第2章

8

Therearethreekindsofdisposition，then，twoofthemvices，involvingexcessanddeficiencyrespectively，andoneavirtue，viz。

themean，andallareinasenseopposedtoall；fortheextremestatesarecontrarybothtotheintermediatestateandtoeachother，andtheintermediatetotheextremes；astheequalisgreaterrelativelytotheless，lessrelativelytothegreater，sothemiddlestatesareexcessiverelativelytothedeficiencies，deficientrelativelytotheexcesses，bothinpassionsandinactions。

Forthebravemanappearsrashrelativelytothecoward，andcowardlyrelativelytotherashman；andsimilarlythetemperatemanappearsself-indulgentrelativelytotheinsensibleman，insensiblerelativelytotheself-indulgent，andtheliberalmanprodigalrelativelytothemeanman，meanrelativelytotheprodigal。Hencealsothepeopleattheextremespushtheintermediatemaneachovertotheother，andthebravemaniscalledrashbythecoward，cowardlybytherashman，andcorrespondinglyintheothercases。

Thesestatesbeingthusopposedtooneanother，thegreatestcontrarietyisthatoftheextremestoeachother，ratherthantotheintermediate；forthesearefurtherfromeachotherthanfromtheintermediate，asthegreatisfurtherfromthesmallandthesmallfromthegreatthanbotharefromtheequal。Again，totheintermediatesomeextremesshowacertainlikeness，asthatofrashnesstocourageandthatofprodigalitytoliberality；buttheextremesshowthegreatestunlikenesstoeachother；nowcontrariesaredefinedasthethingsthatarefurthestfromeachother，sothatthingsthatarefurtherapartaremorecontrary。

Tothemeaninsomecasesthedeficiency，insometheexcessismoreopposed；e。g。itisnotrashness，whichisanexcess，butcowardice，whichisadeficiency，thatismoreopposedtocourage，andnotinsensibility，whichisadeficiency，butself-indulgence，whichisanexcess，thatismoreopposedtotemperance。Thishappensfromtworeasons，onebeingdrawnfromthethingitself；forbecauseoneextremeisnearerandlikertotheintermediate，weopposenotthisbutratheritscontrarytotheintermediate。E。g。sincerashnessisthoughtlikerandnearertocourage，andcowardicemoreunlike，weopposeratherthelattertocourage；forthingsthatarefurtherfromtheintermediatearethoughtmorecontrarytoit。This，then，isonecause，drawnfromthethingitself；anotherisdrawnfromourselves；forthethingstowhichweourselvesmorenaturallytendseemmorecontrarytotheintermediate。Forinstance，weourselvestendmorenaturallytopleasures，andhencearemoreeasilycarriedawaytowardsself-indulgencethantowardspropriety。Wedescribeascontrarytothemean，then，ratherthedirectionsinwhichwemoreoftengotogreatlengths；andthereforeself-indulgence，whichisanexcess，isthemorecontrarytotemperance。

9

Thatmoralvirtueisamean，then，andinwhatsenseitisso，andthatitisameanbetweentwovices，theoneinvolvingexcess，theotherdeficiency，andthatitissuchbecauseitscharacteristoaimatwhatisintermediateinpassionsandinactions，hasbeensufficientlystated。Hencealsoitisnoeasytasktobegood。Forineverythingitisnoeasytasktofindthemiddle，e。g。tofindthemiddleofacircleisnotforeveryonebutforhimwhoknows；so，too，anyonecangetangry-thatiseasy-orgiveorspendmoney；buttodothistotherightperson，totherightextent，attherighttime，withtherightmotive，andintherightway，thatisnotforeveryone，norisiteasy；whereforegoodnessisbothrareandlaudableandnoble。

Hencehewhoaimsattheintermediatemustfirstdepartfromwhatisthemorecontrarytoit，asCalypsoadvises-

Holdtheshipoutbeyondthatsurfandspray。

Foroftheextremesoneismoreerroneous，onelessso；therefore，sincetohitthemeanishardintheextreme，wemustasasecondbest，aspeoplesay，taketheleastoftheevils；andthiswillbedonebestinthewaywedescribe。Butwemustconsiderthethingstowardswhichweourselvesalsoareeasilycarriedaway；forsomeofustendtoonething，sometoanother；andthiswillberecognizablefromthepleasureandthepainwefeel。Wemustdragourselvesawaytothecontraryextreme；forweshallgetintotheintermediatestatebydrawingwellawayfromerror，aspeopledoinstraighteningsticksthatarebent。

Nowineverythingthepleasantorpleasureismosttobeguardedagainst；forwedonotjudgeitimpartially。Weought，then，tofeeltowardspleasureastheeldersofthepeoplefelttowardsHelen，andinallcircumstancesrepeattheirsaying；forifwedismisspleasurethuswearelesslikelytogoastray。Itisbydoingthis，then，(tosumthematterup)thatweshallbestbeabletohitthemean。

Butthisisnodoubtdifficult，andespeciallyinindividualcases；fororisnoteasytodeterminebothhowandwithwhomandonwhatprovocationandhowlongoneshouldbeangry；forwetoosometimespraisethosewhofallshortandcallthemgood-tempered，butsometimeswepraisethosewhogetangryandcallthemmanly。Theman，however，whodeviateslittlefromgoodnessisnotblamed，whetherhedosointhedirectionofthemoreoroftheless，butonlythemanwhodeviatesmorewidely；forhedoesnotfailtobenoticed。Butuptowhatpointandtowhatextentamanmustdeviatebeforehebecomesblameworthyitisnoteasytodeterminebyreasoning，anymorethananythingelsethatisperceivedbythesenses；suchthingsdependonparticularfacts，andthedecisionrestswithperception。Somuch，then，isplain，thattheintermediatestateisinallthingstobepraised，butthatwemustinclinesometimestowardstheexcess，sometimestowardsthedeficiency；forsoshallwemosteasilyhitthemeanandwhatisright。

BOOKIII

1

SINCEvirtueisconcernedwithpassionsandactions，andonvoluntarypassionsandactionspraiseandblamearebestowed，onthosethatareinvoluntarypardon，andsometimesalsopity，todistinguishthevoluntaryandtheinvoluntaryispresumablynecessaryforthosewhoarestudyingthenatureofvirtue，andusefulalsoforlegislatorswithaviewtotheassigningbothofhonoursandofpunishments。Thosethings，then，arethought-involuntary，whichtakeplaceundercompulsionorowingtoignorance；andthatiscompulsoryofwhichthemovingprincipleisoutside，beingaprincipleinwhichnothingiscontributedbythepersonwhoisactingorisfeelingthepassion，e。g。ifheweretobecarriedsomewherebyawind，orbymenwhohadhimintheirpower。

Butwithregardtothethingsthataredonefromfearofgreaterevilsorforsomenobleobject(e。g。ifatyrantweretoorderonetodosomethingbase，havingone\'sparentsandchildreninhispower，andifonedidtheactiontheyweretobesaved，butotherwisewouldbeputtodeath)，itmaybedebatedwhethersuchactionsareinvoluntaryorvoluntary。Somethingofthesorthappensalsowithregardtothethrowingofgoodsoverboardinastorm；forintheabstractnoonethrowsgoodsawayvoluntarily，butonconditionofitssecuringthesafetyofhimselfandhiscrewanysensiblemandoesso。Suchactions，then，aremixed，butaremorelikevoluntaryactions；fortheyareworthyofchoiceatthetimewhentheyaredone，andtheendofanactionisrelativetotheoccasion。Boththeterms，then，\'voluntary\'and\'involuntary\'，mustbeusedwithreferencetothemomentofaction。Nowthemanactsvoluntarily；fortheprinciplethatmovestheinstrumentalpartsofthebodyinsuchactionsisinhim，andthethingsofwhichthemovingprincipleisinamanhimselfareinhispowertodoornottodo。Suchactions，therefore，arevoluntary，butintheabstractperhapsinvoluntary；fornoonewouldchooseanysuchactinitself。

Forsuchactionsmenaresometimesevenpraised，whentheyenduresomethingbaseorpainfulinreturnforgreatandnobleobjectsgained；intheoppositecasetheyareblamed，sincetoendurethegreatestindignitiesfornonobleendorforatriflingendisthemarkofaninferiorperson。Onsomeactionspraiseindeedisnotbestowed，butpardonis，whenonedoeswhatheoughtnotunderpressurewhichoverstrainshumannatureandwhichnoonecouldwithstand。Butsomeacts，perhaps，wecannotbeforcedtodo，butoughtrathertofacedeathafterthemostfearfulsufferings；forthethingsthat\'forced\'EuripidesAlcmaeontoslayhismotherseemabsurd。Itisdifficultsometimestodeterminewhatshouldbechosenatwhatcost，andwhatshouldbeenduredinreturnforwhatgain，andyetmoredifficulttoabidebyourdecisions；forasarulewhatisexpectedispainful，andwhatweareforcedtodoisbase，whencepraiseandblamearebestowedonthosewhohavebeencompelledorhavenot。

Whatsortofacts，then，shouldbecalledcompulsory？Weanswerthatwithoutqualificationactionsaresowhenthecauseisintheexternalcircumstancesandtheagentcontributesnothing。Butthethingsthatinthemselvesareinvoluntary，butnowandinreturnforthesegainsareworthyofchoice，andwhosemovingprincipleisintheagent，areinthemselvesinvoluntary，butnowandinreturnforthesegainsvoluntary。Theyaremorelikevoluntaryacts；foractionsareintheclassofparticulars，andtheparticularactsherearevoluntary。Whatsortofthingsaretobechosen，andinreturnforwhat，itisnoteasytostate；fortherearemanydifferencesintheparticularcases。

Butifsomeoneweretosaythatpleasantandnobleobjectshaveacompellingpower，forcingusfromwithout，allactswouldbeforhimcompulsory；foritisfortheseobjectsthatallmendoeverythingtheydo。Andthosewhoactundercompulsionandunwillinglyactwithpain，butthosewhodoactsfortheirpleasantnessandnobilitydothemwithpleasure；itisabsurdtomakeexternalcircumstancesresponsible，andnotoneself，asbeingeasilycaughtbysuchattractions，andtomakeoneselfresponsiblefornobleactsbutthepleasantobjectsresponsibleforbaseacts。Thecompulsory，then，seemstobethatwhosemovingprincipleisoutside，thepersoncompelledcontributingnothing。

Everythingthatisdonebyreasonofignoranceisnotvoluntary；

itisonlywhatproducespainandrepentancethatisinvoluntary。

Forthemanwhohasdonesomethingowingtoignorance，andfeelsnottheleastvexationathisaction，hasnotactedvoluntarily，sincehedidnotknowwhathewasdoing，noryetinvoluntarily，sinceheisnotpained。Ofpeople，then，whoactbyreasonofignorancehewhorepentsisthoughtaninvoluntaryagent，andthemanwhodoesnotrepentmay，sinceheisdifferent，becalledanotvoluntaryagent；for，sincehediffersfromtheother，itisbetterthatheshouldhaveanameofhisown。

Actingbyreasonofignoranceseemsalsotobedifferentfromactinginignorance；forthemanwhoisdrunkorinarageisthoughttoactasaresultnotofignorancebutofoneofthecausesmentioned，yetnotknowinglybutinignorance。

Noweverywickedmanisignorantofwhatheoughttodoandwhatheoughttoabstainfrom，anditisbyreasonoferrorofthiskindthatmenbecomeunjustandingeneralbad；buttheterm\'involuntary\'tendstobeusednotifamanisignorantofwhatistohisadvantage-foritisnotmistakenpurposethatcausesinvoluntaryaction(itleadsrathertowickedness)，norignoranceoftheuniversal(forthatmenareblamed)，butignoranceofparticulars，i。e。ofthecircumstancesoftheactionandtheobjectswithwhichitisconcerned。Foritisonthesethatbothpityandpardondepend，sincethepersonwhoisignorantofanyoftheseactsinvoluntarily。

Perhapsitisjustaswell，therefore，todeterminetheirnatureandnumber。Amanmaybeignorant，then，ofwhoheis，whatheisdoing，whatorwhomheisactingon，andsometimesalsowhat(e。g。whatinstrument)heisdoingitwith，andtowhatend(e。g。hemaythinkhisactwillconducetosomeone\'ssafety)，andhowheisdoingit(e。g。whethergentlyorviolently)。Nowofallofthesenoonecouldbeignorantunlessheweremad，andevidentlyalsohecouldnotbeignorantoftheagent；forhowcouldhenotknowhimself？Butofwhatheisdoingamanmightbeignorant，asforinstancepeoplesay\'itslippedoutoftheirmouthsastheywerespeaking\'，or\'theydidnotknowitwasasecret\'，asAeschylussaidofthemysteries，oramanmightsayhe\'letitgooffwhenhemerelywantedtoshowitsworking\'，asthemandidwiththecatapult。Again，onemightthinkone\'ssonwasanenemy，asMeropedid，orthatapointedspearhadabuttononit，orthatastonewaspumicestone；oronemightgiveamanadraughttosavehim，andreallykillhim；oronemightwanttotouchaman，aspeopledoinsparring，andreallywoundhim。Theignorancemayrelate，then，toanyofthesethings，i。e。ofthecircumstancesoftheaction，andthemanwhowasignorantofanyoftheseisthoughttohaveactedinvoluntarily，andespeciallyifhewasignorantonthemostimportantpoints；andthesearethoughttobethecircumstancesoftheactionanditsend。Further，thedoingofanactthatiscalledinvoluntaryinvirtueofignoranceofthissortmustbepainfulandinvolverepentance。

Sincethatwhichisdoneundercompulsionorbyreasonofignoranceisinvoluntary，thevoluntarywouldseemtobethatofwhichthemovingprincipleisintheagenthimself，hebeingawareoftheparticularcircumstancesoftheaction。Presumablyactsdonebyreasonofangerorappetitearenotrightlycalledinvoluntary。Forinthefirstplace，onthatshowingnoneoftheotheranimalswillactvoluntarily，norwillchildren；andsecondly，isitmeantthatwedonotdovoluntarilyanyoftheactsthatareduetoappetiteoranger，orthatwedothenobleactsvoluntarilyandthebaseactsinvoluntarily？Isnotthisabsurd，whenoneandthesamethingisthecause？Butitwouldsurelybeoddtodescribeasinvoluntarythethingsoneoughttodesire；andweoughtbothtobeangryatcertainthingsandtohaveanappetiteforcertainthings，e。g。forhealthandforlearning。Alsowhatisinvoluntaryisthoughttobepainful，butwhatisinaccordancewithappetiteisthoughttobepleasant。

Again，whatisthedifferenceinrespectofinvoluntarinessbetweenerrorscommitteduponcalculationandthosecommittedinanger？Botharetobeavoided，buttheirrationalpassionsarethoughtnotlesshumanthanreasonis，andthereforealsotheactionswhichproceedfromangerorappetitearetheman\'sactions。Itwouldbeodd，then，totreatthemasinvoluntary。

2

Boththevoluntaryandtheinvoluntaryhavingbeendelimited，wemustnextdiscusschoice；foritisthoughttobemostcloselyboundupwithvirtueandtodiscriminatecharactersbetterthanactionsdo。

Choice，then，seemstobevoluntary，butnotthesamethingasthevoluntary；thelatterextendsmorewidely。Forbothchildrenandtheloweranimalsshareinvoluntaryaction，butnotinchoice，andactsdoneonthespurofthemomentwedescribeasvoluntary，butnotaschosen。

Thosewhosayitisappetiteorangerorwishorakindofopiniondonotseemtoberight。Forchoiceisnotcommontoirrationalcreaturesaswell，butappetiteandangerare。Again，theincontinentmanactswithappetite，butnotwithchoice；whilethecontinentmanonthecontraryactswithchoice，butnotwithappetite。

Again，appetiteiscontrarytochoice，butnotappetitetoappetite。

Again，appetiterelatestothepleasantandthepainful，choiceneithertothepainfulnortothepleasant。

Stilllessisitanger；foractsduetoangerarethoughttobelessthananyothersobjectsofchoice。

Butneitherisitwish，thoughitseemsneartoit；forchoicecannotrelatetoimpossibles，andifanyonesaidhechosethemhewouldbethoughtsilly；buttheremaybeawishevenforimpossibles，e。g。forimmortality。Andwishmayrelatetothingsthatcouldinnowaybebroughtaboutbyone\'sownefforts，e。g。

thataparticularactororathleteshouldwininacompetition；butnoonechoosessuchthings，butonlythethingsthathethinkscouldbebroughtaboutbyhisownefforts。Again，wishrelatesrathertotheend，choicetothemeans；forinstance，wewishtobehealthy，butwechoosetheactswhichwillmakeushealthy，andwewishtobehappyandsaywedo，butwecannotwellsaywechoosetobeso；for，ingeneral，choiceseemstorelatetothethingsthatareinourownpower。

Forthisreason，too，itcannotbeopinion；foropinionisthoughttorelatetoallkindsofthings，nolesstoeternalthingsandimpossiblethingsthantothingsinourownpower；anditisdistinguishedbyitsfalsityortruth，notbyitsbadnessorgoodness，whilechoiceisdistinguishedratherbythese。

Nowwithopinioningeneralperhapsnooneevensaysitisidentical。Butitisnotidenticalevenwithanykindofopinion；

forbychoosingwhatisgoodorbadwearemenofacertaincharacter，whichwearenotbyholdingcertainopinions。Andwechoosetogetoravoidsomethinggoodorbad，butwehaveopinionsaboutwhatathingisorwhomitisgoodfororhowitisgoodforhim；wecanhardlybesaidtoopinetogetoravoidanything。Andchoiceispraisedforbeingrelatedtotherightobjectratherthanforbeingrightlyrelatedtoit，opinionforbeingtrulyrelatedtoitsobject。Andwechoosewhatwebestknowtobegood，butweopinewhatwedonotquiteknow；anditisnotthesamepeoplethatarethoughttomakethebestchoicesandtohavethebestopinions，butsomearethoughttohavefairlygoodopinions，butbyreasonofvicetochoosewhattheyshouldnot。Ifopinionprecedeschoiceoraccompaniesit，thatmakesnodifference；foritisnotthisthatweareconsidering，butwhetheritisidenticalwithsomekindofopinion。

What，then，orwhatkindofthingisit，sinceitisnoneofthethingswehavementioned？Itseemstobevoluntary，butnotallthatisvoluntarytobeanobjectofchoice。Isit，then，whathasbeendecidedonbypreviousdeliberation？Atanyratechoiceinvolvesarationalprincipleandthought。Eventhenameseemstosuggestthatitiswhatischosenbeforeotherthings。

3

Dowedeliberateabouteverything，andiseverythingapossiblesubjectofdeliberation，orisdeliberationimpossibleaboutsomethings？Weoughtpresumablytocallnotwhatafooloramadmanwoulddeliberateabout，butwhatasensiblemanwoulddeliberateabout，asubjectofdeliberation。Nowabouteternalthingsnoonedeliberates，e。g。aboutthematerialuniverseortheincommensurabilityofthediagonalandthesideofasquare。Butnomoredowedeliberateaboutthethingsthatinvolvemovementbutalwayshappeninthesameway，whetherofnecessityorbynatureorfromanyothercause，e。g。thesolsticesandtherisingsofthestars；

noraboutthingsthathappennowinoneway，nowinanother，e。g。

droughtsandrains；noraboutchanceevents，likethefindingoftreasure。Butwedonotdeliberateevenaboutallhumanaffairs；forinstance，noSpartandeliberatesaboutthebestconstitutionfortheScythians。Fornoneofthesethingscanbebroughtaboutbyourownefforts。

Wedeliberateaboutthingsthatareinourpowerandcanbedone；

andtheseareinfactwhatisleft。Fornature，necessity，andchancearethoughttobecauses，andalsoreasonandeverythingthatdependsonman。Noweveryclassofmendeliberatesaboutthethingsthatcanbedonebytheirownefforts。Andinthecaseofexactandself-containedsciencesthereisnodeliberation，e。g。aboutthelettersofthealphabet(forwehavenodoubthowtheyshouldbewritten)；butthethingsthatarebroughtaboutbyourownefforts，butnotalwaysinthesameway，arethethingsaboutwhichwedeliberate，e。g。questionsofmedicaltreatmentorofmoney-making。

Andwedosomoreinthecaseoftheartofnavigationthaninthatofgymnastics，inasmuchasithasbeenlessexactlyworkedout，andagainaboutotherthingsinthesameratio，andmorealsointhecaseoftheartsthaninthatofthesciences；forwehavemoredoubtabouttheformer。Deliberationisconcernedwiththingsthathappeninacertainwayforthemostpart，butinwhichtheeventisobscure，andwiththingsinwhichitisindeterminate。Wecallinotherstoaidusindeliberationonimportantquestions，distrustingourselvesasnotbeingequaltodeciding。

Wedeliberatenotaboutendsbutaboutmeans。Foradoctordoesnotdeliberatewhetherheshallheal，noranoratorwhetherheshallpersuade，norastatesmanwhetherheshallproducelawandorder，nordoesanyoneelsedeliberateabouthisend。Theyassumetheendandconsiderhowandbywhatmeansitistobeattained；andifitseemstobeproducedbyseveralmeanstheyconsiderbywhichitismosteasilyandbestproduced，whileifitisachievedbyoneonlytheyconsiderhowitwillbeachievedbythisandbywhatmeansthiswillbeachieved，tilltheycometothefirstcause，whichintheorderofdiscoveryislast。Forthepersonwhodeliberatesseemstoinvestigateandanalyseinthewaydescribedasthoughhewereanalysingageometricalconstruction(notallinvestigationappearstobedeliberation-forinstancemathematicalinvestigations-butalldeliberationisinvestigation)，andwhatislastintheorderofanalysisseemstobefirstintheorderofbecoming。Andifwecomeonanimpossibility，wegiveupthesearch，e。g。ifweneedmoneyandthiscannotbegot；butifathingappearspossiblewetrytodoit。

By\'possible\'thingsImeanthingsthatmightbebroughtaboutbyourownefforts；andtheseinasenseincludethingsthatcanbebroughtaboutbytheeffortsofourfriends，sincethemovingprincipleisinourselves。Thesubjectofinvestigationissometimestheinstruments，sometimestheuseofthem；andsimilarlyintheothercases-sometimesthemeans，sometimesthemodeofusingitorthemeansofbringingitabout。Itseems，then，ashasbeensaid，thatmanisamovingprincipleofactions；nowdeliberationisaboutthethingstobedonebytheagenthimself，andactionsareforthesakeofthingsotherthanthemselves。Fortheendcannotbeasubjectofdeliberation，butonlythemeans；norindeedcantheparticularfactsbeasubjectofit，aswhetherthisisbreadorhasbeenbakedasitshould；forthesearemattersofperception。Ifwearetobealwaysdeliberating，weshallhavetogoontoinfinity。

Thesamethingisdeliberateduponandischosen，exceptthattheobjectofchoiceisalreadydeterminate，sinceitisthatwhichhasbeendecideduponasaresultofdeliberationthatistheobjectofchoice。Foreveryoneceasestoinquirehowheistoactwhenhehasbroughtthemovingprinciplebacktohimselfandtotherulingpartofhimself；forthisiswhatchooses。Thisisplainalsofromtheancientconstitutions，whichHomerrepresented；forthekingsannouncedtheirchoicestothepeople。Theobjectofchoicebeingoneofthethingsinourownpowerwhichisdesiredafterdeliberation，choicewillbedeliberatedesireofthingsinourownpower；forwhenwehavedecidedasaresultofdeliberation，wedesireinaccordancewithourdeliberation。

Wemaytakeit，then，thatwehavedescribedchoiceinoutline，andstatedthenatureofitsobjectsandthefactthatitisconcernedwithmeans。

4

Thatwishisfortheendhasalreadybeenstated；somethinkitisforthegood，othersfortheapparentgood。Nowthosewhosaythatthegoodistheobjectofwishmustadmitinconsequencethatthatwhichthemanwhodoesnotchoosearightwishesforisnotanobjectofwish(forifitistobeso，itmustalsobegood；butitwas，ifitsohappened，bad)；whilethosewhosaytheapparentgoodistheobjectofwishmustadmitthatthereisnonaturalobjectofwish，butonlywhatseemsgoodtoeachman。Nowdifferentthingsappeargoodtodifferentpeople，and，ifitsohappens，evencontrarythings。

Iftheseconsequencesareunpleasing，arewetosaythatabsolutelyandintruththegoodistheobjectofwish，butforeachpersontheapparentgood；thatthatwhichisintruthanobjectofwishisanobjectofwishtothegoodman，whileanychancethingmaybesothebadman，asinthecaseofbodiesalsothethingsthatareintruthwholesomearewholesomeforbodieswhichareingoodcondition，whileforthosethatarediseasedotherthingsarewholesome-orbitterorsweetorhotorheavy，andsoon；sincethegoodmanjudgeseachclassofthingsrightly，andineachthetruthappearstohim？Foreachstateofcharacterhasitsownideasofthenobleandthepleasant，andperhapsthegoodmandiffersfromothersmostbyseeingthetruthineachclassofthings，beingasitwerethenormandmeasureofthem。Inmostthingstheerrorseemstobeduetopleasure；foritappearsagoodwhenitisnot。Wethereforechoosethepleasantasagood，andavoidpainasanevil。

5

Theend，then，beingwhatwewishfor，themeanswhatwedeliberateaboutandchoose，actionsconcerningmeansmustbeaccordingtochoiceandvoluntary。Nowtheexerciseofthevirtuesisconcernedwithmeans。Thereforevirtuealsoisinourownpower，andsotoovice。Forwhereitisinourpowertoactitisalsoinourpowernottoact，andviceversa；sothat，iftoact，wherethisisnoble，isinourpower，nottoact，whichwillbebase，willalsobeinourpower，andifnottoact，wherethisisnoble，isinourpower，toact，whichwillbebase，willalsobeinourpower。Nowifitisinourpowertodonobleorbaseacts，andlikewiseinourpowernottodothem，andthiswaswhatbeinggoodorbadmeant，thenitisinourpowertobevirtuousorvicious。

Thesayingthat\'nooneisvoluntarilywickednorinvoluntarilyhappy\'seemstobepartlyfalseandpartlytrue；fornooneisinvoluntarilyhappy，butwickednessisvoluntary。Orelseweshallhavetodisputewhathasjustbeensaid，atanyrate，anddenythatmanisamovingprincipleorbegetterofhisactionsasofchildren。

Butifthesefactsareevidentandwecannotreferactionstomovingprinciplesotherthanthoseinourselves，theactswhosemovingprinciplesareinusmustthemselvesalsobeinourpowerandvoluntary。

Witnessseemstobebornetothisbothbyindividualsintheirprivatecapacityandbylegislatorsthemselves；forthesepunishandtakevengeanceonthosewhodowickedacts(unlesstheyhaveactedundercompulsionorasaresultofignoranceforwhichtheyarenotthemselvesresponsible)，whiletheyhonourthosewhodonobleacts，asthoughtheymeanttoencouragethelatteranddetertheformer。Butnooneisencouragedtodothethingsthatareneitherinourpowernorvoluntary；itisassumedthatthereisnogaininbeingpersuadednottobehotorinpainorhungryorthelike，sinceweshallexperiencethesefeelingsnonetheless。Indeed，wepunishamanforhisveryignorance，ifheisthoughtresponsiblefortheignorance，aswhenpenaltiesaredoubledinthecaseofdrunkenness；forthemovingprincipleisinthemanhimself，sincehehadthepowerofnotgettingdrunkandhisgettingdrunkwasthecauseofhisignorance。Andwepunishthosewhoareignorantofanythinginthelawsthattheyoughttoknowandthatisnotdifficult，andsotoointhecaseofanythingelsethattheyarethoughttobeignorantofthroughcarelessness；weassumethatitisintheirpowernottobeignorant，sincetheyhavethepoweroftakingcare。

Butperhapsamanisthekindofmannottotakecare。Stilltheyarethemselvesbytheirslacklivesresponsibleforbecomingmenofthatkind，andmenmakethemselvesresponsibleforbeingunjustorself-indulgent，intheonecasebycheatingandintheotherbyspendingtheirtimeindrinkingboutsandthelike；foritisactivitiesexercisedonparticularobjectsthatmakethecorrespondingcharacter。Thisisplainfromthecaseofpeopletrainingforanycontestoraction；theypractisetheactivitythewholetime。Nownottoknowthatitisfromtheexerciseofactivitiesonparticularobjectsthatstatesofcharacterareproducedisthemarkofathoroughlysenselessperson。Again，itisirrationaltosupposethatamanwhoactsunjustlydoesnotwishtobeunjustoramanwhoactsself-indulgentlytobeself-indulgent。Butifwithoutbeingignorantamandoesthethingswhichwillmakehimunjust，hewillbeunjustvoluntarily。Yetitdoesnotfollowthatifhewisheshewillceasetobeunjustandwillbejust。Forneitherdoesthemanwhoisillbecomewellonthoseterms。Wemaysupposeacaseinwhichheisillvoluntarily，throughlivingincontinentlyanddisobeyinghisdoctors。Inthatcaseitwasthenopentohimnottobeill，butnotnow，whenhehasthrownawayhischance，justaswhenyouhaveletastonegoitistoolatetorecoverit；butyetitwasinyourpowertothrowit，sincethemovingprinciplewasinyou。So，too，totheunjustandtotheself-indulgentmanitwasopenatthebeginningnottobecomemenofthiskind，andsotheyareunjustandselfindulgentvoluntarily；butnowthattheyhavebecomesoitisnotpossibleforthemnottobeso。

Butnotonlyarethevicesofthesoulvoluntary，butthoseofthebodyalsoforsomemen，whomweaccordinglyblame；whilenooneblamesthosewhoareuglybynature，weblamethosewhoaresoowingtowantofexerciseandcare。Soitis，too，withrespecttoweaknessandinfirmity；noonewouldreproachamanblindfrombirthorbydiseaseorfromablow，butratherpityhim，whileeveryonewouldblameamanwhowasblindfromdrunkennessorsomeotherformofself-indulgence。Ofvicesofthebody，then，thoseinourownpowerareblamed，thosenotinourpowerarenot。Andifthisbeso，intheothercasesalsothevicesthatareblamedmustbeinourownpower。

Nowsomeonemaysaythatallmendesiretheapparentgood，buthavenocontrolovertheappearance，buttheendappearstoeachmaninaformansweringtohischaracter。Wereplythatifeachmanissomehowresponsibleforhisstateofmind，hewillalsobehimselfsomehowresponsiblefortheappearance；butifnot，nooneisresponsibleforhisownevildoing，buteveryonedoesevilactsthroughignoranceoftheend，thinkingthatbythesehewillgetwhatisbest，andtheaimingattheendisnotself-chosenbutonemustbebornwithaneye，asitwere，bywhichtojudgerightlyandchoosewhatistrulygood，andheiswellendowedbynaturewhoiswellendowedwiththis。Foritiswhatisgreatestandmostnoble，andwhatwecannotgetorlearnfromanother，butmusthavejustsuchasitwaswhengivenusatbirth，andtobewellandnoblyendowedwiththiswillbeperfectandtrueexcellenceofnaturalendowment。Ifthisistrue，then，howwillvirtuebemorevoluntarythanvice？Tobothmenalike，thegoodandthebad，theendappearsandisfixedbynatureorhoweveritmaybe，anditisbyreferringeverythingelsetothisthatmendowhatevertheydo。

Whether，then，itisnotbynaturethattheendappearstoeachmansuchasitdoesappear，butsomethingalsodependsonhim，ortheendisnaturalbutbecausethegoodmanadoptsthemeansvoluntarilyvirtueisvoluntary，vicealsowillbenonethelessvoluntary；forinthecaseofthebadmanthereisequallypresentthatwhichdependsonhimselfinhisactionsevenifnotinhisend。

If，then，asisasserted，thevirtuesarevoluntary(forweareourselvessomehowpartlyresponsibleforourstatesofcharacter，anditisbybeingpersonsofacertainkindthatweassumetheendtobesoandso)，thevicesalsowillbevoluntary；forthesameistrueofthem。

Withregardtothevirtuesingeneralwehavestatedtheirgenusinoutline，viz。thattheyaremeansandthattheyarestatesofcharacter，andthattheytend，andbytheirownnature，tothedoingoftheactsbywhichtheyareproduced，andthattheyareinourpowerandvoluntary，andactastherightruleprescribes。Butactionsandstatesofcharacterarenotvoluntaryinthesameway；forwearemastersofouractionsfromthebeginningrighttotheend，ifweknowtheparticularfacts，butthoughwecontrolthebeginningofourstatesofcharacterthegradualprogressisnotobviousanymorethanitisinillnesses；becauseitwasinourpower，however，toactinthiswayornotinthisway，thereforethestatesarevoluntary。

Letustakeuptheseveralvirtues，however，andsaywhichtheyareandwhatsortofthingstheyareconcernedwithandhowtheyareconcernedwiththem；atthesametimeitwillbecomeplainhowmanytheyare。Andfirstletusspeakofcourage。

6

Thatitisameanwithregardtofeelingsoffearandconfidencehasalreadybeenmadeevident；andplainlythethingswefearareterriblethings，andtheseare，tospeakwithoutqualification，evils；forwhichreasonpeopleevendefinefearasexpectationofevil。Nowwefearallevils，e。g。disgrace，poverty，disease，friendlessness，death，butthebravemanisnotthoughttobeconcernedwithall；

fortofearsomethingsisevenrightandnoble，anditisbasenottofearthem-e。g。disgrace；hewhofearsthisisgoodandmodest，andhewhodoesnotisshameless。Heis，however，bysomepeoplecalledbrave，byatransferenceofthewordtoanewmeaning；forhehasinhimsomethingwhichislikethebraveman，sincethebravemanalsoisafearlessperson。Povertyanddiseaseweperhapsoughtnottofear，noringeneralthethingsthatdonotproceedfromviceandarenotduetoamanhimself。Butnoteventhemanwhoisfearlessoftheseisbrave。Yetweapplythewordtohimalsoinvirtueofasimilarity；

forsomewhointhedangersofwararecowardsareliberalandareconfidentinfaceofthelossofmoney。Norisamanacowardifhefearsinsulttohiswifeandchildrenorenvyoranythingofthekind；

norbraveifheisconfidentwhenheisabouttobeflogged。Withwhatsortofterriblethings，then，isthebravemanconcerned？Surelywiththegreatest；fornooneismorelikelythanhetostandhisgroundagainstwhatisawe-inspiring。Nowdeathisthemostterribleofallthings；foritistheend，andnothingisthoughttobeanylongereithergoodorbadforthedead。Butthebravemanwouldnotseemtobeconcernedevenwithdeathinallcircumstances，e。g。atseaorindisease。Inwhatcircumstances，then？Surelyinthenoblest。Nowsuchdeathsarethoseinbattle；forthesetakeplaceinthegreatestandnoblestdanger。Andthesearecorrespondinglyhonouredincity-statesandatthecourtsofmonarchs。Properly，then，hewillbecalledbravewhoisfearlessinfaceofanobledeath，andofallemergenciesthatinvolvedeath；andtheemergenciesofwarareinthehighestdegreeofthiskind。Yetatseaalso，andindisease，thebravemanisfearless，butnotinthesamewayastheseaman；

forhehasgivenuphopeofsafety，andisdislikingthethoughtofdeathinthisshape，whiletheyarehopefulbecauseoftheirexperience。Atthesametime，weshowcourageinsituationswherethereistheopportunityofshowingprowessorwheredeathisnoble；

butintheseformsofdeathneitheroftheseconditionsisfulfilled。

7

Whatisterribleisnotthesameforallmen；butwesaytherearethingsterribleevenbeyondhumanstrength。These，then，areterribletoeveryone-atleasttoeverysensibleman；buttheterriblethingsthatarenotbeyondhumanstrengthdifferinmagnitudeanddegree，andsotoodothethingsthatinspireconfidence。Nowthebravemanisasdauntlessasmanmaybe。Therefore，whilehewillfeareventhethingsthatarenotbeyondhumanstrength，hewillfacethemasheoughtandastheruledirects，forhonour\'ssake；forthisistheendofvirtue。Butitispossibletofearthesemore，orless，andagaintofearthingsthatarenotterribleasiftheywere。Ofthefaultsthatarecommittedoneconsistsinfearingwhatoneshouldnot，anotherinfearingasweshouldnot，anotherinfearingwhenweshouldnot，andsoon；andsotoowithrespecttothethingsthatinspireconfidence。Theman，then，whofacesandwhofearstherightthingsandfromtherightmotive，intherightwayandfromtherighttime，andwhofeelsconfidenceunderthecorrespondingconditions，isbrave；forthebravemanfeelsandactsaccordingtothemeritsofthecaseandinwhateverwaytheruledirects。Nowtheendofeveryactivityisconformitytothecorrespondingstateofcharacter。Thisistrue，therefore，ofthebravemanaswellasofothers。Butcourageisnoble。Thereforetheendalsoisnoble；foreachthingisdefinedbyitsend。Thereforeitisforanobleendthatthebravemanenduresandactsascouragedirects。

Ofthosewhogotoexcesshewhoexceedsinfearlessnesshasnoname(wehavesaidpreviouslythatmanystatesofcharacterhavenonames)，buthewouldbeasortofmadmanorinsensiblepersonifhefearednothing，neitherearthquakesnorthewaves，astheysaytheCeltsdonot；whilethemanwhoexceedsinconfidenceaboutwhatreallyisterribleisrash。Therashman，however，isalsothoughttobeboastfulandonlyapretendertocourage；atallevents，asthebravemaniswithregardtowhatisterrible，sotherashmanwishestoappear；andsoheimitateshiminsituationswherehecan。Hencealsomostofthemareamixtureofrashnessandcowardice；for，whileinthesesituationstheydisplayconfidence，theydonotholdtheirgroundagainstwhatisreallyterrible。Themanwhoexceedsinfearisacoward；forhefearsbothwhatheoughtnotandasheoughtnot，andallthesimilarcharacterizationsattachtohim。Heislackingalsoinconfidence；butheismoreconspicuousforhisexcessoffearinpainfulsituations。Thecoward，then，isadespairingsortofperson；forhefearseverything。Thebraveman，ontheotherhand，hastheoppositedisposition；forconfidenceisthemarkofahopefuldisposition。Thecoward，therashman，andthebraveman，then，areconcernedwiththesameobjectsbutaredifferentlydisposedtowardsthem；forthefirsttwoexceedandfallshort，whilethethirdholdsthemiddle，whichistheright，position；andrashmenareprecipitate，andwishfordangersbeforehandbutdrawbackwhentheyareinthem，whilebravemenarekeeninthemomentofaction，butquietbeforehand。

Aswehavesaid，then，courageisameanwithrespecttothingsthatinspireconfidenceorfear，inthecircumstancesthathavebeenstated；anditchoosesorenduresthingsbecauseitisnobletodoso，orbecauseitisbasenottodoso。Buttodietoescapefrompovertyorloveoranythingpainfulisnotthemarkofabraveman，butratherofacoward；foritissoftnesstoflyfromwhatistroublesome，andsuchamanenduresdeathnotbecauseitisnoblebuttoflyfromevil。

8

Courage，then，issomethingofthissort，butthenameisalsoappliedtofiveotherkinds。

Firstcomesthecourageofthecitizen-soldier；forthisismostliketruecourage。Citizen-soldiersseemtofacedangersbecauseofthepenaltiesimposedbythelawsandthereproachestheywouldotherwiseincur，andbecauseofthehonourstheywinbysuchaction；

andthereforethosepeoplesseemtobebravestamongwhomcowardsareheldindishonourandbravemeninhonour。ThisisthekindofcouragethatHomerdepicts，e。g。inDiomedeandinHector:

FirstwillPolydamasbetoheapreproachonmethen；andForHectoroneday\'midtheTrojansshallutterhisvaultingharangue:

AfraidwasTydeides，andfledfrommyface。

Thiskindofcourageismostliketothatwhichwedescribedearlier，becauseitisduetovirtue；foritisduetoshameandtodesireofanobleobject(i。e。honour)andavoidanceofdisgrace，whichisignoble。Onemightrankinthesameclasseventhosewhoarecompelledbytheirrulers；buttheyareinferior，inasmuchastheydowhattheydonotfromshamebutfromfear，andtoavoidnotwhatisdisgracefulbutwhatispainful；fortheirmasterscompelthem，asHectordoes:

ButifIshallspyanydastardthatcowersfarfromthefight，Vainlywillsuchanonehopetoescapefromthedogs。

Andthosewhogivethemtheirposts，andbeatthemiftheyretreat，dothesame，andsodothosewhodrawthemupwithtrenchesorsomethingofthesortbehindthem；alloftheseapplycompulsion。

Butoneoughttobebravenotundercompulsionbutbecauseitisnobletobeso。

(2)Experiencewithregardtoparticularfactsisalsothoughttobecourage；thisisindeedthereasonwhySocratesthoughtcouragewasknowledge。Otherpeopleexhibitthisqualityinotherdangers，andprofessionalsoldiersexhibititinthedangersofwar；forthereseemtobemanyemptyalarmsinwar，ofwhichthesehavehadthemostcomprehensiveexperience；thereforetheyseembrave，becausetheothersdonotknowthenatureofthefacts。Again，theirexperiencemakesthemmostcapableinattackandindefence，sincetheycanusetheirarmsandhavethekindthatarelikelytobebestbothforattackandfordefence；thereforetheyfightlikearmedmenagainstunarmedorliketrainedathletesagainstamateurs；forinsuchconteststooitisnotthebravestmenthatfightbest，butthosewhoarestrongestandhavetheirbodiesinthebestcondition。

Professionalsoldiersturncowards，however，whenthedangerputstoogreatastrainonthemandtheyareinferiorinnumbersandequipment；fortheyarethefirsttofly，whilecitizen-forcesdieattheirposts，asinfacthappenedatthetempleofHermes。Fortothelatterflightisdisgracefulanddeathispreferabletosafetyonthoseterms；whiletheformerfromtheverybeginningfacedthedangerontheassumptionthattheywerestronger，andwhentheyknowthefactstheyfly，fearingdeathmorethandisgrace；butthebravemanisnotthatsortofperson。

(3)Passionalsoissometimesreckonedascourage；thosewhoactfrompassion，likewildbeastsrushingatthosewhohavewoundedthem，arethoughttobebrave，becausebravemenalsoarepassionate；forpassionaboveallthingsiseagertorushondanger，andhenceHomer\'s\'putstrengthintohispassion\'and\'arousedtheirspiritandpassionand\'hardhebreathedpanting\'and\'hisbloodboiled\'。Forallsuchexpressionsseemtoindicatethestirringandonsetofpassion。

Nowbravemenactforhonour\'ssake，butpassionaidsthem；whilewildbeastsactundertheinfluenceofpain；fortheyattackbecausetheyhavebeenwoundedorbecausetheyareafraid，sinceiftheyareinaforesttheydonotcomenearone。Thustheyarenotbravebecause，drivenbypainandpassion，theyrushondangerwithoutforeseeinganyoftheperils，sinceatthatrateevenasseswouldbebravewhentheyarehungry；forblowswillnotdrivethemfromtheirfood；andlustalsomakesadulterersdomanydaringthings。(Thosecreaturesarenotbrave，then，whicharedrivenontodangerbypainorpassion。)

The\'courage\'thatisduetopassionseemstobethemostnatural，andtobecourageifchoiceandmotivebeadded。

Men，then，aswellasbeasts，sufferpainwhentheyareangry，andarepleasedwhentheyexacttheirrevenge；thosewhofightforthesereasons，however，arepugnaciousbutnotbrave；fortheydonotactforhonour\'ssakenorastheruledirects，butfromstrengthoffeeling；theyhave，however，somethingakintocourage。

(4)Noraresanguinepeoplebrave；fortheyareconfidentindangeronlybecausetheyhaveconqueredoftenandagainstmanyfoes。Yettheycloselyresemblebravemen，becausebothareconfident；butbravemenareconfidentforthereasonsstatedearlier，whilethesearesobecausetheythinktheyarethestrongestandcansuffernothing。

(Drunkenmenalsobehaveinthisway；theybecomesanguine)。Whentheiradventuresdonotsucceed，however，theyrunaway；butitwasthemarkofabravemantofacethingsthatare，andseem，terribleforaman，becauseitisnobletodosoanddisgracefulnottodoso。Hencealsoitisthoughtthemarkofabravermantobefearlessandundisturbedinsuddenalarmsthantobesointhosethatareforeseen；foritmusthaveproceededmorefromastateofcharacter，becauselessfrompreparation；actsthatareforeseenmaybechosenbycalculationandrule，butsuddenactionsmustbeinaccordancewithone\'sstateofcharacter。

(5)Peoplewhoareignorantofthedangeralsoappearbrave，andtheyarenotfarremovedfromthoseofasanguinetemper，butareinferiorinasmuchastheyhavenoself-reliancewhilethesehave。

Hencealsothesanguineholdtheirgroundforatime；butthosewhohavebeendeceivedaboutthefactsflyiftheyknoworsuspectthatthesearedifferentfromwhattheysupposed，ashappenedtotheArgiveswhentheyfellinwiththeSpartansandtookthemforSicyonians。

Wehave，then，describedthecharacterbothofbravemenandofthosewhoarethoughttobebrave。

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Thoughcourageisconcernedwithfeelingsofconfidenceandoffear，itisnotconcernedwithbothalike，butmorewiththethingsthatinspirefear；forhewhoisundisturbedinfaceoftheseandbearshimselfasheshouldtowardstheseismoretrulybravethanthemanwhodoessotowardsthethingsthatinspireconfidence。Itisforfacingwhatispainful，then，ashasbeensaid，thatmenarecalledbrave。Hencealsocourageinvolvespain，andisjustlypraised；foritishardertofacewhatispainfulthantoabstainfromwhatispleasant。

Yettheendwhichcouragesetsbeforeitwouldseemtobepleasant，buttobeconcealedbytheattendingcircumstances，ashappensalsoinathleticcontests；fortheendatwhichboxersaimispleasant-thecrownandthehonours-buttheblowstheytakearedistressingtofleshandblood，andpainful，andsoistheirwholeexertion；andbecausetheblowsandtheexertionsaremanytheend，whichisbutsmall，appearstohavenothingpleasantinit。Andso，ifthecaseofcourageissimilar，deathandwoundswillbepainfultothebravemanandagainsthiswill，buthewillfacethembecauseitisnobletodosoorbecauseitisbasenottodoso。Andthemoreheispossessedofvirtueinitsentiretyandthehappierheis，themorehewillbepainedatthethoughtofdeath；forlifeisbestworthlivingforsuchaman，andheisknowinglylosingthegreatestgoods，andthisispainful。Butheisnonethelessbrave，andperhapsallthemoreso，becausehechoosesnobledeedsofwaratthatcost。

Itisnotthecase，then，withallthevirtuesthattheexerciseofthemispleasant，exceptinsofarasitreachesitsend。Butitisquitepossiblethatthebestsoldiersmaybenotmenofthissortbutthosewhoarelessbravebuthavenoothergood；forthesearereadytofacedanger，andtheyselltheirlifefortriflinggains。

Somuch，then，forcourage；itisnotdifficulttograspitsnatureinoutline，atanyrate，fromwhathasbeensaid。

10

Aftercourageletusspeakoftemperance；fortheseseemtobethevirtuesoftheirrationalparts。Wehavesaidthattemperanceisameanwithregardtopleasures(foritisless，andnotinthesameway，concernedwithpains)；self-indulgencealsoismanifestedinthesamesphere。Now，therefore，letusdeterminewithwhatsortofpleasurestheyareconcerned。Wemayassumethedistinctionbetweenbodilypleasuresandthoseofthesoul，suchasloveofhonourandloveoflearning；fortheloverofeachofthesedelightsinthatofwhichheisalover，thebodybeinginnowayaffected，butratherthemind；butmenwhoareconcernedwithsuchpleasuresarecalledneithertemperatenorself-indulgent。Nor，again，arethosewhoareconcernedwiththeotherpleasuresthatarenotbodily；forthosewhoarefondofhearingandtellingstoriesandwhospendtheirdaysonanythingthatturnsuparecalledgossips，butnotself-indulgent，norarethosewhoarepainedatthelossofmoneyoroffriends。

Temperancemustbeconcernedwithbodilypleasures，butnotallevenofthese；forthosewhodelightinobjectsofvision，suchascoloursandshapesandpainting，arecalledneithertemperatenorself-indulgent；yetitwouldseempossibletodelightevenintheseeitherasoneshouldortoexcessortoadeficientdegree。

Andsotooisitwithobjectsofhearing；noonecallsthosewhodelightextravagantlyinmusicoractingself-indulgent，northosewhodosoastheyoughttemperate。

Nordoweapplythesenamestothosewhodelightinodour，unlessitbeincidentally；wedonotcallthoseself-indulgentwhodelightintheodourofapplesorrosesorincense，butratherthosewhodelightintheodourofunguentsorofdaintydishes；forself-indulgentpeopledelightinthesebecausetheseremindthemoftheobjectsoftheirappetite。Andonemayseeevenotherpeople，whentheyarehungry，delightinginthesmelloffood；buttodelightinthiskindofthingisthemarkoftheself-indulgentman；fortheseareobjectsofappetitetohim。

Noristhereinanimalsotherthanmananypleasureconnectedwiththesesenses，exceptincidentally。Fordogsdonotdelightinthescentofhares，butintheeatingofthem，butthescenttoldthemthehareswerethere；nordoestheliondelightinthelowingoftheox，butineatingit；butheperceivedbythelowingthatitwasnear，andthereforeappearstodelightinthelowing；andsimilarlyhedoesnotdelightbecausehesees\'astagorawildgoat\'，butbecauseheisgoingtomakeamealofit。Temperanceandself-indulgence，however，areconcernedwiththekindofpleasuresthattheotheranimalssharein，whichthereforeappearslavishandbrutish；thesearetouchandtaste。Butevenoftastetheyappeartomakelittleornouse；forthebusinessoftasteisthediscriminatingofflavours，whichisdonebywinetastersandpeoplewhoseasondishes；buttheyhardlytakepleasureinmakingthesediscriminations，oratleastself-indulgentpeopledonot，butintheactualenjoyment，whichinallcasescomesthroughtouch，bothinthecaseoffoodandinthatofdrinkandinthatofsexualintercourse。Thisiswhyacertaingourmandprayedthathisthroatmightbecomelongerthanacrane\'s，implyingthatitwasthecontactthathetookpleasurein。Thusthesensewithwhichself-indulgenceisconnectedisthemostwidelysharedofthesenses；andself-indulgencewouldseemtobejustlyamatterofreproach，becauseitattachestousnotasmenbutasanimals。Todelightinsuchthings，then，andtolovethemaboveallothers，isbrutish。Forevenofthepleasuresoftouchthemostliberalhavebeeneliminated，e。g。thoseproducedinthegymnasiumbyrubbingandbytheconsequentheat；forthecontactcharacteristicoftheself-indulgentmandoesnotaffectthewholebodybutonlycertainparts。

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Oftheappetitessomeseemtobecommon，otherstobepeculiartoindividualsandacquired；e。g。theappetiteforfoodisnatural，sinceeveryonewhoiswithoutitcravesforfoodordrink，andsometimesforboth，andforlovealso(asHomersays)ifheisyoungandlusty；butnoteveryonecravesforthisorthatkindofnourishmentorlove，norforthesamethings。Hencesuchcravingappearstobeourveryown。Yetithasofcoursesomethingnaturalaboutit；fordifferentthingsarepleasanttodifferentkindsofpeople，andsomethingsaremorepleasanttoeveryonethanchanceobjects。Nowinthenaturalappetitesfewgowrong，andonlyinonedirection，thatofexcess；fortoeatordrinkwhateveroffersitselftilloneissurfeitedistoexceedthenaturalamount，sincenaturalappetiteisthereplenishmentofone\'sdeficiency。Hencethesepeoplearecalledbelly-gods，thisimplyingthattheyfilltheirbellybeyondwhatisright。Itispeopleofentirelyslavishcharacterthatbecomelikethis。Butwithregardtothepleasurespeculiartoindividualsmanypeoplegowrongandinmanyways。Forwhilethepeoplewhoare\'fondofsoandso\'aresocalledbecausetheydelighteitherinthewrongthings，ormorethanmostpeopledo，orinthewrongway，theself-indulgentexceedinallthreeways；theybothdelightinsomethingsthattheyoughtnottodelightin(sincetheyarehateful)，andifoneoughttodelightinsomeofthethingstheydelightin，theydosomorethanoneoughtandthanmostmendo。

Plainly，then，excesswithregardtopleasuresisself-indulgenceandisculpable；withregardtopainsoneisnot，asinthecaseofcourage，calledtemperateforfacingthemorself-indulgentfornotdoingso，buttheselfindulgentmanissocalledbecauseheispainedmorethanheoughtatnotgettingpleasantthings(evenhispainbeingcausedbypleasure)，andthetemperatemanissocalledbecauseheisnotpainedattheabsenceofwhatispleasantandathisabstinencefromit。

Theself-indulgentman，then，cravesforallpleasantthingsorthosethataremostpleasant，andisledbyhisappetitetochoosetheseatthecostofeverythingelse；henceheispainedbothwhenhefailstogetthemandwhenheismerelycravingforthem(forappetiteinvolvespain)；butitseemsabsurdtobepainedforthesakeofpleasure。Peoplewhofallshortwithregardtopleasuresanddelightinthemlessthantheyshouldarehardlyfound；forsuchinsensibilityisnothuman。Eventheotheranimalsdistinguishdifferentkindsoffoodandenjoysomeandnotothers；andifthereisanyonewhofindsnothingpleasantandnothingmoreattractivethananythingelse，hemustbesomethingquitedifferentfromaman；thissortofpersonhasnotreceivedanamebecausehehardlyoccurs。Thetemperatemanoccupiesamiddlepositionwithregardtotheseobjects。

Forheneitherenjoysthethingsthattheself-indulgentmanenjoysmost-butratherdislikesthem-noringeneralthethingsthatheshouldnot，noranythingofthissorttoexcess，nordoeshefeelpainorcravingwhentheyareabsent，ordoessoonlytoamoderatedegree，andnotmorethanheshould，norwhenheshouldnot，andsoon；butthethingsthat，beingpleasant，makeforhealthorforgoodcondition，hewilldesiremoderatelyandasheshould，andalsootherpleasantthingsiftheyarenothindrancestotheseends，orcontrarytowhatisnoble，orbeyondhismeans。Forhewhoneglectstheseconditionslovessuchpleasuresmorethantheyareworth，butthetemperatemanisnotthatsortofperson，butthesortofpersonthattherightruleprescribes。

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Self-indulgenceismorelikeavoluntarystatethancowardice。Fortheformerisactuatedbypleasure，thelatterbypain，ofwhichtheoneistobechosenandtheothertobeavoided；andpainupsetsanddestroysthenatureofthepersonwhofeelsit，whilepleasuredoesnothingofthesort。Thereforeself-indulgenceismorevoluntary。

Hencealsoitismoreamatterofreproach；foritiseasiertobecomeaccustomedtoitsobjects，sincetherearemanythingsofthissortinlife，andtheprocessofhabituationtothemisfreefromdanger，whilewithterribleobjectsthereverseisthecase。Butcowardicewouldseemtobevoluntaryinadifferentdegreefromitsparticularmanifestations；foritisitselfpainless，butintheseweareupsetbypain，sothatweeventhrowdownourarmsanddisgraceourselvesinotherways；henceouractsareeventhoughttobedoneundercompulsion。Fortheself-indulgentman，ontheotherhand，theparticularactsarevoluntary(forhedoesthemwithcravinganddesire)，butthewholestateislessso；fornoonecravestobeself-indulgent。

Thenameself-indulgenceisappliedalsotochildishfaults；fortheybearacertainresemblancetowhatwehavebeenconsidering。

Whichiscalledafterwhich，makesnodifferencetoourpresentpurpose；plainly，however，thelateriscalledaftertheearlier。

Thetransferenceofthenameseemsnotabadone；forthatwhichdesireswhatisbaseandwhichdevelopsquicklyoughttobekeptinachastenedcondition，andthesecharacteristicsbelongabovealltoappetiteandtothechild，sincechildreninfactliveatthebeckandcallofappetite，anditisinthemthatthedesireforwhatispleasantisstrongest。If，then，itisnotgoingtobeobedientandsubjecttotherulingprinciple，itwillgotogreatlengths；forinanirrationalbeingthedesireforpleasureisinsatiableevenifittrieseverysourceofgratification，andtheexerciseofappetiteincreasesitsinnateforce，andifappetitesarestrongandviolenttheyevenexpelthepowerofcalculation。Hencetheyshouldbemoderateandfew，andshouldinnowayopposetherationalprinciple-andthisiswhatwecallanobedientandchastenedstate-andasthechildshouldliveaccordingtothedirectionofhistutor，sotheappetitiveelementshouldliveaccordingtorationalprinciple。

Hencetheappetitiveelementinatemperatemanshouldharmonizewiththerationalprinciple；forthenobleisthemarkatwhichbothaim，andthetemperatemancravesforthethingsbeought，asheought，aswhenheought；andwhenheought；andthisiswhatrationalprincipledirects。

Hereweconcludeouraccountoftemperance。

BOOKIV

1

LETusspeaknextofliberality。Itseemstobethemeanwithregardtowealth；fortheliberalmanispraisednotinrespectofmilitarymatters，norofthoseinrespectofwhichthetemratemanispraised，norofjudicialdecisions，butwithregardtothegivingandtakingofwealth，andespeciallyinrespectofgiving。Nowby\'wealth\'wemeanallthethingswhosevalueismeasuredbymoney。

Further，prodigalityandmeannessareexcessesanddefectswithregardtowealth；andmeannesswealwaysimputetothosewhocaremorethantheyoughtforwealth，butwesometimesapplytheword\'prodigality\'

inacomplexsense；forwecallthosemenprodigalswhoareincontinentandspendmoneyonself-indulgence。Hencealsotheyarethoughtthepoorestcharacters；fortheycombinemorevicesthanone。Thereforetheapplicationofthewordtothemisnotitsproperuse；fora\'prodigal\'meansamanwhohasasingleevilquality，thatofwastinghissubstance；sinceaprodigalisonewhoisbeingruinedbyhisownfault，andthewastingofsubstanceisthoughttobeasortofruiningofoneself，lifebeingheldtodependonpossessionofsubstance。

This，then，isthesenseinwhichwetaketheword\'prodigality\'。

Nowthethingsthathaveausemaybeusedeitherwellorbadly；andrichesisausefulthing；andeverythingisusedbestbythemanwhohasthevirtueconcernedwithit；riches，therefore，willbeusedbestbythemanwhohasthevirtueconcernedwithwealth；andthisistheliberalman。Nowspendingandgivingseemtobetheusingofwealth；

takingandkeepingratherthepossessionofit。Henceitismorethemarkoftheliberalmantogivetotherightpeoplethantotakefromtherightsourcesandnottotakefromthewrong。Foritismorecharacteristicofvirtuetodogoodthantohavegooddonetoone，andmorecharacteristictodowhatisnoblethannottodowhatisbase；anditisnothardtoseethatgivingimpliesdoinggoodanddoingwhatisnoble，andtakingimplieshavinggooddonetooneornotactingbasely。Andgratitudeisfelttowardshimwhogives，nottowardshimwhodoesnottake，andpraisealsoisbestowedmoreonhim。Itiseasier，also，nottotakethantogive；formenareaptertogiveawaytheirowntoolittlethantotakewhatisanother\'s。

Givers，too，arecalledliberal；butthosewhodonottakearenotpraisedforliberalitybutratherforjustice；whilethosewhotakearehardlypraisedatall。Andtheliberalarealmostthemostlovedofallvirtuouscharacters，sincetheyareuseful；andthisdependsontheirgiving。

Nowvirtuousactionsarenobleanddoneforthesakeofthenoble。

Thereforetheliberalman，likeothervirtuousmen，willgiveforthesakeofthenoble，andrightly；forhewillgivetotherightpeople，therightamounts，andattherighttime，withalltheotherqualificationsthataccompanyrightgiving；andthattoowithpleasureorwithoutpain；forthatwhichisvirtuousispleasantorfreefrompain-leastofallwillitbepainful。Buthewhogivestothewrongpeopleornotforthesakeofthenoblebutforsomeothercause，willbecallednotliberalbutbysomeothername。Norisheliberalwhogiveswithpain；forhewouldpreferthewealthtothenobleact，andthisisnotcharacteristicofaliberalman。Butnomorewilltheliberalmantakefromwrongsources；forsuchtakingisnotcharacteristicofthemanwhosetsnostorebywealth。Norwillhebeareadyasker；foritisnotcharacteristicofamanwhoconfersbenefitstoacceptthemlightly。Buthewilltakefromtherightsources，e。g。fromhisownpossessions，notassomethingnoblebutasanecessity，thathemayhavesomethingtogive。Norwillheneglecthisownproperty，sincehewishesbymeansofthistohelpothers。Andhewillrefrainfromgivingtoanybodyandeverybody，thathemayhavesomethingtogivetotherightpeople，attherighttime，andwhereitisnobletodoso。Itishighlycharacteristicofaliberalmanalsotogotoexcessingiving，sothatheleavestoolittleforhimself；foritisthenatureofaliberalmannottolooktohimself。Theterm\'liberality\'isusedrelativelytoaman\'ssubstance；forliberalityresidesnotinthemultitudeofthegiftsbutinthestateofcharacterofthegiver，andthisisrelativetothegiver\'ssubstance。Thereisthereforenothingtopreventthemanwhogiveslessfrombeingthemoreliberalman，ifhehaslesstogivethosearethoughttobemoreliberalwhohavenotmadetheirwealthbutinheritedit；forinthefirstplacetheyhavenoexperienceofwant，andsecondlyallmenarefonderoftheirownproductions，asareparentsandpoets。Itisnoteasyfortheliberalmantoberich，sinceheisnotapteitherattakingoratkeeping，butatgivingaway，anddoesnotvaluewealthforitsownsakebutasameanstogiving。Hencecomesthechargethatisbroughtagainstfortune，thatthosewhodeserverichesmostgetitleast。Butitisnotunreasonablethatitshouldturnoutso；forhecannothavewealth，anymorethananythingelse，ifhedoesnottakepainstohaveit。Yethewillnotgivetothewrongpeoplenoratthewrongtime，andsoon；forhewouldnolongerbeactinginaccordancewithliberality，andifhespentontheseobjectshewouldhavenothingtospendontherightobjects。For，ashasbeensaid，heisliberalwhospendsaccordingtohissubstanceandontherightobjects；andhewhoexceedsisprodigal。Hencewedonotcalldespotsprodigal；foritisthoughtnoteasyforthemtogiveandspendbeyondtheamountoftheirpossessions。Liberality，then，beingameanwithregardtogivingandtakingofwealth，theliberalmanwillbothgiveandspendtherightamountsandontherightobjects，alikeinsmallthingsandingreat，andthatwithpleasure；hewillalsotaketherightamountsandfromtherightsources。For，thevirtuebeingameanwithregardtoboth，hewilldobothasheought；sincethissortoftakingaccompaniespropergiving，andthatwhichisnotofthissortiscontrarytoit，andaccordinglythegivingandtakingthataccompanyeachotherarepresenttogetherinthesameman，whilethecontrarykindsevidentlyarenot。Butifhehappenstospendinamannercontrarytowhatisrightandnoble，hewillbepained，butmoderatelyandasheought；foritisthemarkofvirtuebothtobepleasedandtobepainedattherightobjectsandintherightway。Further，theliberalmaniseasytodealwithinmoneymatters；forhecanbegotthebetterof，sincehesetsnostorebymoney，andismoreannoyedifhehasnotspentsomethingthatheoughtthanpainedifhehasspentsomethingthatheoughtnot，anddoesnotagreewiththesayingofSimonides。

Theprodigalerrsintheserespectsalso；forheisneitherpleasednorpainedattherightthingsorintherightway；thiswillbemoreevidentaswegoon。Wehavesaidthatprodigalityandmeannessareexcessesanddeficiencies，andintwothings，ingivingandintaking；forweincludespendingundergiving。Nowprodigalityexceedsingivingandnottaking，whilemeannessfallsshortingiving，andexceedsintaking，exceptinsmallthings。

Thecharacteristicsofprodigalityarenotoftencombined；foritisnoteasytogivetoallifyoutakefromnone；privatepersonssoonexhausttheirsubstancewithgiving，anditistothesethatthenameofprodigalsisapplied-thoughamanofthissortwouldseemtobeinnosmalldegreebetterthanameanman。Forheiseasilycuredbothbyageandbypoverty，andthushemaymovetowardsthemiddlestate。Forhehasthecharacteristicsoftheliberalman，sincehebothgivesandrefrainsfromtaking，thoughhedoesneitheroftheseintherightmannerorwell。Thereforeifhewerebroughttodosobyhabituationorinsomeotherway，hewouldbeliberal；forhewillthengivetotherightpeople，andwillnottakefromthewrongsources。Thisiswhyheisthoughttohavenotabadcharacter；itisnotthemarkofawickedorignoblemantogotoexcessingivingandnottaking，butonlyofafoolishone。Themanwhoisprodigalinthiswayisthoughtmuchbetterthanthemeanmanbothfortheaforesaidreasonsandbecausehebenefitsmanywhiletheotherbenefitsnoone，notevenhimself。

Butmostprodigalpeople，ashasbeensaid，alsotakefromthewrongsources，andareinthisrespectmean。Theybecomeapttotakebecausetheywishtospendandcannotdothiseasily；fortheirpossessionssoonrunshort。Thustheyareforcedtoprovidemeansfromsomeothersource。Atthesametime，becausetheycarenothingforhonour，theytakerecklesslyandfromanysource；fortheyhaveanappetiteforgiving，andtheydonotmindhoworfromwhatsource。

Hencealsotheirgivingisnotliberal；foritisnotnoble，nordoesitaimatnobility，norisitdoneintherightway；sometimestheymakerichthosewhoshouldbepoor，andwillgivenothingtopeopleofrespectablecharacter，andmuchtoflatterersorthosewhoprovidethemwithsomeotherpleasure。Hencealsomostofthemareself-indulgent；fortheyspendlightlyandwastemoneyontheirindulgences，andinclinetowardspleasuresbecausetheydonotlivewithaviewtowhatisnoble。

Theprodigalman，then，turnsintowhatwehavedescribedifheisleftuntutored，butifheistreatedwithcarehewillarriveattheintermediateandrightstate。Butmeannessisbothincurable(foroldageandeverydisabilityisthoughttomakemenmean)andmoreinnateinmenthanprodigality；formostmenarefonderofgettingmoneythanofgiving。Italsoextendswidely，andismultiform，sincethereseemtobemanykindsofmeanness。

Foritconsistsintwothings，deficiencyingivingandexcessintaking，andisnotfoundcompleteinallmenbutissometimesdivided；

somemengotoexcessintaking，othersfallshortingiving。Thosewhoarecalledbysuchnamesas\'miserly\'，\'close\'，\'stingy\'，allfallshortingiving，butdonotcovetthepossessionsofothersnorwishtogetthem。Insomethisisduetoasortofhonestyandavoidanceofwhatisdisgraceful(forsomeseem，oratleastprofess，tohoardtheirmoneyforthisreason，thattheymaynotsomedaybeforcedtodosomethingdisgraceful；tothisclassbelongthecheeseparerandeveryoneofthesort；heissocalledfromhisexcessofunwillingnesstogiveanything)；whileothersagainkeeptheirhandsoffthepropertyofothersfromfear，onthegroundthatitisnoteasy，ifonetakesthepropertyofothersoneself，toavoidhavingone\'sowntakenbythem；theyarethereforecontentneithertotakenortogive。

Othersagainexceedinrespectoftakingbytakinganythingandfromanysource，e。g。thosewhoplysordidtrades，pimpsandallsuchpeople，andthosewholendsmallsumsandathighrates。Forallofthesetakemorethantheyoughtandfromwrongsources。Whatiscommontothemisevidentlysordidloveofgain；theyallputupwithabadnameforthesakeofgain，andlittlegainatthat。Forthosewhomakegreatgainsbutfromwrongsources，andnottherightgains，e。g。

despotswhentheysackcitiesandspoiltemples，wedonotcallmeanbutratherwicked，impious，andunjust。Butthegamesterandthefootpad(andthehighwayman)belongtotheclassofthemean，sincetheyhaveasordidloveofgain。Foritisforgainthatbothofthemplytheircraftandendurethedisgraceofit，andtheonefacesthegreatestdangersforthesakeofthebooty，whiletheothermakesgainfromhisfriends，towhomheoughttobegiving。

Both，then，sincetheyarewillingtomakegainfromwrongsources，aresordidloversofgain；thereforeallsuchformsoftakingaremean。

Anditisnaturalthatmeannessisdescribedasthecontraryofliberality；fornotonlyisitagreaterevilthanprodigality，butmenerrmoreofteninthisdirectionthaninthewayofprodigalityaswehavedescribedit。

Somuch，then，forliberalityandtheopposedvices。

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Itwouldseempropertodiscussmagnificencenext。Forthisalsoseemstobeavirtueconcernedwithwealth；butitdoesnotlikeliberalityextendtoalltheactionsthatareconcernedwithwealth，butonlytothosethatinvolveexpenditure；andintheseitsurpassesliberalityinscale。For，asthenameitselfsuggests，itisafittingexpenditureinvolvinglargenessofscale。Butthescaleisrelative；fortheexpenseofequippingatriremeisnotthesameasthatofheadingasacredembassy。Itiswhatisfitting，then，inrelationtotheagent，andtothecircumstancesandtheobject。Themanwhoinsmallormiddlingthingsspendsaccordingtothemeritsofthecaseisnotcalledmagnificent(e。g。themanwhocansay\'manyagiftIgavethewanderer\')，butonlythemanwhodoessoingreatthings。Forthemagnificentmanisliberal，buttheliberalmanisnotnecessarilymagnificent。Thedeficiencyofthisstateofcharacteriscalledniggardliness，theexcessvulgarity，lackoftaste，andthelike，whichdonotgotoexcessintheamountspentonrightobjects，butbyshowyexpenditureinthewrongcircumstancesandthewrongmanner；weshallspeakoftheseviceslater。

Themagnificentmanislikeanartist；forhecanseewhatisfittingandspendlargesumstastefully。For，aswesaidatthebegining，astateofcharacterisdeterminedbyitsactivitiesandbyitsobjects。Nowtheexpensesofthemagnificentmanarelargeandfitting。Such，therefore，arealsohisresults；forthustherewillbeagreatexpenditureandonethatisfittingtoitsresult。

Thereforetheresultshouldbeworthyoftheexpense，andtheexpenseshouldbeworthyoftheresult，orshouldevenexceedit。

Andthemagnificentmanwillspendsuchsumsforhonour\'ssake；forthisiscommontothevirtues。Andfurtherhewilldosogladlyandlavishly；fornicecalculationisaniggardlything。Andhewillconsiderhowtheresultcanbemademostbeautifulandmostbecomingratherthanforhowmuchitcanbeproducedandhowitcanbeproducedmostcheaply。Itisnecessary，then，thatthemagnificentmanbealsoliberal。Fortheliberalmanalsowillspendwhatheoughtandasheought；anditisinthesemattersthatthegreatnessimpliedinthenameofthemagnificentman-hisbigness，asitwere-ismanifested，sinceliberalityisconcernedwiththesematters；andatanequalexpensehewillproduceamoremagnificentworkofart。Forapossessionandaworkofarthavenotthesameexcellence。Themostvaluablepossessionisthatwhichisworthmost，e。g。gold，butthemostvaluableworkofartisthatwhichisgreatandbeautiful(forthecontemplationofsuchaworkinspiresadmiration，andsodoesmagnificence)；andaworkhasanexcellence-viz。magnificence-whichinvolvesmagnitude。Magnificenceisanattributeofexpendituresofthekindwhichwecallhonourable，e。g。thoseconnectedwiththegods-votiveofferings，buildings，andsacrifices-andsimilarlywithanyformofreligiousworship，andallthosethatareproperobjectsofpublic-spiritedambition，aswhenpeoplethinktheyoughttoequipachorusoratrireme，orentertainthecity，inabrilliantway。Butinallcases，ashasbeensaid，wehaveregardtotheagentaswellandaskwhoheisandwhatmeanshehas；fortheexpenditureshouldbeworthyofhismeans，andsuitnotonlytheresultbutalsotheproducer。Henceapoormancannotbemagnificent，sincehehasnotthemeanswithwhichtospendlargesumsfittingly；andhewhotriesisafool，sincehespendsbeyondwhatcanbeexpectedofhimandwhatisproper，butitisrightexpenditurethatisvirtuous。Butgreatexpenditureisbecomingtothosewhohavesuitablemeanstostartwith，acquiredbytheirowneffortsorfromancestorsorconnexions，andtopeopleofhighbirthorreputation，andsoon；forallthesethingsbringwiththemgreatnessandprestige。Primarily，then，themagnificentmanisofthissort，andmagnificenceisshowninexpendituresofthissort，ashasbeensaid；forthesearethegreatestandmosthonourable。Ofprivateoccasionsofexpenditurethemostsuitablearethosethattakeplaceonceforall，e。g。aweddingoranythingofthekind，oranythingthatintereststhewholecityorthepeopleofpositioninit，andalsothereceivingofforeignguestsandthesendingofthemontheirway，andgiftsandcounter-gifts；forthemagnificentmanspendsnotonhimselfbutonpublicobjects，andgiftsbearsomeresemblancetovotiveofferings。Amagnificentmanwillalsofurnishhishousesuitablytohiswealth(forevenahouseisasortofpublicornament)，andwillspendbypreferenceonthoseworksthatarelasting(forthesearethemostbeautiful)，andoneveryclassofthingshewillspendwhatisbecoming；forthesamethingsarenotsuitableforgodsandformen，norinatempleandinatomb。Andsinceeachexpendituremaybegreatofitskind，andwhatismostmagnificentabsolutelyisgreatexpenditureonagreatobject，butwhatismagnificenthereiswhatisgreatinthesecircumstances，andgreatnessintheworkdiffersfromgreatnessintheexpense(forthemostbeautifulballorbottleismagnificentasagifttoachild，butthepriceofitissmallandmean)，-thereforeitischaracteristicofthemagnificentman，whateverkindofresultheisproducing，toproduceitmagnificently(forsucharesultisnoteasilysurpassed)andtomakeitworthyoftheexpenditure。

Such，then，isthemagnificentman；themanwhogoestoexcessandisvulgarexceeds，ashasbeensaid，byspendingbeyondwhatisright。

Foronsmallobjectsofexpenditurehespendsmuchanddisplaysatastelessshowiness；e。g。hegivesaclubdinneronthescaleofaweddingbanquet，andwhenheprovidesthechorusforacomedyhebringsthemontothestageinpurple，astheydoatMegara。Andallsuchthingshewilldonotforhonour\'ssakebuttoshowoffhiswealth，andbecausehethinksheisadmiredforthesethings，andwhereheoughttospendmuchhespendslittleandwherelittle，much。Theniggardlymanontheotherhandwillfallshortineverything，andafterspendingthegreatestsumswillspoilthebeautyoftheresultforatrifle，andwhateverheisdoinghewillhesitateandconsiderhowhemayspendleast，andlamenteventhat，andthinkheisdoingeverythingonabiggerscalethanheought。

Thesestatesofcharacter，then，arevices；yettheydonotbringdisgracebecausetheyareneitherharmfultoone\'sneighbournorveryunseemly。

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Prideseemsevenfromitsnametobeconcernedwithgreatthings；

whatsortofgreatthings，isthefirstquestionwemusttrytoanswer。Itmakesnodifferencewhetherweconsiderthestateofcharacterorthemancharacterizedbyit。Nowthemanisthoughttobeproudwhothinkshimselfworthyofgreatthings，beingworthyofthem；

forhewhodoessobeyondhisdesertsisafool，butnovirtuousmanisfoolishorsilly。Theproudman，then，isthemanwehavedescribed。Forhewhoisworthyoflittleandthinkshimselfworthyoflittleistemperate，butnotproud；forprideimpliesgreatness，asbeautyimpliesagoodsizedbody，andlittlepeoplemaybeneatandwell-proportionedbutcannotbebeautiful。Ontheotherhand，hewhothinkshimselfworthyofgreatthings，beingunworthyofthem，isvain；thoughnoteveryonewhothinkshimselfworthyofmorethanhereallyisworthyofinvain。Themanwhothinkshimselfworthyofworthyoflessthanheisreallyworthyofisundulyhumble，whetherhisdesertsbegreatormoderate，orhisdesertsbesmallbuthisclaimsyetsmaller。Andthemanwhosedesertsaregreatwouldseemmostundulyhumble；forwhatwouldhehavedoneiftheyhadbeenless？

Theproudman，then，isanextremeinrespectofthegreatnessofhisclaims，butameaninrespectoftherightnessofthem；forheclaimswhatisaccordancewithhismerits，whiletheothersgotoexcessorfallshort。

If，then，hedeservesandclaimsgreatthings，andaboveallthegreatthings，hewillbeconcernedwithonethinginparticular。

Desertisrelativetoexternalgoods；andthegreatestofthese，weshouldsay，isthatwhichwerendertothegods，andwhichpeopleofpositionmostaimat，andwhichistheprizeappointedforthenoblestdeeds；andthisishonour；thatissurelythegreatestofexternalgoods。Honoursanddishonours，therefore，aretheobjectswithrespecttowhichtheproudmanisasheshouldbe。Andevenapartfromargumentitiswithhonourthatproudmenappeartobeconcerned；

foritishonourthattheychieflyclaim，butinaccordancewiththeirdeserts。Theundulyhumblemanfallsshortbothincomparisonwithhisownmeritsandincomparisonwiththeproudman\'sclaims。Thevainmangoestoexcessincomparisonwithhisownmerits，butdoesnotexceedtheproudman\'sclaims。

Nowtheproudman，sincehedeservesmost，mustbegoodinthehighestdegree；forthebettermanalwaysdeservesmore，andthebestmanmost。Thereforethetrulyproudmanmustbegood。Andgreatnessineveryvirtuewouldseemtobecharacteristicofaproudman。Anditwouldbemostunbecomingforaproudmantoflyfromdanger，swinginghisarmsbyhissides，ortowronganother；fortowhatendshouldhedodisgracefulacts，hetowhomnothingisgreat？

Ifweconsiderhimpointbypointweshallseetheutterabsurdityofaproudmanwhoisnotgood。Nor，again，wouldhebeworthyofhonourifhewerebad；forhonouristheprizeofvirtue，anditistothegoodthatitisrendered。Pride，then，seemstobeasortofcrownofthevirtues；foritmakesthemgreater，anditisnotfoundwithoutthem。Thereforeitishardtobetrulyproud；foritisimpossiblewithoutnobilityandgoodnessofcharacter。Itischieflywithhonoursanddishonours，then，thattheproudmanisconcerned；andathonoursthataregreatandconferredbygoodmenhewillbemoderatelyPleased，thinkingthatheiscomingbyhisownorevenlessthanhisown；fortherecanbenohonourthatisworthyofperfectvirtue，yethewillatanyrateacceptitsincetheyhavenothinggreatertobestowonhim；buthonourfromcasualpeopleandontriflinggroundshewillutterlydespise，sinceitisnotthisthathedeserves，anddishonourtoo，sinceinhiscaseitcannotbejust。Inthefirstplace，then，ashasbeensaid，theproudmanisconcernedwithhonours；yethewillalsobearhimselfwithmoderationtowardswealthandpowerandallgoodorevilfortune，whatevermaybefallhim，andwillbeneitherover-joyedbygoodfortunenorover-painedbyevil。Fornoteventowardshonourdoeshebearhimselfasifitwereaverygreatthing。Powerandwealtharedesirableforthesakeofhonour(atleastthosewhohavethemwishtogethonourbymeansofthem)；andforhimtowhomevenhonourisalittlethingtheothersmustbesotoo。Henceproudmenarethoughttobedisdainful。