponbeforehand，thatthewholeaccountofmattersofconductmustbegiveninoutlineandnotprecisely，aswesaidattheverybeginningthattheaccountswedemandmustbeinaccordancewiththesubject-matter；mattersconcernedwithconductandquestionsofwhatisgoodforushavenofixity，anymorethanmattersofhealth。Thegeneralaccountbeingofthisnature，theaccountofparticularcasesisyetmorelackinginexactness；fortheydonotfallunderanyartorpreceptbuttheagentsthemselvesmustineachcaseconsiderwhatisappropriatetotheoccasion，ashappensalsointheartofmedicineorofnavigation。
Butthoughourpresentaccountisofthisnaturewemustgivewhathelpwecan。First，then，letusconsiderthis，thatitisthenatureofsuchthingstobedestroyedbydefectandexcess，asweseeinthecaseofstrengthandofhealth(fortogainlightonthingsimperceptiblewemustusetheevidenceofsensiblethings)；bothexcessiveanddefectiveexercisedestroysthestrength，andsimilarlydrinkorfoodwhichisaboveorbelowacertainamountdestroysthehealth，whilethatwhichisproportionatebothproducesandincreasesandpreservesit。Sotooisit，then，inthecaseoftemperanceandcourageandtheothervirtues。Forthemanwhofliesfromandfearseverythinganddoesnotstandhisgroundagainstanythingbecomesacoward，andthemanwhofearsnothingatallbutgoestomeeteverydangerbecomesrash；andsimilarlythemanwhoindulgesineverypleasureandabstainsfromnonebecomesself-indulgent，whilethemanwhoshunseverypleasure，asboorsdo，becomesinawayinsensible；temperanceandcourage，then，aredestroyedbyexcessanddefect，andpreservedbythemean。
Butnotonlyarethesourcesandcausesoftheiroriginationandgrowththesameasthoseoftheirdestruction，butalsothesphereoftheiractualizationwillbethesame；forthisisalsotrueofthethingswhicharemoreevidenttosense，e。g。ofstrength；itisproducedbytakingmuchfoodandundergoingmuchexertion，anditisthestrongmanthatwillbemostabletodothesethings。Sotooisitwiththevirtues；byabstainingfrompleasureswebecometemperate，anditiswhenwehavebecomesothatwearemostabletoabstainfromthem；andsimilarlytoointhecaseofcourage；forbybeinghabituatedtodespisethingsthatareterribleandtostandourgroundagainstthemwebecomebrave，anditiswhenwehavebecomesothatweshallbemostabletostandourgroundagainstthem。
3
Wemusttakeasasignofstatesofcharacterthepleasureorpainthatensuesonacts；forthemanwhoabstainsfrombodilypleasuresanddelightsinthisveryfactistemperate，whilethemanwhoisannoyedatitisself-indulgent，andhewhostandshisgroundagainstthingsthatareterribleanddelightsinthisoratleastisnotpainedisbrave，whilethemanwhoispainedisacoward。Formoralexcellenceisconcernedwithpleasuresandpains；itisonaccountofthepleasurethatwedobadthings，andonaccountofthepainthatweabstainfromnobleones。Henceweoughttohavebeenbroughtupinaparticularwayfromourveryyouth，asPlatosays，soasbothtodelightinandtobepainedbythethingsthatweought；
forthisistherighteducation。
Again，ifthevirtuesareconcernedwithactionsandpassions，andeverypassionandeveryactionisaccompaniedbypleasureandpain，forthisreasonalsovirtuewillbeconcernedwithpleasuresandpains。Thisisindicatedalsobythefactthatpunishmentisinflictedbythesemeans；foritisakindofcure，anditisthenatureofcurestobeeffectedbycontraries。
Again，aswesaidbutlately，everystateofsoulhasanaturerelativetoandconcernedwiththekindofthingsbywhichittendstobemadeworseorbetter；butitisbyreasonofpleasuresandpainsthatmenbecomebad，bypursuingandavoidingthese-eitherthepleasuresandpainstheyoughtnotorwhentheyoughtnotorastheyoughtnot，orbygoingwronginoneoftheothersimilarwaysthatmaybedistinguished。Hencemenevendefinethevirtuesascertainstatesofimpassivityandrest；notwell，however，becausetheyspeakabsolutely，anddonotsay\'asoneought\'and\'asoneoughtnot\'
and\'whenoneoughtoroughtnot\'，andtheotherthingsthatmaybeadded。Weassume，then，thatthiskindofexcellencetendstodowhatisbestwithregardtopleasuresandpains，andvicedoesthecontrary。
Thefollowingfactsalsomayshowusthatvirtueandviceareconcernedwiththesesamethings。Therebeingthreeobjectsofchoiceandthreeofavoidance，thenoble，theadvantageous，thepleasant，andtheircontraries，thebase，theinjurious，thepainful，aboutallofthesethegoodmantendstogorightandthebadmantogowrong，andespeciallyaboutpleasure；forthisiscommontotheanimals，andalsoitaccompaniesallobjectsofchoice；foreventhenobleandtheadvantageousappearpleasant。
Again，ithasgrownupwithusallfromourinfancy；thisiswhyitisdifficulttoruboffthispassion，engrainedasitisinourlife。Andwemeasureevenouractions，someofusmoreandothersless，bytheruleofpleasureandpain。Forthisreason，then，ourwholeinquirymustbeaboutthese；fortofeeldelightandpainrightlyorwronglyhasnosmalleffectonouractions。
Again，itishardertofightwithpleasurethanwithanger，touseHeraclitus\'phrase\'，butbothartandvirtuearealwaysconcernedwithwhatisharder；foreventhegoodisbetterwhenitisharder。
Thereforeforthisreasonalsothewholeconcernbothofvirtueandofpoliticalscienceiswithpleasuresandpains；forthemanwhousesthesewellwillbegood，hewhousesthembadlybad。
Thatvirtue，then，isconcernedwithpleasuresandpains，andthatbytheactsfromwhichitarisesitisbothincreasedand，iftheyaredonedifferently，destroyed，andthattheactsfromwhichitarosearethoseinwhichitactualizesitself-letthisbetakenassaid。
4
Thequestionmightbeasked，；whatwemeanbysayingthatwemustbecomejustbydoingjustacts，andtemperatebydoingtemperateacts；
forifmendojustandtemperateacts，theyarealreadyjustandtemperate，exactlyas，iftheydowhatisinaccordancewiththelawsofgrammarandofmusic，theyaregrammariansandmusicians。
Oristhisnottrueevenofthearts？Itispossibletodosomethingthatisinaccordancewiththelawsofgrammar，eitherbychanceoratthesuggestionofanother。Amanwillbeagrammarian，then，onlywhenhehasbothdonesomethinggrammaticalanddoneitgrammatically；
andthismeansdoingitinaccordancewiththegrammaticalknowledgeinhimself。
Again，thecaseoftheartsandthatofthevirtuesarenotsimilar；
fortheproductsoftheartshavetheirgoodnessinthemselves，sothatitisenoughthattheyshouldhaveacertaincharacter，butiftheactsthatareinaccordancewiththevirtueshavethemselvesacertaincharacteritdoesnotfollowthattheyaredonejustlyortemperately。Theagentalsomustbeinacertainconditionwhenhedoesthem；inthefirstplacehemusthaveknowledge，secondlyhemustchoosetheacts，andchoosethemfortheirownsakes，andthirdlyhisactionmustproceedfromafirmandunchangeablecharacter。
Thesearenotreckonedinasconditionsofthepossessionofthearts，exceptthebareknowledge；butasaconditionofthepossessionofthevirtuesknowledgehaslittleornoweight，whiletheotherconditionscountnotforalittlebutforeverything，i。e。theveryconditionswhichresultfromoftendoingjustandtemperateacts。
Actions，then，arecalledjustandtemperatewhentheyaresuchasthejustorthetemperatemanwoulddo；butitisnotthemanwhodoesthesethatisjustandtemperate，butthemanwhoalsodoesthemasjustandtemperatemendothem。Itiswellsaid，then，thatitisbydoingjustactsthatthejustmanisproduced，andbydoingtemperateactsthetemperateman；withoutdoingthesenoonewouldhaveevenaprospectofbecominggood。
Butmostpeopledonotdothese，buttakerefugeintheoryandthinktheyarebeingphilosophersandwillbecomegoodinthisway，behavingsomewhatlikepatientswholistenattentivelytotheirdoctors，butdononeofthethingstheyareorderedtodo。Asthelatterwillnotbemadewellinbodybysuchacourseoftreatment，theformerwillnotbemadewellinsoulbysuchacourseofphilosophy。
5
Nextwemustconsiderwhatvirtueis。Sincethingsthatarefoundinthesoulareofthreekinds-passions，faculties，statesofcharacter，virtuemustbeoneofthese。BypassionsImeanappetite，anger，fear，confidence，envy，joy，friendlyfeeling，hatred，longing，emulation，pity，andingeneralthefeelingsthatareaccompaniedbypleasureorpain；byfacultiesthethingsinvirtueofwhichwearesaidtobecapableoffeelingthese，e。g。ofbecomingangryorbeingpainedorfeelingpity；bystatesofcharacterthethingsinvirtueofwhichwestandwellorbadlywithreferencetothepassions，e。g。withreferencetoangerwestandbadlyifwefeelitviolentlyortooweakly，andwellifwefeelitmoderately；andsimilarlywithreferencetotheotherpassions。
Nowneitherthevirtuesnorthevicesarepassions，becausewearenotcalledgoodorbadonthegroundofourpassions，butaresocalledonthegroundofourvirtuesandourvices，andbecauseweareneitherpraisednorblamedforourpassions(forthemanwhofeelsfearorangerisnotpraised，noristhemanwhosimplyfeelsangerblamed，butthemanwhofeelsitinacertainway)，butforourvirtuesandourviceswearepraisedorblamed。
Again，wefeelangerandfearwithoutchoice，butthevirtuesaremodesofchoiceorinvolvechoice。Further，inrespectofthepassionswearesaidtobemoved，butinrespectofthevirtuesandtheviceswearesaidnottobemovedbuttobedisposedinaparticularway。
Forthesereasonsalsotheyarenotfaculties；forweareneithercalledgoodnorbad，norpraisednorblamed，forthesimplecapacityoffeelingthepassions；again，wehavethefacultiesbynature，butwearenotmadegoodorbadbynature；wehavespokenofthisbefore。If，then，thevirtuesareneitherpassionsnorfaculties，allthatremainsisthattheyshouldbestatesofcharacter。
Thuswehavestatedwhatvirtueisinrespectofitsgenus。
6
Wemust，however，notonlydescribevirtueasastateofcharacter，butalsosaywhatsortofstateitis。Wemayremark，then，thateveryvirtueorexcellencebothbringsintogoodconditionthethingofwhichitistheexcellenceandmakestheworkofthatthingbedonewell；e。g。theexcellenceoftheeyemakesboththeeyeanditsworkgood；foritisbytheexcellenceoftheeyethatweseewell。Similarlytheexcellenceofthehorsemakesahorsebothgoodinitselfandgoodatrunningandatcarryingitsriderandatawaitingtheattackoftheenemy。Therefore，ifthisistrueineverycase，thevirtueofmanalsowillbethestateofcharacterwhichmakesamangoodandwhichmakeshimdohisownworkwell。
Howthisistohappenwehavestatedalready，butitwillbemadeplainalsobythefollowingconsiderationofthespecificnatureofvirtue。Ineverythingthatiscontinuousanddivisibleitispossibletotakemore，less，oranequalamount，andthateitherintermsofthethingitselforrelativelytous；andtheequalisanintermediatebetweenexcessanddefect。BytheintermediateintheobjectImeanthatwhichisequidistantfromeachoftheextremes，whichisoneandthesameforallmen；bytheintermediaterelativelytousthatwhichisneithertoomuchnortoolittle-andthisisnotone，northesameforall。Forinstance，iftenismanyandtwoisfew，sixistheintermediate，takenintermsoftheobject；
foritexceedsandisexceededbyanequalamount；thisisintermediateaccordingtoarithmeticalproportion。Buttheintermediaterelativelytousisnottobetakenso；iftenpoundsaretoomuchforaparticularpersontoeatandtwotoolittle，itdoesnotfollowthatthetrainerwillordersixpounds；forthisalsoisperhapstoomuchforthepersonwhoistotakeit，ortoolittle-toolittleforMilo，toomuchforthebeginnerinathleticexercises。
Thesameistrueofrunningandwrestling。Thusamasterofanyartavoidsexcessanddefect，butseekstheintermediateandchoosesthis-theintermediatenotintheobjectbutrelativelytous。
Ifitisthus，then，thateveryartdoesitsworkwell-bylookingtotheintermediateandjudglingitsworksbythisstandard(sothatweoftensayofgoodworksofartthatitisnotpossibleeithertotakeawayortoaddanything，implyingthatexcessanddefectdestroythegoodnessofworksofart，whilethemeanpreservesit；andgoodartists，aswesay，looktothisintheirwork)，andif，further，virtueismoreexactandbetterthananyart，asnaturealsois，thenvirtuemusthavethequalityofaimingattheintermediate。I
meanmoralvirtue；foritisthisthatisconcernedwithpassionsandactions，andinthesethereisexcess，defect，andtheintermediate。Forinstance，bothfearandconfidenceandappetiteandangerandpityandingeneralpleasureandpainmaybefeltbothtoomuchandtoolittle，andinbothcasesnotwell；buttofeelthemattherighttimes，withreferencetotherightobjects，towardstherightpeople，withtherightmotive，andintherightway，iswhatisbothintermediateandbest，andthisischaracteristicofvirtue。Similarlywithregardtoactionsalsothereisexcess，defect，andtheintermediate。Nowvirtueisconcernedwithpassionsandactions，inwhichexcessisaformoffailure，andsoisdefect，whiletheintermediateispraisedandisaformofsuccess；andbeingpraisedandbeingsuccessfularebothcharacteristicsofvirtue。
Thereforevirtueisakindofmean，since，aswehaveseen，itaimsatwhatisintermediate。
Again，itispossibletofailinmanyways(forevilbelongstotheclassoftheunlimited，asthePythagoreansconjectured，andgoodtothatofthelimited)，whiletosucceedispossibleonlyinoneway(forwhichreasonalsooneiseasyandtheotherdifficult-tomissthemarkeasy，tohititdifficult)；forthesereasonsalso，then，excessanddefectarecharacteristicofvice，andthemeanofvirtue；
Formenaregoodinbutoneway，butbadinmany。
Virtue，then，isastateofcharacterconcernedwithchoice，lyinginamean，i。e。themeanrelativetous，thisbeingdeterminedbyarationalprinciple，andbythatprinciplebywhichthemanofpracticalwisdomwoulddetermineit。Nowitisameanbetweentwovices，thatwhichdependsonexcessandthatwhichdependsondefect；andagainitisameanbecausethevicesrespectivelyfallshortoforexceedwhatisrightinbothpassionsandactions，whilevirtuebothfindsandchoosesthatwhichisintermediate。Henceinrespectofitssubstanceandthedefinitionwhichstatesitsessencevirtueisamean，withregardtowhatisbestandrightanextreme。
Butnoteveryactionnoreverypassionadmitsofamean；forsomehavenamesthatalreadyimplybadness，e。g。spite，shamelessness，envy，andinthecaseofactionsadultery，theft，murder；foralloftheseandsuchlikethingsimplybytheirnamesthattheyarethemselvesbad，andnottheexcessesordeficienciesofthem。Itisnotpossible，then，evertoberightwithregardtothem；onemustalwaysbewrong。Nordoesgoodnessorbadnesswithregardtosuchthingsdependoncommittingadulterywiththerightwoman，attherighttime，andintherightway，butsimplytodoanyofthemistogowrong。Itwouldbeequallyabsurd，then，toexpectthatinunjust，cowardly，andvoluptuousactionthereshouldbeamean，anexcess，andadeficiency；foratthatratetherewouldbeameanofexcessandofdeficiency，anexcessofexcess，andadeficiencyofdeficiency。Butasthereisnoexcessanddeficiencyoftemperanceandcouragebecausewhatisintermediateisinasenseanextreme，sotoooftheactionswehavementionedthereisnomeannoranyexcessanddeficiency，buthowevertheyaredonetheyarewrong；foringeneralthereisneitherameanofexcessanddeficiency，norexcessanddeficiencyofamean。
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Wemust，however，notonlymakethisgeneralstatement，butalsoapplyittotheindividualfacts。Foramongstatementsaboutconductthosewhicharegeneralapplymorewidely，butthosewhichareparticulararemoregenuine，sinceconducthastodowithindividualcases，andourstatementsmustharmonizewiththefactsinthesecases。Wemaytakethesecasesfromourtable。Withregardtofeelingsoffearandconfidencecourageisthemean；ofthepeoplewhoexceed，hewhoexceedsinfearlessnesshasnoname(manyofthestateshavenoname)，whilethemanwhoexceedsinconfidenceisrash，andhewhoexceedsinfearandfallsshortinconfidenceisacoward。Withregardtopleasuresandpains-notallofthem，andnotsomuchwithregardtothepains-themeanistemperance，theexcessself-indulgence。Personsdeficientwithregardtothepleasuresarenotoftenfound；hencesuchpersonsalsohavereceivednoname。Butletuscallthem\'insensible\'。
Withregardtogivingandtakingofmoneythemeanisliberality，theexcessandthedefectprodigalityandmeanness。Intheseactionspeopleexceedandfallshortincontraryways；theprodigalexceedsinspendingandfallsshortintaking，whilethemeanmanexceedsintakingandfallsshortinspending。(Atpresentwearegivingamereoutlineorsummary，andaresatisfiedwiththis；laterthesestateswillbemoreexactlydetermined。)Withregardtomoneytherearealsootherdispositions-amean，magnificence(forthemagnificentmandiffersfromtheliberalman；theformerdealswithlargesums，thelatterwithsmallones)，anexcess，tastelessnessandvulgarity，andadeficiency，niggardliness；thesedifferfromthestatesopposedtoliberality，andthemodeoftheirdifferencewillbestatedlater。Withregardtohonouranddishonourthemeanisproperpride，theexcessisknownasasortof\'emptyvanity\'，andthedeficiencyisunduehumility；andaswesaidliberalitywasrelatedtomagnificence，differingfromitbydealingwithsmallsums，sothereisastatesimilarlyrelatedtoproperpride，beingconcernedwithsmallhonourswhilethatisconcernedwithgreat。Foritispossibletodesirehonourasoneought，andmorethanoneought，andless，andthemanwhoexceedsinhisdesiresiscalledambitious，themanwhofallsshortunambitious，whiletheintermediatepersonhasnoname。
Thedispositionsalsoarenameless，exceptthatthatoftheambitiousmaniscalledambition。Hencethepeoplewhoareattheextremeslayclaimtothemiddleplace；andweourselvessometimescalltheintermediatepersonambitiousandsometimesunambitious，andsometimespraisetheambitiousmanandsometimestheunambitious。Thereasonofourdoingthiswillbestatedinwhatfollows；butnowletusspeakoftheremainingstatesaccordingtothemethodwhichhasbeenindicated。
Withregardtoangeralsothereisanexcess，adeficiency，andamean。Althoughtheycanscarcelybesaidtohavenames，yetsincewecalltheintermediatepersongood-temperedletuscallthemeangoodtemper；ofthepersonsattheextremeslettheonewhoexceedsbecalledirascible，andhisviceirascibility，andthemanwhofallsshortaninirasciblesortofperson，andthedeficiencyinirascibility。
Therearealsothreeothermeans，whichhaveacertainlikenesstooneanother，butdifferfromoneanother:fortheyareallconcernedwithintercourseinwordsandactions，butdifferinthatoneisconcernedwithtruthinthissphere，theothertwowithpleasantness；andofthisonekindisexhibitedingivingamusement，theotherinallthecircumstancesoflife。Wemustthereforespeakofthesetoo，thatwemaythebetterseethatinallthingsthemeanispraise-worthy，andtheextremesneitherpraiseworthynorright，butworthyofblame。Nowmostofthesestatesalsohavenonames，butwemusttry，asintheothercases，toinventnamesourselvessothatwemaybeclearandeasytofollow。Withregardtotruth，then，theintermediateisatruthfulsortofpersonandthemeanmaybecalledtruthfulness，whilethepretencewhichexaggeratesisboastfulnessandthepersoncharacterizedbyitaboaster，andthatwhichunderstatesismockmodestyandthepersoncharacterizedbyitmock-modest。Withregardtopleasantnessinthegivingofamusementtheintermediatepersonisready-wittedandthedispositionreadywit，theexcessisbuffooneryandthepersoncharacterizedbyitabuffoon，whilethemanwhofallsshortisasortofboorandhisstateisboorishness。Withregardtotheremainingkindofpleasantness，thatwhichisexhibitedinlifeingeneral，themanwhoispleasantintherightwayisfriendlyandthemeanisfriendliness，whilethemanwhoexceedsisanobsequiouspersonifhehasnoendinview，aflattererifheisaimingathisownadvantage，andthemanwhofallsshortandisunpleasantinallcircumstancesisaquarrelsomeandsurlysortofperson。
Therearealsomeansinthepassionsandconcernedwiththepassions；sinceshameisnotavirtue，andyetpraiseisextendedtothemodestman。Foreveninthesemattersonemanissaidtobeintermediate，andanothertoexceed，asforinstancethebashfulmanwhoisashamedofeverything；whilehewhofallsshortorisnotashamedofanythingatallisshameless，andtheintermediatepersonismodest。Righteousindignationisameanbetweenenvyandspite，andthesestatesareconcernedwiththepainandpleasurethatarefeltatthefortunesofourneighbours；themanwhoischaracterizedbyrighteousindignationispainedatundeservedgoodfortune，theenviousman，goingbeyondhim，ispainedatallgoodfortune，andthespitefulmanfallssofarshortofbeingpainedthatheevenrejoices。Butthesestatestherewillbeanopportunityofdescribingelsewhere；withregardtojustice，sinceithasnotonesimplemeaning，weshall，afterdescribingtheotherstates，distinguishitstwokindsandsayhoweachofthemisamean；andsimilarlyweshalltreatalsooftherationalvirtues。
