第5章

TohavetoldthegreatdramatistthenightHamletfirststeppedupontheboardsthatitwasawickedthingtopoach，tohavecautionedhimthathemustconsiderthecostofpreservingtheforestandofraisingthedeer，ortohavemadeanappealtohispityonbehalfofthewoundedcreatures，wouldhavebeentheheightoffolly，becausetotallyunnecessary。Alldesire，almostallmemoryofthosedays，haddroppedfromhim，throughhisabsorptioninthegreatandexcitingdramaoflife。Hisefforttounderstandit，toportrayit，hadutilizedanddrainedhiseverypower。Itisequallytrueofourcontemporaries，asitwasofthegreatplaywright，thattheattainmentofthisall-absorbingpassionformultiformlife，withthedesiretounderstanditsmysteriesandtofreeitscapacities，isgraduallydisplacingthejuvenilepropensitiestowarfare。

FromthisstandpointtheadvocatesofthenewerIdealsofPeacewouldhavelittletodobuttoinsistthatthesocialpointofviewbekeptparamount，realizingatthesametimethatthesocialsentimentsareasblindastheegoisticsentimentsandmustbeenlightened，disciplinedanddirectedbythefullestknowledge。Themodernstudents(11)ofhumanmoralityhavetoldusthatprimitiveman，bytheverynecessitiesofhishardstruggleforlife，cameatlasttoidentifyhisownexistencewiththatofhistribe。Triballifethenmaderoomwithinitselfforthedevelopmentofthatcompassionwhichisthefirststeptowardssensibilityandhighermoralsentiment。Ifweacceptthisstatementthenwemustassumethatthenewsocialmorality，whichwesosadlyneed，willofnecessityhaveitsorigininthesocialaffections_

wemustsearchinthedimborderlandbetweencompassionandmoralityforthebeginningsofthatcosmopolitanaffection，asitisprematurelycalled。

Thelifeofthetribalmaninevitablydividedintotwosetsofactions，whichappearedundertwodifferentethicalaspects:therelationwithinthetribeandtherelationwithoutsiders，thedoubleconceptionofmoralitymaintainingitselfuntilnow。Butthetriballawdifferednomorewidelyfrominter-triballawthanourcommonlawdoesfromourinternationallaw。UntilsocietymanagestocombinethetwoweshallmakenoheadwaytowardtheNewerIdealsofPeace。

Ifwewouldinstituteanintelligentsearchforthesocialconditionswhichmakepossiblethiscombinationweshouldnaturallyseekfortheminthepoorerquartersofacosmopolitancitywhere(12)wehave，asnowhereelse，theconditionsforbreakingintothisdoubledevelopment；formakingafreshstart，asitwere，towardasynthesisuponahighermorallinewhichshallincludeboth。Thereiseveryopportunityandnecessityforcompassionandkindlinesssuchasthetribeitselfafforded，andthereisinaddition，becauseofthemanynationaltieswhicharegatheredtherefromallpartsoftheworld，theopportunityandnecessityforbreakingthroughthetribalbond。Earlyassociationsandaffectionswerenotbasedsomuchontiesofbloodasuponthatnecessityfordefenseagainstthehostileworldoutsidewhichmadethelifeofeverymaninatribevaluabletoeveryotherman。Thefactofbloodwas，sotospeak，anaccident。Themoralcodegrewoutofsolidarityofemotionandactionessentialtothelifeofall。

Inthemidstofthemoderncitywhich，atmoments，seemstostandonlyforthetriumphofthestrongest，thesuccessfulexploitationoftheweak，theruthlessnessandhiddencrimewhichfollowinthewakeofthestruggleforexistenceonitslowestterms，therecomedaily——atleasttoAmericancities——accretionsofsimplepeople，whocarryintheirheartsadesireformeregoodness。Theyregularlydepletetheirscantylivelihoodinresponsetoaprimitivepity，and，independentofthereligionstheyhaveprofessed，(13)ofthewrongstheyhavesuffered，andofthefixedmoralitytheyhavebeentaught，haveanunquenchabledesirethatcharityandsimplejusticeshallregulatemen\'srelations。Itseemssometimes，toonewhoknowsthem，asiftheycontinuallysoughtforanoutletformorekindliness，andthattheyarenotonlywillingandeagertodoafavorforafriend，butthattheirkindheartednessliesinambush，asitwere，forachancetoincorporateitselfinourlargerrelations，thattheypersistentlyexpectthatitshallbegivensomeformofgovernmentalexpression。Thisisdoubtlessduepartlytothefactthatemotionalpityandkindnessarealwaysfoundingreatestdegreeamongtheunsuccessful。Wearetoldthatunsuccessfulstrugglebreedsemotion，notstrength；thatthehard-pressedracesaretheemotionalraces；andthatwhereverstrugglehaslongprevailedemotionbecomesthedominantforceinfixingsocialrelations。Isitsurprising，therefore，thatamongthishugemassoftheunsuccessful，tobefoundincertainquartersofthemoderncity，weshouldhavethe“medium，“inwhichthefirstgrowthofthenewcompassionistakingplace？

Inadditiontothiscompassionalwaysfoundamongtheunsuccessful，emotionalsentimentrunshighamongthenewlyarrivedimmigrantsasaresultoftheemotionalexperiencesofparting(14)fromhomeandkindred，towhichhehasbeensorecentlysubjected。Anunusualmentalalertnessandpowerofperceptionalsoresultsfromtheupheaval。ThemultitudesofimmigrantsfloodingtheAmericancitieshavemanytimessunderedsocialhabitscherishedthroughahundredgenerations，andhaverenouncedcustomsthatmaybetracedtothehabitsofprimitiveman。Theseoldhabitsandcustomshaveamuchmorepowerfulholdthanhavemereracialornationalties。Inseekingcompanionshipinthenewworld，alltheimmigrantsarereducedtothefundamentalequalitiesanduniversalnecessitiesofhumanlifeitself，andtheyinevitablydevelopthepowerofassociationwhichcomesfromdailycontactwiththosewhoareunlikeeachotherinallsavetheuniversalcharacteristicsofman。

Whenlookedattooclosely，thisnascentmoralitydisappears，andonecancountoveronlyathousandkindlyactsandneighborlyoffices。Butwhenmeditateduponinthewhole，thereatonceemergeagainthosevastanddominantsuggestionsofanewpeaceandholiness。Itwouldseemasifourfinalhelpandhealingwereabouttoissueforthfrombrokenhumannatureitself，outofthepatheticstrivingofordinarymen，whomakeupthecommonsubstanceoflife:fromthosewhohavebeendrivenbyeconomicpressureor(15)governmentaloppressionoutofascoreofnations。

Thesevariouspeopleswhoaregatheredtogetherintheimmigrantquartersofacosmopolitancityworshipgoodnessforitsownvalue，anddonotassociateitwithsuccessanymorethantheyassociatesuccesswiththemselves；theyliterally“serveGodfornought。“Ifwewouldadduceevidencethatweareemergingfromaperiodofindustrialismintoaperiodofhumanitarianism，itistosuchquartersthatwemustbetakeourselves。Thesearetheplacesinwhichitiseasiesttostudythenewermanifestationsofgovernment，inwhichpersonalwelfareisconsideredalegitimateobject；foranewhistoryofgovernmentbeginswithanattempttomakelifepossibleandhumaninlargecities，inthosecrowdedquarterswhichexhibitsuchanundoubtedtendencytobarbarismanddegeneracywhenthebetterhumanqualitiesarenotnourished。Publicbathsandgymnasiums，parksandlibraries，areprovidedfirstforthosewhoarewithoutthesecurityforbaresubsistence，anditdoesnotseemstrangetothemthatitshouldbeso。SuchacommunityismadeupofmenwhowillcontinuetodreamofUtopianGovernmentsuntilthedemocraticgovernmentaboutthemexpresseskindlinesswithprotection。

Suchmenwillcontinuetorelyuponneighborlyfriendlinessuntilorganized(16)charityisabletoidentifyimpulsivepitywithwell-consideredrelief。Theywillnaivelylongforaneducationfortheirchildrenthatwillfitthemtoearnmoneyuntilpubliceducationshallcometoconsiderindustrialefficiency。Astheirhopesanddreamsareaprophecyofthefuturedevelopmentincitygovernment，incharity，ineducation，sotheirdailylivesareaforecastofcominginternationalrelations。

Ourattentionhaslatelybeendrawntothefactthatitislogicalthatthemostvigorouseffortsingovernmentalreform，aswellasthemostgenerousexperimentsinministeringtosocialneeds，havecomefromthelargercitiesandthatitisinevitablethattheyshouldbeto-day“thecentersofradicalism，“

astheyhavebeentraditionallythe“cradlesofliberty。“[2]

Ifweonceadmitthehumandynamiccharacterofprogress，thenitiseasytounderstandwhythecrowdedcityquartersbecomefocalpointsofthatprogress。

Adeeperandmorethorough-goingunityisrequiredinacommunitymadeupofhighlydifferentiatedpeoplesthaninamoresettledandstratifiedone，anditmaybelogicalthatweshouldfindinthiscomminglingofmanypeoplesacer-

(17)-tainbalanceandconcordofopposingandcontendingforces；agravitationtowardtheuniversal。Becauseoftheirdifferenceinallexternalmatters，inallofthenon-essentialsoflife，thepeopleinacosmopolitancityareforcedtofoundtheircommunityofinterestsuponthebasicandessentiallikenessesoftheircommonhumannature；for，afterall，thethingsthatmakemenalikearestrongerandmoreprimitivethanthethingsthatseparatethem。Itisnaturalthatthissynthesisofthevaryingnationsshouldbemadefirstatthepointsofthegreatestcongestion，quiteaswefindthatselfishnessisfirstcurbedandsocialfeelingcreatedatthepointswheretheconflictofindividualinterestsissharpest。Onedaresnotgrowtoocertainastothewellsofmoralhealingwhichlieunderthesurfaceofthesullenworkdrivenlifewhichtheindustrialquartersofthemoderncitypresent。Theyfascinateusbytheirmeresizeanddiversity，asdoesthecityitself；butcertainitis，thatthesequarterscontinuallyconfoundusbytheirmanifestationsofaltruism。Itmaybethatwearesurprisedsimplybecausewefailtocomprehendthattheindividual，undersuchpressure，mustshapehislifewithsomereferencetothedemandsofsocialjustice，notonlytoavoidcrushingthelittlefolkabouthim，butinordertosavehimselffromdeathby(18)crushing。Itisaninstanceoftheirresistiblecoalescingofthealtruisticandegoisticimpulsewhichisthestrengthofsocialmorality。Wearcoftentoldthatmenunderthispressureoflifebecomecallousedandcynical，whereasanyonewholiveswiththemknowsthattheyaresentimentalandcompassionate。

Itispossiblethatweshallbesavedfromwarfarebythe“fightingrabble“itself，bythe“quarrelsomemob“turnedintokindlycitizensoftheworldthroughthepressureofacosmopolitanneighborhood。Itisnotthattheyareshoutingforpeace——onthecontrary，iftheyshoutatall，theywillcontinuetoshoutforwar——butthattheyarereallyattainingcosmopolitanrelationsthroughdailyexperience。Theywillprobablybelieveforalongtimethatwarisnobleandnecessarybothtoengenderandcherishpatriotism；andyetallofthetime，belowtheirshouting，theyarelivinginthekingdomofhumankindness。Theyarelayingthesimpleandinevitablefoundationsforaninternationalorderasthefoundationsoftribalandnationalmoralityhavealreadybeenlaid。Theyaredevelopingtheonlysortofpatriotismconsistentwiththeinterminglingofthenations；forthecitizensofacosmopolitanquarterfindaninsuperabledifficultywhentheyattempttohemintheirconceptionofpatriotismeithertothe“old(19)country“ortotheiradoptedone。Therearisesthehopethatwhenthisnewerpatriotismbecomeslargeenough，itwillovercomearbitraryboundariesandsoakupthenotionofnationalism。Wemaythengiveupwar，becauseweshallfinditasdifficulttomakewaruponanationattheothersideoftheglobeasuponournext-doorneighbor。

ThesehumbleharbingersoftheNewerIdealsofPeace，venturingthemselvesuponalargerrelationship，aremosttouching；andwhilethesuccessoftheireffortscanneverbeguaranteedorspokenoftooconfidently，theystiruswithastrangehope，asifnewvistasoflifewereopeningbeforeus——vistasnotilluminatedwiththeglareofwar，butwithamellowedglowoftheirown。Thesepathsareseendistinctlyonlyasweascendtoamoreenvelopingpointofviewandobtainalargerandbulkiersenseofthegrowingsentimentwhichrejectstheoldandnegativebondsofdisciplineandcoercionandinsistsuponvitalandfraternalrelationship，subordinatingthelowertothehigher。Tomakethishopevalidandintelligible，isindeedthetaskbeforethesehumblebrethrenofoursandofthosewhowouldhelpthem。Theyencourageustohopeforthediscoveryofanewvitalrelation——thatoftheindividualtotheracewhichmaylaythefounda-

(20)-tionforanewreligiousbondadequatetothemodernsituation；andwealmostcometobelievethatsuchafoundationis，infact，beinglaidnow，notinspeculation，butinaction。

ThatwhichsecuredfortheearlyHebrewshepherdhishealth，hispeaceofmind，andhissenseofconnectionwiththeUnseen，becamethebasisforthemostwonderfulandwidespreadreligiontheworldhaseverknown。

Perhaps，atthismoment，weneedtofindthatwhichwillsecurethehealth，thepeaceofmind，andtheopportunityfornormaloccupationandspiritualgrowthtothehumblestindustrialworker，asthefoundationforarationalconductoflifeadaptedtoanindustrialandcosmopolitanera。

Evennowweonlydimlycomprehendthestrengthandirresistiblepowerofthose“uni-versalandimperiousidealswhichareformedinthedepthsofanonymouslife，“andwhichthepeopleinsistshallcometorealization，notbecausetheyhavebeentestedbylogicorhistory，butbe-causethemassofmenareeagerthattheyshouldbetriedasalivingexperience。

Accordingtoourdifferentmethodsofviewingsociety，weexpressthisneweridealwhichisafterallsooldastohavebeenengenderedinthetribeitself。Hewhomakesthestudyofsocietyamerecorollaryofbiology，speaksofthe“theoryoftheunspe-

(21)-cialized，“thatthesimplecelldevelopsmuchmorerapidlywhennewtissueisneededthanthemorehighlydevelopedone；

hewhoviewssocietyfromtheeconomicstandpointandfindshopeonlyinachangedindustrialorder，talksofthe“manatthebottomofsociety，“

oftheproletarianwhoshalleventuallycomeintohisown；hewhobelievesthatawiserandasanereducationwillcureoursocialill，speakseverandagainof“thewisdomofthelittlechild“andofthenecessitytorevealandexplorehiscapacity；whilehewhokeepsclosetothehistoricdeductionsuponwhichthestudyofsocietyischieflyfounded，usestheoldreligiousphrase，“thecounselofimperfection，“andbidsusconcernourselveswith“theleastofthese。“

TheFrenchhaveaphrasel\'imperieusebonté；bywhichtheydesignatethoseimpulsestowardscompassionateconductwhichwillnotbedenied，becausetheyareasimperativeintheirdemandforexpressionasistheimpulsetomakemusicortosoftenlifebypoesyanddecoration。

Accordingtothisdefinition，St。FranciswasageniusinexactlythesamesenseaswasDanteorRaphael，andherevealedquiteastheydid，possibilitiesandreachesofthehumansoulhithertounsuspected。Thisgeniusforgoodnesshasinthepastlargelyexpresseditselfthroughindi-

(22)-vidualsandgroups，butitmaybethatweareapproachingaperiodwhichshallgiveitcollectiveexpression，andshalluniteintooneallthoseprivateandparochialefforts。ItwouldbenomorestrangethanwasthatmarvelouscomingtogetheroftheartistsandthepeopleinthethirteenthcenturywhichresultedinthebuildingoftheGothiccathedrals。Wemaybewaitingforareligiousenthusiasm，foradivinefiretofusetogetherthepartialandfeebleeffortsat“doinggood“intoatransfiguredwholewhichshalltakeoninternationalproportionsasnaturallyasthecathedralstoweredintounheard-ofheights。TheGothiccathedralsweregloriousbeyondthedreamsofartists，notwithstandingthattheywerebuiltbyunknownmen，orratherbysomanymenthatitwasamatterofindifferencetorecordtheirnames。Couldwecomparethepresenthumanitarianeffortstothebuildingofaspiritualcathedral，itwouldseemthatthegargoyleshadbeenmadefirst，thatthegroundisnowstrewnwitheffortsto“dogood“whichhavedevelopedadiabolicalcapacityfordoingharm。Buteventhesemayfallintoplace。Theoldcathedral-buildersfearlesslyportrayedalloflife，itsinveteratetendencytoderideaswellastobless；itstrickeryaswellasitsbeauty。Theirartwascatholicenoughtoportrayall，andthe(23)cathedralwashugeenoughtomellowalltheyportrayedintoaflowingandinspiredwhole。

Atthepresentmomentitrequiresthephilosophertounifythesespiritualeffortsofthecommonmanintotheinternationalismofgoodwill，asinthepastitwasnaturalthatthephilosophers，themenwholookedatlifeasawhole，shouldhavebeenthefirsttosighfornegativepeacewhichtheydeclaredwouldbe“eternal。“

Speculativewriters，suchasKant，Bentham，andBuckle，longagopointedoutthatthesubsidenceofwarwasinevitableassocietyprogressed。Theycontendedthateverystageofhumanprogressismarkedbyafurthercurtailmentofbruteforce，alimitationoftheareainwhichitispermitted。Atthebottomisthesmallsavagecommunityinaperpetualstateofwarfare；atthetopanorderlysocietystimulatedandcontrolledbyrecognizedidealsofsocialjustice。Inproportionasthesavagesocietycomesunderthedominionofacommonmoralconsciousness，itmovesup，andinproportionasthecivilizedsocietyrevertstotheuseofbruteforce，itgoesdown。

Reversiontothatbrutestrugglemayatanymomentcostthedestructionofthepainfullyacquiredbondsofequity，thetiesofmutualprinciple，whicharewroughtwithsucheffortandloosedwithsuchease。Buttheseearlier(24)philosopherscouldnotpossiblyhaveforeseenthetremendousgrowthofindustryandcommercewiththeirinevitablecosmopolitanismwhichhassorecentlytakenplace，norwithoutknowledgeofthiscouldtheypossiblyhaveprognosticatedtheleapforwardandtheaggressivecharacterwhichtheconcernforhumanwelfarehaslatterlyevinced。Thespeculativewritersamongourcontemporariesarenaturallytheonlyoneswhoformulatethisnewdevelopment，orratherbidusheeditspresenceamongus。AnAmericanphilosopher[3]haslatelyremindedusoftheneedto“discoverinthesocialrealmthemoralequivalentforwar_somethingheroicthatwillspeaktomenasuniversallyaswarhasdone，andyetwillbeascompatiblewiththeirspiritualnaturesaswarhasproveditselftobeincompatible。“

Itmaybetruethatweareevennowdiscoveringthesemoralsubstitutes，althoughwefinditsodifficulttoformulatethem。Perhapsourveryhopethatthesesubstitutesmaybediscoveredhasbecomethecustodianofasecretchangethatisgoingonallaboutus。Wecarelesseachdayfortheheroismconnectedwithwarfareanddestruction，andconstantlyadmiremorethatwhichpertainstolaborandthenourishingofhumanlife。Thenew(25)heroismmanifestsitselfatthepresentmomentinauniversaldeterminationtoabolishpovertyanddisease，amanifestationsowidespreadthatitmayjustlybecalledinternational。

Inillustrationofthisnewdeterminationoneimmediatelythinksoftheinternationalefforttoridthefaceoftheearthoftuberculosis，inwhichGermany，Italy，France，EnglandandAmericaareengagedwithsuchenthusiasm。Thismovementhasitsinternationalcongresses，itsdiscoverersandveterans，alsoitsdecorationsandrewardsforbravery。Itsdisciplineissevere；itrequiresself-control，endurance，self-sacrificeandconstantwatchfulness。Itsleadersdevotehourstocarefulteachinganddemonstration，theyreclaimacresofbadhouses，andmakeoverthefoodsupplyofhugecities。Onecouldinstancethedeterminationtodoawaywithneglectedoldage，whichfindsexpressionintheOldAgePensionActsofGermanyandAustralia，intheStateSavingsBanksofBelgiumandFrance，intheenormousnumberofMutualBenefitSocietiesinEnglandandAmerica。Insuchundertakingsasthese，withtheirspontaneousanduniversalmanifestations，arewebeginningtoseethefirsttimidforwardreachofoneofthoseinstinctivemovementswhichcarryonwardtheprogressivegoodnessoftherace。

(26)

Itispossiblethatthissubstitutionofnurtureforwarfareisanalogoustothatworld-wideefforttoputalimittorevengewhichonenationafteranotheressayedaseachreachedacertainstageofdevelopment。Tocompeltheavengertoacceptblood-moneyinlieuofthebloodofhisenemymayhavebeenbutashortstepinmorals，butatleastitdestroyedthestimulustofurthersheddingofbloodwhicheachavengeddeathhadafforded，anditlaidthefoundationsforcourtadjudications。Thenewerhumanitarianismismoreaggressiveandsubstitutesemotionalstimuliaswellascodesofconduct。Wemaypredictthateachnationquiteasanaturalprocesswillreachthemomentwhenvirilegood-willwillbesubstitutedforthespiritofwarfare。Theprocessofextinguishingwar，however，comparedtothelimitingofrevenge，willbeamazinglyaccelerated。Owingtothemodernconditionsofintercourse，eachnationwillrespond，nottoanisolatedimpulse，butwillbecaughtinthecurrentofaworld-wideprocess。

Wearemuchtootimidandapologeticinregardtothisnewerhumanitarianism，anddonotyetrealizewhatitmaydoforusinthewayofcourageandendurance。Wecontinuetodefendwaronthegroundthatitstirsthenoblerbloodandthehigherimaginationofthenation，and(27)thusfreesitfrommoralstagnationandthebondsofcommercialism。Wedonotseethatthisistoborrowourvirtuesfromaformerageandtofailtoutilizeourown。Wefindourselvesinthisplightbecauseourmodernmoralityhaslackedfibre，becauseourhumanitarianismhasbeenmuchtoosoftandliterary，andhasgivenitselfovertounrealandhigh-soundingphrases。Itappearsthatouronlyhopeforagenuineadjustmentofourmoralityandcouragetoourpresentsocialandindustrialdevelopments，liesinapatientefforttoworkitoutbydailyexperience。

Wemustbewillingtosurrenderourselvestothoseidealsofthehumble，whichallreligiousteachersuniteindeclaringtobethefoundationsofasinceremorallife。

Thefollowingpagesattempttouncovertheseneweridealsaswemaydailyexperiencetheminthemoderncity。Itmaybefoundthatcertainsurvivalsofmilitarisminmunicipalgovernmentareresponsibleformuchofthefailureintheworkingofdemocraticinstitutions。Wemaydiscoverthatthesurvivalsofwarfareinthelabormovementandalltheotherdangersofclassmoralityrestlargelyuponanappealtoloyaltieswhichareessentiallyasurvivalofthevirtuesofawarlikeperiod。Themoreaggressiveaspectsofthenewerhumanitarianismmaybetracedin(28)themovementforsocialameliorationandintheprotectivelegislationwhichregardstheweakestcitizenasavaluableasset。Thesamespiritwhichprotestsagainstthesocialwasteofchildlaboralsodemandsthatthetraditionalactivityofwomanshallbeutilizedinciviclife。WhentheStateprotectsitscivicresources，asitformerlydefendeditscitizensintimeofwar，industrialismversusmilitarismcomestobenurtureversusconquest。Inordertotracethedisplacementofthemilitaryidealsofpatriotismbythoseofarisingconcernforhumanwelfare，wemusttakeanaccountingbetweenthoseformsofgovernmentalmachineryandsocialorganizationwhicharethehistoricoutgrowthofconquestandrepressionandthenewerformsarisingintheirmidstwhichembodythesocialenergyinstantlyrecognizableascontemporaneouswithoursincerestmorallife。Tofollowthisnewerhumanitarianismeventhroughitsobviousmanifestationsrequiresattheveryoutsetadefiniteabandonmentoftheeighteenth-centuryphilosophyuponwhichsomuchofourpresentdemocratictheoryandphilanthropicactivitydepends。Itisnecessaryfromtheverybeginningtosubstitutethescientificmethodofresearchfortheapriorimethodoftheschoolmenifwewoulddealwithrealpeopleandobtainasenseofparticipationwithourfellows。The(29)eighteenth-centuryhumanitarianhotlyinsistedupon“therightsofman，“buthelovedthepeoplewithoutreallyknowingthem，whichisbynomeansanimpossibleachievement。“Theloveofthosewhomamandoesnotknowisquiteaselementalasentimentastheloveofthosewhomamandoesknow，“butwiththisdifference，thatheshutshimselfawayfromtheopportunityofbeingcaughtandcarriedforwardinthestreamoftheirhopesandaspirations，abiggerandwarmercurrentthanhedreamsof。Theeighteenth-centuryhumanitariansubstitutedhisenthusiasticconceptof“thenaturalman“forthewarmthwhichthisstreammighthavegivenhim，andsolongashedealtwithpoliticalconceptsitansweredhispurpose。Mazzinimadeamostsignificantstepbetweentheeighteenth-centurymoralityandourownbyappealingbeyond“therightsofman“tothe“dutiestohumanity；“butalthoughanimpassioneddemocrat，hewasstillamoralistoftheearliertype。Herealizedwiththemthattheappealtohumanitywouldevokeafineranddeeperresponsethanthattopatriotismortoanysectionalmorality；buthesharedtheeighteenth-

centurytendencytoidealization。Itremainedforthemoralistofthisgenerationtodissolve“humanity“intoitscomponentpartsofmen，women，andchildrenandtoservetheirhumblestneedswithanen-

(30)thusiasmwhich，sofarfrombeingdependentuponglamour，canbesustainedonlybydailyknowledgeandconstantcompanionship。

Itisnoeasytasktodetectandtofollowthetinypathsofprogresswhichtheunencumberedproletarianwithnothingbuthislifeandcapacityforlabor，ispointingoutforus。Thesepathsleadtoatypeofgovernmentfoundeduponpeaceandfellowshipascontrastedwithrestraintanddefence。

Theycanneverbediscoveredwiththeeyesofthedoctrinaire。Fromthenatureofthecase，hewhowouldwalkthesepathsmustwalkwiththepoorandoppressed，andcanonlyapproachthemthroughaffectionandunderstanding。

Theidealsofmilitarismwouldforevershuthimoutfromthisnewfellowship。

ENDNOTESLT。Hobhouse，DemocracyandReaction，page197。TheGrowthofCitiesintheNineteenthCentury。A。T。Weber，page423。WilliamJames，ProfessorofPhilosophyatHarvardUniversity。

JaneAddams:NewerIdealsofPeace:Chapter2:SurvivalsofMilitarisminCivilGovernmentCHAPTERII

SURVIVALSOFMILITARISMINCIVILGOVERNMENTWeareaccustomedtosaythatthemachineryofgovernmentincorporatedinthechartersoftheearlyAmericancities，asintheFederalandStateconstitutions，wasworkedoutbymenwhowerestronglyundertheinfluenceofthehistoriansanddoctrinairesoftheeighteenthcentury。ThemostsignificantrepresentativeofthesemenisThomasJefferson，andtheirmosttellingphrase，thefamiliaropeningthat“allmenarecreatedfreeandequal。“

Weareonlynowbeginningtosuspectthatthepresentadmittedfailureinmunicipaladministration，theso-called“shameofAmericancities，“

maybelargelyduetotheinadequacyofthoseeighteenth-centuryideals，withthebreakdownofthemachinerywhichtheyprovided。Werecognizetheweaknessinherentinthehistoricanddoctrinairemethodwhenitattemptstodealwithgrowingandhumaninstitutions。Whilethesemenwerestronglyundertheinfluenceofpeace(32)idealswhichwereearnestlyadvocated，bothinFranceandinAmerica，eveninthemidstoftheirrevolutionaryperiods，andwhiletheyreadtheburningpoetsandphilosophersoftheirremarkablecentury，theiridealism，afterall，waslargelyfoundedupontheoriesconcerning“thenaturalman，“acreatureoftheirsympatheticimaginations。

Becausetheiridealismwasofthetypethatisafraidofexperience，thesefoundersrefusedtolookatthedifficultiesandblunderswhichaself-governingpeopleweresuretoencounter，andinsistedthat，ifonlythepeoplehadfreedom，theywouldwalkcontinuouslyinthepathsofjusticeandrighteousness。Itwasinevitable，therefore，thattheyshouldhaveremainedquiteuntouchedbythatworldlywisdomwhichcounselsustoknowlifeasitis，andbythatverymodernbeliefthatiftheworldisevertogorightatall，itmustgorightinitsownway。

Amanofthisgenerationeasilydiscernsthecrudenessof“thateighteenth-centuryconceptionofessentiallyunprogressivehumannatureinalltheemptydignityofits\'inbornrights。\'\'[1]Becausehehasgrownfamiliarwithamorepassionatehumancreed，withthemodernevolutionaryconceptionoftheslowlyadvancingracewhose(33)rightsarenot“inalienable，“buthard-woninthetragicprocessesofexperience，herealizesthatthesepainfullyacquiredrightsmustbecarefullycherishedortheymayatanymomentslipoutofourhands。WeknowbetterinAmericathananywhereelsethatcivilizationisnotabroadroad，withmile-stonesindicatinghowfareachnationhasproceededuponit，butacomplexstruggleforward，eachraceandnationcontributingitsquota；thatthevarietyandcontinuityofthiscommingledlifeafforditscharmandvalue。Wewouldnot，ifwecould，conformthemtoonestandard。Butthismodernattitude，whichmayevennoweasilysubsideintonegativetolerance，didnotexistamongthefoundersoftheRepublic，who，withalltheirfinetalkofthe“naturalman“andwhathewouldaccomplishwhenheobtainedfreedomandequality，didnotreallytrustthepeopleafterall。

TheytimidlytooktheEnglishlawastheirprototype，“whoseveryrootisintherelationbe“tweensovereignandsubject，betweenlawmakerandthosewhomthelawrestrains，“whichhastraditionallyconcerneditselfmorewiththeguardingofprerogativeandwiththerightsofpropertythanwiththespontaneouslifeofthepeople。Theyserenelyincorporatedlawsandsurvivalswhichregisteredthesuccessfulstruggle(34)ofthebaronsagainsttheaggressionsofthesovereign，althoughthenewcountrylackedbothnoblesandkings。Misledbythenameofgovernment，theyfoundedtheirnewgovernmentbyaninvoluntaryreferencetoalowersocialstatethanthatwhichtheyactuallysawaboutthem。Theydependeduponpenalties，coercion，compulsion，remnantsofmilitarycodes，toholdthecommunitytogether；anditmaybepossibletotracemuchofthemaladministrationofourcitiestothesesurvivals，tothefactthatourearlydemocracywasamoralromanticism，ratherthanawellgroundedbeliefinsocialcapacityandintheefficiencyofthepopularwill。

Ithasfurtherhappenedthatasthemachinery，groaningunderthepressureofnewsocialdemandsputuponit，hasbrokendownthatfromtimetotime，wehavemendeditbygivingmorepowertoadministrativeofficers，becausewestilldistrustedthewillofthepeople。Wearewillingtocutoffthedislocatedpartortotightenthegearing，butareafraidtosubstituteamachineofnewerinventionandgreatercapacity。Inthehourofdangerwereverttothemilitaryandlegaltypealthoughtheybecomelessandlessappropriatetocitylifeinproportionasthecitygrowsmorecomplex，morevariedinresourceandmorehigh-

(35)-lyorganized，andis，therefore，ingreaterneedofamorediffusedlocalautonomy。

Alittleexaminationwilleasilyshowthatinspiteofthefinephrasesofthefounders，theGovernmentbecameanentitybyitselfawayfromthedailylifeofthepeople。Therewasnointentiontoignorethemnortooppressthem。ButsimplybecauseitsmachinerywassolargelycopiedfromthetraditionalEuropeanGovernmentswhichdiddistrustthepeople，thefoundersfailedtoprovidethevehicleforavitalandgenuinelyorganizedexpressionofthepopularwill。Thefounderscarefullydefinedwhatwasgermanetogovernmentandwhatwasquiteoutsideitsrealm，whereastheverycruxoflocalselfgovernment，ashasbeenwellsaid，isinvolvedinthe“righttolocallydeterminethescopeofthelocalgovernment，“inresponsetotheneedsastheyarise。

Theywereanxioustokeepthereinsofgovernmentinthethehandsofthegoodandprofessedlypublic-spirited，because，havingstakedsomuchuponthepeoplewhomtheyreallyknewsolittle，theybecameeagerthattheyshouldappearwell，andshouldnotbegivenenoughpowertoenablethemreallytobetraytheirweaknesses。Thiswasdoneinthesamespiritinwhichakindladypermitsherselftogiveatrampfivecents，believ(36)-ingthat，althoughhemayspenditfordrink\'

hecannotgetverydrunkuponsosmallasum。Inspiteofavaguedesiretotrustthepeople，thefoundersmeanttofallbackineverycrisisupontheoldrestraintswhichgovernmenthastraditionallyenlistedinitsbehalf，andwere，perhaps，inevitablyinfluencedbytheexperiencesoftheRevolutionaryWar。Havinglookedtotheswordforindependencefromoppressivegovernmentalcontrol，theycametoregardtheswordasanessentialpartofthegovernmenttheyhadsucceededinestablishing。

Regardedfromthetraditionalstandpoint，governmenthasalwaysneededthisforceofarms。Theking，attemptingtocontrolthegrowingpowerofthebaronsastheywrestedoneprivilegeafteranotherfromhim，wasobligedtouseitconstantly；thebaronslatersuccessfullyestablishedthemselvesinpoweronlytobeencroacheduponbythegrowingstrengthandcapitalofthemerchantclass。Thesearenow，inturn，callinguponthetroopsandmilitiaforaid，astheyareshornofapittancehereandtherebytherisingpoweroftheproletariat。Theimperial，thefeudal，thecapitalisticformsofsocietyeachcreatedbyrevoltagainstoppressionfromabove，preservedtheirownformsofgovernmentonlybycarefullyguardingtheirhardlywoncharters(37)andconstitutions。Butintheverycountrieswherethesesuccessivesocialformshavedeveloped，fullofsurvivalsofthepast，somebeneficentandsomedetrimental，governmentsarebecomingmodifiedmorerapidlythaninthisdemocracywhereweostensiblythrewofftraditionalgovernmentaloppressiononlytoencaseourselvesinatheoryofvirtuousrevoltagainstoppressivegovernment，whichinmanyinstanceshasprovedmorebindingthantheactualoppressionitself。

Didthefoundersclingtoohardtothatwhichtheyhadwonthroughpersecution，hardship，andfinallythroughawarofrevolution？Didthesedoctrinesseemsoprecioustothemthattheyweredeterminedtotiemenuptothemaslongaspossible，andallowthemnochancetogoontonewdevicesofgovernment，lesttheyslightthesethathadbeensohardlywon？Didtheyestimate，nottoohighly，butbytooexclusiveavaluation，thatwhichtheyhadsecuredthroughthesheddingofblood？

Manhaseveroverestimatedthespoilsofwar，andtendedtolosehissenseofproportioninregardtotheirvalue。Hehaseversurroundedthemwithaglamourbeyondtheirdeserts。Thisisquiteharmlesswhenthebootyisanenemy\'sswordhungoverahouseholdfire，orabattered(38)flagdecoratingacityhall，butwhenthespoilofwarisanideawhichisboundontheforeheadofthevictoruntilitcrampshisgrowth，atheorywhichhecherishesinhisbosomuntilitgrowssolargeandnearthatitafflictsitspossessorwithasortofdiseaseofresponsibilityforitspreservation，itmayeasilyovershadowtheverypeopleforwhosecausethewarriorissuedforth。

Wasthisoverestimationofthefoundersthecauseofoursubsequentfailures？orratherdidnotthefaultliewiththeirsuccessors，anddoesitnotnowrestwithus，thatwehavewrappedourinheritanceinanapkinandrefusedtoaddthereto？Thefoundersfearlesslytookthenoblestwordoftheircenturyandincorporateditintoapublicdocument。Theyventuredtheirfortunesandthefutureoftheirchildrenuponitstruth。We，withthebeliefofaprogressive，developinghumanlife，apparentlyaccomplishlessthantheywiththeirinsistenceuponrightsandlibertieswhichtheysovigorouslyopposedtomediaevalrestrictionsandobligations。Weareinthatfirstperiodofconversionwhenweholdacreedwhichforecastsnewerandlargerpossibilitiesforgovernmentaldevelopment，withoutintheleastunderstandingitsspiritualimplications。Althoughwehavescrupulouslyextendedthefranchisetothevariedimmigrantsamongus，wehavenot(39)yetadmittedthemintorealpoliticalfellowship。

ItiseasytodemonstratethatweconsideroursocialandpoliticalproblemsalmostwhollyinthelightofonewisegroupwhomwecallnativeAmericans，legislatingforthemembersofhumblergroupswhomwecallimmigrants。

Thefirstembodiestheattitudeofcontemptor，atbest，thepatronageofthesuccessfultowardsthosewhohaveasyetfailedtosucceed。Wemayconsidertheso-calledimmigrationsituationasanillustrationofourfailuretotreatourgrowingRepublicinthespiritofaprogressiveanddevelopingdemocracy。

Thestatementismademanytimesthatwe，asanation，arerapidlyreachingthelimitofourpowersofassimilation，thatwereceivefurthermassesofimmigrantsattheriskofblurringthosetraitsandcharacteristicswhichwearepleasedtocallAmerican，withitscorollarythatthenationalstandardoflivingisindangerofpermanentdebasement。Werewenotinthemidstofacertainintellectualdearthandapathy，ofaskepticisminregardtotheidealsofself-governmentwhichhaveceasedtocharmmen，wewouldseethatwearetestingournationallifebyatraditiontooprovincialandlimitedtomeetitspresentmotleyandcosmopolitancharacter；thatwelackmentalenergy，adequateknowledge，and(40)asenseoftheyouthoftheearth。TheconstantcrythatAmericaninstitutionsareindangerbetraysaspiritualwaste，notduetoourinfidelitytonationalideals，butarisingfromthefactthatwefailtoenlargethoseidealsinaccordwithourfaithfulexperienceoflife。Ourpoliticalmachinerydevisedforquiteotherconditions，hasnotbeenreadjustedandadaptedtothesuccessivechangesresultingfromourdevelopment。Theclamorforthetownmeeting，forthecolonialandearlycenturyidealsofgovernmentisinitselfsignificant，forweareapttoclingtothepastthroughaverypaucityofideas。

Inasensetheenormousandunprecedentedmovingaboutoverthefaceoftheearthonthepartofallnationsisinitselftheresultofphilosophicdogmaoftheeighteenthcentury——ofthecreedofindividualliberty。

Themodernsystemofindustryandcommercepresupposesfreedomofoccupation，oftravel，andresidence；evenmore，itunhappilyrestsinalargemeasureupontheassumptionofabodyoftheunemployedandtheunskilled，readytobeabsorbedordroppedaccordingtothedemandsofproduction:butbackofthat，orcertainlyprecedingitslaterdevelopments，lies“thenaturalrights“doctrineoftheeighteenthcentury。Evensolateas1892anofficialtreatyoftheUnitedStatesreferredtothe(41)“inalienablerightsofmantochangehisresidenceandreligion。“Thisdogmaoftheschoolmen，dramatizedinFranceandpenetratingunderathousandformsintothemostbackwardEuropeanStates，isstilloperatingasanobscureforceinsendingemigrantstoAmericaandinourreceivingthemhere。Butinthesecondcenturyofitsexistenceithasbecometoobarrenandchillytoinduceanyreallyzealousorbeneficentactivityonbehalfoftheimmigrantsaftertheyarrive。Ontheotherhandthosethingswhichwedobelieve_theconvictionswhichmightbeformulatedtotheimmeasurablebenefitoftheimmigrants，andtotheeverlastinggoodofournationallife，havenotyetbeensatisfactorilystated，norapparentlyapprehendedbyus，inrelationtothisfield。Wehavenomethodbywhichtodiscovermen，tospiritualize，tounderstand，toholdintercoursewithaliensandtoreceiveofwhattheybring。Acentury-oldabstractionbreaksdownbeforethisvigoroustestofconcretecasesandtheirdemandforsympatheticinterpretation。WhenweareconfrontedbytheItalianlazzaroni，thepeasantsfromtheCarpathianfoothills，andtheproscribedtradersfromGalatia，wehavenonationalidealityfoundeduponrealismandtestedbyourgrowingexperiencewithwhichtomeetthem，butonlytheplatitudesofourcrudestyouth。

(42)Thephilosophersandstatesmenoftheeighteenthcenturybelievedthattheuniversalfranchisewouldcureallills；thatlibertyandequalityrestedonlyuponconstitutionalrightsandprivileges；

thattoobtainthesetwoandtothrowoffallgovernmentaloppressionconstitutedthefulldutyoftheprogressivepatriot。Westillkeeptothisformalizationbecausethephilosophersofthisgenerationgiveusnothingnewer。Weignorethefactthatworld-wideproblemscannolongerbesolvedbyapoliticalconstitutionassuringusagainstopposition，butthatwemustfranklyfacethepropositionthatthewholesituationismoreindustrialthanpolitical。

Didweapprehendthis，wemightthenrealizethattheofficersoftheGovernmentwhoaredealingwithnaturalizationpapersandtestingtheknowledgeoftheimmigrantsconcerningtheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，areonlyplayingwithcountersrepresentingthebeliefsofacenturyago，whiletherealissuesarebeingsettledbythegreatindustrialandcommercialinterestswhichareatoncetheproductsandthemastersofourcontemporarylife。Aschildrenwhoareallowedtoamusethemselveswithpokerchipspaynoattentiontotherealgamewhichtheireldersplaywiththegenuinecardsintheirhands，soweshutoureyestotheexploitationandindustrialdebasementoftheimmigrant，and(43)say，withplacidcontentment，thathehasbeengiventherightsofanAmericancitizen，andthat，therefore，allourobligationshavebeenfulfilled。ItisasifweshouldundertaketocurethecontemporarypoliticalcorruptionfoundeduponadisregardoftheInter-StateCommerceActs，byrequiringtherecreantcitizenstorepeattheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates。

Asyetnovigorouseffortismadetodiscoverhowfarourpresentsystemofnaturalization，largelyrestinguponlawsenactedin1802，isinadequate，althoughitmayhavemettherequirementsof“thefathers。“TheseprocessesweredevisedtotestnewcitizenswhohadimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesfrompoliticalratherthanfromeconomicpressure，althoughthesetwohavealwaysbeeninacertainsensecoextensive。YettheearlyIrishcametoAmericatoseekanopportunityforself-government，deniedthemathome；

theGermansandItaliansstartedtocomeinlargestnumbersaftertheabsorptionoftheirsmallerStatesintothelargernations；andtheimmigrantsfromRussiaaretheconqueredPoles，Lithuanians，Finns，andJews。Onsomesuchobscurenotiontheprocessesofnaturalizationwereworkedout，and，withacertaindegreeoflogic，thefirstimmigrantswerepresentedwiththeConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesasatype(44)andepitomeofthatwhichtheyhadcometoseek。

Sofarastheynowcomeinsearchofpoliticalliberty，asmanyofthemdoeveryday，thetestisstillvalid，but，inthemeantime，wecannotignorethosesignificantfigureswhichshowemigrationtorisewithperiodsofdepressioningivencountries，andimmigrationtobecheckedbyperiodsofdepressioninAmerica，andwerefusetoseehowlargelythequestionhasbecomeaneconomicone。

Atthepresentmoment，asweknow，theactualimportingofimmigrantsisleftlargelytotheenergyofsteamshipcompaniesandtothoseagentsforcontractlaborwhoarekeenenoughtoavoidtherestrictivelaws。Thebusinessmanishereagaininthesaddle，ashesolargelyisinAmericanaffairs。Fromthetimethattheimmigrantsfirstmaketheacquaintanceofthesteamshipagentintheirownvillages，atleastuntilagrandchildisbornonthenewsoil，theyaresubjectedtovariousprocessesofexploitationfrompurelycommercialandself-seekinginterests。Itbeginswiththerepresentativesofthetransatlanticlinesandtheirallies，whoconvertthepeasantholdingsintomoney，andprovidetheprospectiveemigrantswithneedlesssupplies，suchascartridgebeltsandbowieknives。Thebrokers，inmanufacturedpassports，sendtheirclients(45)bysuccessivestagesforathousandmilestoaportsuitingtheirpurposes。Onthewaytheemigrants\'eyesaretreatedthattheymaypassthephysicaltest；theyaretaughttoreadsufficientlywelltomeettheliteracytest；theyarelentenoughmoneytoescapethepaupertest，andbythetimetheyhavereachedAmerica，theyaresohopelesslyindebtthatitrequiresmonthsofworktorepayalltheyhavereceived。

Duringthistimetheyarecompletelyunderthecontrolofthelastbrokerintheline，whohashisdingyofficeinanAmericancity。Theexploitationcontinuesundertheemploymentagencywhoseoperationsvergeintothoseofthepolitician，throughthenaturalizationhenchman，thepettylawyerswhofomenttheirquarrelsandgrievancesbythestatementthatinafreecountryeverybody“goestolaw，“bytheliquordealerswhostimulatealivelytradeamongthem，and，finally，bythelodging-housekeepersandthelandlordswhoarenotobligedtogivethemthehousingwhichtheAmericantenantdemands。Itisalongdrearyroad，andtheimmigrantissuccessfullyexploitedateachturn。AtmomentsonelookingonisdriventoquotetheTitanicplaintofWaltWhitman:

“AsIstandaloofandlook，thereistomesomethingprofoundlyaffectinginlargemasses(46)ofmenfollowingtheleadofthosewhodonotbelieveinmen。“

Thesinisteraspectofthisexploitationliesinthefactthatitiscarriedonbyagentswhosestockintradearethecountersandtermsofcitizenship。ItissaidthatatthepresentmomenttherearemoreoftheseagentsinPalermothanperhapsinanyotherEuropeanport，andthatthosepoliticianswhohavefounditimpossibletostayeveninthatcorruptcityareengagedinthebrokerageofnaturalizationpapersintheUnitedStates。

Certainlyoneeffectofthestringentcontractlaborlawshasbeentomakethepadronesmorepowerfulbecause“smuggledalienlabor“hasbecomemorevaluabletoAmericancorporations，andalsotomakesimplerthedeliveryofimmigrantvotesaccordingtothedictatesofcommercialinterests。Itbecomesaveritablesystemofpoisoningthenotionsofdecentgovernment；

butbecausetheentireprocessiscarriedoninpoliticalterms，becausethepokerchipsarecoloredred，white，andblue，wearechildishlyindifferenttoit。Anelaborateavoidanceofrestrictionsquicklyadaptsitselftochangeseitherinlegislationhereoratthepointsofdeparture，becausenoneofthelegislationisfoundeduponarealanalysisofthesituation。

Forinstance，anewtypeofbrokerinRussiaduringtheRussian-JapaneseWarmade(47)useofthesituationintheinterestsofyoungRussianJews。Ifoneofthesemenleavesthecountryordinarily，hisfamilyisobligedtopaythreehundredrublestotheGovernment，butifhefirstjoinsthearmy，hisfamilyisfreefromthisobligationforhehaspassedintothekeepingofhissergeant。OutoffourhundredRussianJewswho，duringthreemonths，weredraftedintothearmyatagivenrecruitingstation，onlytenreported，theresthavingescapedthroughimmigration。Ofcoursetheentireundertakingismuchmorehazardous，becausethemanisadeserterfromthearmyinadditiontohisotherdisabilities；butthebrokersmerelyputupthepriceoftheirservicesandcontinuetheirundertakings。

Alltheseevasionsofimmigrationlawsandregulationsaresimplypossiblebecausethegovernmentaltestsdonotbelongtothecurrentsituation，andbecauseourpoliticalideasareinheritedfromgovernmentalconditionsnotourown。Inourrefusaltofacethesituation，wehavepersistentlyignoredthepoliticalidealsoftheCeltic，Germanic，Latin，andSlavicimmigrantswhohavesuccessivelycometous；andinouroverwhelmingambitiontoremainAnglo-Saxon，wehavefallenintotheAnglo-Saxontemptationofgoverningallpeoplesbyonestandard。Wehavefailedtoworkoutademocraticgovernmentwhich(48)shouldincludetheexperiencesandhopesof-allthevariedpeoplesamongus。WejustifythesituationbysomesuchprocessasthatemployedbyeachEnglishelectorwhocastsavoteforseventy-fivesubjectsbesideshimself。Heindirectlydetermines——althoughhemaybeanarrowmindedtradesmanoracountrysquireinterestedonlyinhishoundsandhorses——thecolonialpolicy，whichshallinturncontrolthedestiniesoftheEgyptianchildtoilinginthecottonfactoryinAlexandria，andofthehalf-starvedParseeworkingtheopiumfieldsofNorthIndia。Yethecannot，inthenatureofthecase，beinformedoftheneedsofthesefar-awaypeopleandhewouldventuretoattemptitonlyinregardtopeoplewhomheconsidered“inferior。“

Pendingarecentelection，aChicagoreformerbeggedhishearerstothrowawayallselfishthoughtsofthemselveswhentheywenttothepollsandtovoteinbehalfofthepoorandignorantforeignersofthecity。

Itwouldbedifficulttosuggestanythingwhichwouldresultinamoreseriousconfusionthantohaveeachman，withoutpersonalknowledgeandexperiences，considertheinterestsofthenewlyarrivedimmigrant。Thevoterwouldhavetogivehimselfovertoaveritabledebauchofaltruisminordertopersuadehimselfthathisvotewouldbeoftheleastvaluetothose(49)menofwhomheknewsolittle，andwhomheconsideredsoremoteandalientohimself。Intruththeattitudeoftheadvisingreformerwasinrealitysocontemptuousthathehadneverconsideredtheimmigrantsreallypartakersandmoldersofthepoliticallifeofhiscountry。

Thisattitudeofcontempt，ofprovincialism，thissurvivalofthespiritoftheconquerortowardaninferiorpeople，hasmanymanifestations，butnonesoharmfulaswhenitbecomesabsorbedandimitatedandisfinallyevincedbythechildrenoftheforeignerstowardtheirownparents。

Weareconstantlytoldoftheincreaseofcriminalsinthesecondgenerationofimmigrants，and，dayafterday，oneseesladsoftwelveandfourteenthrowingofftherestraintoffamilylifeandstrikingoutforthemselves。

Thebreakhascomethusearly，partlyfromtheforceddevelopmentofthechildundercityconditions，partlybecausetheparentshavehadnochanceoffollowing，evenremotely，thisdevelopment，butlargelybecausetheAmericanizedchildhascopiedthecontemptuousattitudetowardstheforeignerwhichheseesallabouthim。Therevolthasinitsomethingofthecityimpatienceofcountrystandards，，butmuchmoreofAmericaagainstPolandorItaly。Itisallwretchedlysordidwithbitternessonthepartoftheparents，and(50)hardheartedindifferenceandrecklessnessonthepartoftheboy。Onlyoccasionallycanthelatterbeappealedtobyfilialaffectionafterthefirstbreakhasoncebeenthoroughlymade；andyet，sometimes，eventheseladsseethepathosofthesituation。AprobationofficerfromHull-Houseonedaysurprisedthreetruantswhoweresittingbyabonfirewhichtheyhadbuiltneartheriver。Shelteredbyanemptyfreightcar，theofficerwasabletolistentotheirconversation。ThePole，theItalian，andtheBohemianboyswhohadbrokenthelawbystayingawayfromschool，bybuildingafireindangerousproximitytofreightcars，andby“swiping“thepotatoeswhichtheywereroasting，seemedtohavesettleddownintoanalmosthalcyonmomentofgentlenessandreminiscence。

TheItalianboycommiseratedhisparentsbecausetheyhatedthecoldandthesnowand“couldn\'tseemtogetusedtoit；“thePolesaidthathisfathermissedseeingfolksthatheknewandwas“soreonthiscountry；“

theBohemianladreallygrewquitetenderabouthisoldgrandmotherandthe“stacksofrelations“whocametoseehereverySundayintheoldcountry，where，incontrasttoherlonelinesshere，sheevidentlyhadbeenapersonofconsequence。Allofthemfeltthepathosofthesituation，butthepredominantnotewasthecheapcontemptoftheso(51)newAmericanforforeigners，eventhoughtheyareofhisownblood。Theweakeningofthetiewhichconnectsonegenerationwithanothermaybecalledthedomesticresultsofthecontemptuousattitude。

Butthesocialresultsofthecontemptuousattitudeareevenmoreseriousandnowheresograveasinthemoderncity。

Menaretherebroughttogetherbymultitudesinresponsetotheconcentrationofindustryandcommercewithoutbringingwiththemthenaturalsocialandfamilytiesortheguildrelationshipswhichdistinguishedthemediaevalcitiesandheldevensolateastheeighteenthcentury，whenthecountrypeoplecametotowninresponsetothenormalandslowlyformedtiesofdomesticservice，familyaffection，andapprenticeship。Menwhocometoamoderncitybyimmigrationbreakalltheseoldertiesandthenationalbondinaddition。Thereisallthemorenecessitytodevelopthatcosmopolitanbondwhichformstheirsubstitute。TheimmigrantswillbereadytoadaptthemselvestoanewandvigorousciviclifefoundedupontherecognitionoftheirneedsiftheGovernmentwhichisatpresentadministeredinourcities，willonlyadmitthattheseneedsaregermanetoitsfunctions。

Theframersofthecarefullypreparedcharters，uponwhichthecitiesarefounded，didnotforeseethataftertheuniversal(52)franchisehadoncebeengranted，socialneedsandidealswereboundtoenterinaslegitimateobjectsofpoliticalaction。

Neitherdidtheseframersrealize，ontheotherhand，thattheonlypeopleinademocracywhocanlegitimatelybecometheobjectsofrepressivegovernment，arethosepeoplewhoaretooundevelopedtousetheirlibertyorthosewhohaveforfeitedtheirrighttofullcitizenship。Wehave，therefore，amunicipaladministrationinAmericawhichconcernsitselfonlygrudginglywiththesocialneedsofthepeople，andislargelyreducedtotheadministrationofrestrictivemeasures。Thepeoplewhocomemostdirectlyincontactwiththeexecutiveofficials，whoarethelegitimateobjectsoftheircontrol，arethevicious，whoneedtoberepressed；andthesemidependentpoor，whoappealtothemintheirdireneed；or，forquitethereversereason，thosewhoaretryingtoavoidanunduetaxation，resentingthefactthattheyshouldbemadetosupportagovernmentwhich，fromthenatureofthecase，istoobarrentoexcitetheirrealenthusiasm。

Theinstinctiveprotestagainstthismechanicalmethodofciviccontrol，withthelackofadjustmentbetweenthenaturaldemocraticimpulseandthefixedexternalcondition，inevitablyproducestheindifferentcitizen，andtheso-called“professionalpolitician。“Thefirst，because(53)heisnotvicious，feelsthattherealprocessesofgovernmentdonotconcernhimandwishesonlytobeletalone。Thelattereasilyadaptshimselftoanillegalavoidanceoftheexternalfixedconditionsbyassumingthattheseconditionshavebeensettledbydoctrinaireswhodidnotintheleastunderstandthepeople，whilehe，thepolitician，makeshisappealbeyondtheconditionstotherealdesiresofthepeoplethemselves。

Heisthusnotonly“thepeople\'sfriend，“buttheirinterpreter。Itisinterestingtonotehowoftensimplepeoplereferto“them，“meaningthegoodandgreatwhogovernbutdonotunderstand，andto“him，“meaningthealderman，whorepresentsthemintheseincomprehensiblehallsofState，asanambassadortoaforeigncountrytowhoseborderstheythemselvescouldnotpossiblypenetrate，andwhoselanguagetheydonotspeak。

Inadditiontothisdifficultyinherentinthedifferencebetweenthetraditionalandactualsituation，thereisanother，whichconstantlyarisesonthepurelyadministrativeside。Thetraditionalgovernmentswhichthefoundershadcopied，inproceedingbyfixedstandardstoseparatetheviciousfromthegood，andthentolegislateagainstthevicious，hadenforcedtheserestrictivemeasuresbytrainedofficials，usuallywithamilitarybackground。Inademocracy，however，(54)theofficersentrustedwiththeenforcementofthisrestrictivelegislation，ifnotactuallyelectedbythepeoplethemselves，arestilltheappointmentsofthosethuselectedandare，therefore，good-naturedmenwhohavemadefriendsbytheirkindnessandsocialqualities。Thisisonlydecreasinglytrueeveninthosecitieswhereappointmentsaremadebycivilserviceexaminations。Thecarryingoutofrepressivelegislation，theremnantofamilitarystateofsociety，inademocracyisatlastputintothehandsofmenwhohaveattainedofficebecauseofpoliticalpull。

Therepressivemeasuresmustbeenforcedbythosesympathizingwiththepeopleandbelongingtothoseagainstwhomthemeasuresoperate。Thisanomaloussituationproducesalmostinevitablyoneresult:thatthepoliceauthoritiesthemselvesareturnedintoalliesofviceandcrime。ThismaybeillustratedfromalmostanyofthelargeAmericancitiesintherelationexistingbetweenthepoliceforceandthegamblingandotherillicitlife。Theofficersareoftenflatlytoldthattheenforcementofanordinancewhichthebetterelementofthecityhasinsisteduponpassing，isimpossible；thattheyareexpectedtocontrolonlytherobberyandcrimethatsooftenassociatethemselveswithvice。AsMr。Wilcox[2]hasre-

(55)-centlypointedout，publicsentimentitselfassumesacertainhypocrisy，andintheendwehave“theabnormalconditionswhicharecreatedwhenviceisprotectedbytheauthorities，“andintheveryworstcasestheredevelopsasortofmunicipalblackmailinwhichtheadministrationitselfprofitsbytheviolationoflaw。Theverygovernmentalagencieswhichweredesignedtoprotectthecitizenfromvice，fosterandprotecthiminitspursuancebecauseeverybodyinvolvedisthoroughlyconfusedbythehumanelementinthesituation。Furtherthanthis，theofficer\'sverykindnessandhumanunderstandingisthatwhichleadstohisdownfall，forheisforcedtoupholdtheremnantofamilitarydisciplineinaself-governingcommunity。Itisnotremarkable，perhaps，thatthepolicedepartment，themostvigoroussurvivalofmilitarismtobefoundinAmericancities，hasalwaysbeenresponsibleforthemostexaggeratedtypesofciviccorruption。

Itissad，however，thatthiscorruptionhaslargelybeenduetothekindlinessoftheofficersandtotheirlackofmilitarytraining。ThereisnodoubtthatthereasonablenessofkeepingthesaloonsinlowerNewYorkopenonSundaywasapparenttothepolicemenoftheEastSideforcelongbeforeitdawneduponthereformadministration；andyet，thatthepolicemenallowed(56)themselvestoconniveatlaw-breaking，wasthebeginningoftheirdisgracefuldownfall。Becausekindnesstoanenemymaymeandeathortheannihilationofthearmywhichheguards，allkindnessisillicitonthepartofthemilitarysentinelonduty；buttobringthatcodeoverbodilyintoapeacefulsocialstateistobreakdownthemoralsofbothsides，oftheenforceroftheilladaptedlaw，aswellasofthoseagainstwhomitissomaladroitlydirected。

Inordertomeetthissituation，thereisalmostinevitablydevelopedapoliticianofthecorrupttypesofamiliarinAmericancities，thepoliticianwhohasbecomesuccessfulbecausehehasmadefriendswiththevicious。

Thesemi-criminal，whoareconstantlybroughtincontactwithadministrativegovernmentarenaturallymuchinterestedinitsoperations。Havingmuchatstake，asamatterofcourse，theyattendtheprimariesandalltheotherelectionprocesseswhichsoquicklytirethegoodcitizenswhoseinterestinthegovernmentisaself-imposedduty。Toillustrate:itisamatterofmuchmomenttoagamblerwhetherthereistobea“wide-opentown“ornot；itmeansthesuccessorfailureofhisbusiness；itinvolves，notonlythepleasure，butthelivelihood，ofallhisfriends。Henaturallyattendstotheelectionofthealderman，totheappointmentandretention(57)ofthepoliceman。Heisfoundatthecaucus“everytime，“andwouldbemuchamusedifhewerepraisedfortheperformanceofhiscivicduty；but，becauseheandtheotherswhoareconcernedinsemi-illicitbusinessdoattendtheprimaries，thecorruptpoliticianisnominatedoverandoveragain。

Asthistypeofpoliticianissuccessfulfromhisalliancewithcrime，therealsoinevitablyarisesfromtimetotimeaso-calledreformerwhoisshockedtodiscoverthestateofaffairs，theeasypartnershipbetweenviceandadministrativegovernment。Hedramaticallyuncoversthesituationandarousesgreatindignationagainstitonthepartofgoodcitizens。

Ifthisindignationisenough，hecreatesapoliticalfervorwhichistranslatedintoaclaimuponpublicgratitude。Inportrayingtheevilheisfighting，hedoesnotrecognize，oratleastdoesnotmakeclear，allthehumankindnessuponwhichithasgrown。Inhisspeechesheinevitablyoffendsapopularaudience，whoknowthattheevilofcorruptionexistsinalldegreesandformsofhumanweakness，butwhoalsoknowthattheseevilsarebynomeansalwayshideous，andsometimesevenarelovable。Theyresenthisover-drawnpicturesofviceandofthelifeofthevicious；theirsenseof(58)fairplay，theirdeep-rooteddesireforcharityandjustice，arealloutraged。

Toillustratefromapersonalexperience:SomeyearsagoafamousNewYorkreformercametoChicagototellusofhisphenomenalsuccess，histrenchantmethodsofdealingwiththecity“gambling-hells，“ashechosetocallthem。HeproceededtodescribethecriminalsoflowerNewYorkintermsandphraseswhichstruckatleastoneofhisauditorsassheerblasphemyagainstourcommonhumannature。IthoughtofthecriminalswhomIknew，ofthegamblerforwhomeachSaturdayIregularlycollectedhisweeklywageof$24。00，keeping$18。00forhiswifeandchildrenandgivinghim$6。00onMondaymorning。Hisdespairingstatement，“thethingisgrowingonme，andIcannevergiveitup，“wascertainlynotthecryofamanlivinginhell，butofhimwho，throughmuchtribulationhadatleastkepttheloyalintention。Irememberedthethreegirlswhohadcometomewithapaltrysumofmoneycollectedfromthepawnandsaleoftheirtawdryfineryinorderthatoneoftheirnumbermightbesparedadeathinthealmshouseandthatshemighthavethewretchedcomfortduringtheclosingweeksofherlifeofknowingthat，althoughshewasanoutcast，shewasnotapauper。Irecalledthefirstmur-

(59)-dererwhomIhadeverknown，ayoungmanwhowassinginghisbabytosleepandstoppedtolayitinitscradlebeforeherusheddownstairsintohisfather\'ssaloontoscatterthegangofboyswhowereteasingtheoldmanbygivinghimEnglishorders。TheoldmancouldnotunderstandEnglishandtheboyswererefusingtopayforthedrinkstheyhadconsumed，buttechnicallyhadnotordered。

ForoneshortmomentIsawthesituationfromthepointofviewofhumblerpeople，whosinoftenthroughweaknessandpassion，butseldomthroughhardnessofheart，andIfeltthatinademocraticcommunitysuchsweepingcondemnationsandconclusionsasthespeakerwaspouringforthcouldneverbeaccountedforrighteousness。

Asthepolicemanwhomakestermswithvice，andalmostinevitablyslidesintomakinggainfromvice，merelyrepresentsthetypeofpoliticianwhoislivingofftheweaknessofhisfellows，sotheover-zealousreformerwhoexaggeratesviceuntilthepublicisscaredandawestruck，representsthetypeofpoliticianwhoislivingoffthetimidityofhisfellows。Withthelackofcivicmachineryforsimpledemocraticexpression，foradirectdealingwithhumannatureasitis，weseemdoomedtoonetypeortheother——corruptionistsoranti-crimecommittees。

(60)Andonesortortheotherwewillcontinuetohavesolongaswedistrusttheveryenergyofexistence，thecravingforenjoyment，thepushingofvitalforces，theveryrightofeverycitizentobewhatheiswithoutpretenseorassumptionofvirtue。Toooftenhedoesnotreallyadmirethesevirtues，butheimaginesthemsomewhereasastandardadoptedbythevirtuouswhomhedoesnotknow。ThatoldFrankenstein，theidealmanoftheeighteenthcentury，isstillhauntingus，althoughheneverexistedsaveinthebrainofthedoctrinaire。

Thisdramaticandfeverishtriumphoftheselfseeker，see-sawingwiththatoftheinterestedreformer，doesmorethananythingelse，perhaps，tokeeptheAmericancitizenawayfromtheidealsofgenuineevolutionarydemocracy。Whereasrepressivegovernment，fromthenatureofthecase，hastodowiththewickedwhoarehappilyalwaysinaminorityinthecommunity，anormaldemocraticgovernmentwouldnaturallyhavetodowiththegreatmajorityofthepopulationintheirnormalrelationstoeachother。

Afterall，theso-called“slumpolitician“ventureshissuccessuponanappealtohumansentimentandgenerosity。Thisventureoftenresultsinanalliancebetweenthepopularpoliticianandthehumblestcitizens，quiteasnaturallyasthere-

(61)-formerwhostandsforhonestbusinessadministrationusuallybecomesalliedwiththetypeofbusinessmanwhosechiefconcernitistoguardhistreasureandtopreventariseintaxation。Thecommunityisagaininsensiblydividedintotwocamps，therepressed，whoisdimlyconsciousthathehasnoadequateoutletforhisnormallifeandtherepressive，representedbythecautious，carefulcitizenholdingfasttohisown，oncemoretheconquerorandhishumblepeople。

ENDNOTES“TheSpiritofModernPhilosophy，“JosiahRoyce，page275。TheAmericanCity，Dr。DelosF。Wilcox，page200。

JaneAddams:NewerIdealsofPeace:Chapter3:FailuretoutilizeimmigrantsinCityGovernmentCHAPTERIII:

FAILURETOUTILIZEIMMIGRANTSINCITYGOVERNMENTWedomuchloosetalkinginregardtoAmericanimmigration；weusethephrase，“thescumofEurope，“andotherunwarrantedwordswithoutrealizingthattheunsuccessfulman，theundevelopedpeasant，maybemuchmorevaluabletousherethanthemorehighlydeveloped，butalsomorehighlyspecialized，towndweller，whomaymuchlessreadilyacquirethecharacteristicswhichthenewenvironmentdemands。

Ifsuccessfulstruggleendsinthesurvivalofthefew，inblatantandtangiblesuccessforthefewonly，governmentwillhavetoreckonmostlargelywiththemenwhohavebeenbeateninthestruggle，withtheeffectuponthemofthecontestandthedefeat；for，afterall，theunsuccessfulwillalwaysrepresentthemajorityofthecitizens，anditiswiththelargemajoritythatselfgovernmentmusteventuallydealwhatevercourseofactionothergovernmentsmaylegitimatelydetermineforthemselves。

(63)

Todemandtobeprotectedfromthemanyunsuccessfulamongus，whoaresupposedtoissueforthfromtheshallowsofourcitylifeandseizeuponthetreasureofthecitizensasthebarbariansofoldcamefromoutsidethecitywalls，isofcoursenottohavereadthefirstlessonofselfgovernmentinthelightofevolutionaryscience。Itistoforgetthatarevivalinself-government，anawakeningofitsoriginalmotivepowerandraisond\'etre，cancomeonlyfromagenuinedesiretoincreaseitsscope，andtoadaptittonewandstrenuousconditions。Inthiswaysciencerevivedandleapedforwardunderthepressureoftheenlargeddemandofmanufactureandcommerceputuponitduringtheindustrialdecadesjustpassed。

Wewouldaskthemoralistsandstatesmenofthisdawningcentury，equippedastheyare，withthehistoricmethod，tosaveourcontemporariesfromskepticisminregardtoself-governmentbyrevealingtothemitsadaptabilitytotheneedsofthehumblestmanwhoissosorelypressedinthisindustrialage。Thestatesmanwhowouldfillhiscountrymenwithenthusiasmfordemocraticgovernmentmustnotonlypossessagenuineunderstandingoftheneedsofthesimplestcitizens，buthemustknowhowtorevealtheircapacitiesandpowers。Hemustneedsgo(64)man-huntingintothosecuriousgroupswecallnewlyarrivedimmigrants，anddoforthemwhatthescholarhasdoneinpointingouttousthesweetnessandcharmwhichinhereinprimitivedomesticcustomsandinshowingusthecuriouspivotthesecustomsmakeforreligiousandtribalbeliefs。Thescholarwhohassurroundedthesimplestactionofwomengrindingmilletorcornwithapenetratingreminiscence，sweeterthanthechanttheysing，mayrevealsomethingofthesamereminiscenceandcharmamongmanyoftheimmigrants。InthemidstofcrowdedcitystreetsonestumblesuponanoldItalianpeasantwithherdistaffagainstherwitheredfaceandherpathetichandspatiently“holdingthethread，“ashasbeendonebymyriadsofwomensincechildrenneededtobeclad；oroneseesanoldGermanpotter，misshapenbyyears，hissensitivehandsneverthelessfairlyalivewithskillanddelicacy，andhislifeatleastilluminedwiththeartist\'sprerogativeofdirectcreation。CouldwetaketheseprimitivehabitsastheyaretobefoundeverydayinAmericancitiesandgivethemtheirsignificanceandplace，theywouldbeawonderfulfactorforpoetryincitiesfranklygivenovertoindustrialismandabsorbedinitsactivities。AsaMcAndrews\'hymnexpressesthefranticrushoftheindustrialriver，sotheseprimitivecustomscouldgiveus(65)somethingofthemysticismandcharmoftheindustrialsprings，asuggestionofsource，atouchoftherefinementwhichadherestosimplethings。Thisstudyoforigins，ofsurvivals，ofpathsofleastresistance——refininganindustrialagethroughthepeopleandexperienceswhichreallybelongtoitanddonotneedtobebroughtinfromtheoutsidewouldsurelyresultinarevivedenthusiasmforhumanlifeanditspossibilitieswhichwouldinturnreactupontheidealsofgovernment。Thepresentlackofunderstandingofsimplepeopleandthedearthoftheilluminationwhichknowledgeofthemwouldgive，canbetracednotonlyinthesocialandpoliticalmaladjustmentoftheimmigrantinmunicipalcentres，butisfeltinso-called“practicalaffairs“ofnationalmagnitude。Regretismanytimesexpressedthat，notwithstandingthefactthatnineoutofeverytenimmigrantsareofruralbirthandarefittedtoundertakethatpainstakingmethodofcultivatingthesoilwhichAmericanfarmersdespise，theyneverthelessalltendtocongregateincitieswheretheirinheritedandelaborateknowledgeofagriculturalprocessesisunutilized。ButitischaracteristicofAmericancomplacencywhenanyassistedremovaltoagriculturalregionsiscontemplated，thatweutterlyignorethepastexperiencesoftheimmigrantandalwaysassume(66)thateachfamilywillbecontenttoliveinthemiddleofitsownpieceofground，althoughtherearefewpeoplesonthefaceoftheearthwhohaveevertriedisolatingafamilyononehundredandsixtyacresoroneighty，orevenonforty。ButthisistheAmericanway——asurvivalofourpioneerdays——andwerefusetomodifyit，eveninregardtoSouthItalians，althoughfromthedayofmediaevalincursionstheyhavelivedincompactvillageswithanintenseandelaboratedsociallife，somuchofitoutofdoorsandinterdependentthatithasaffectedalmosteverydomestichabit。Italianwomenkneadtheirownbread，butdependonthevillageovenforitsbaking，andthemenwouldratherwalkformilestotheirfieldseachdaythantofaceaneveningofcompanionshiplimitedtothefamily。NothingcouldaffordabetterchecktotheconstantremovaltothecitiesofthefarmingpopulationallovertheUnitedStatesthanthepossibilityofcombiningcommunitylifewithagriculturaloccupation。

Thiscombinationwouldaffordthatdevelopmentofcivilizationwhich，curiouslyenough，densityalonebringsandforwhichevenafreesystemofruraldeliveryisnotanadequatesubstitute。MuchofthesignificanceandcharmofrurallifeinSouthItalyliesinitsvillagecompanionship，quiteasthedrearinessoftheAmericanfarmlifeinheresin(67)itsunnecessarysolitude。Butwetotallydisregardthesolutionwhichtheoldagriculturalcommunityoffers，andourutterlackofadaptabilityhassomethingtodowiththefactthattheSouthItalianremainsinthecitywherehesoonforgetshiscunninginregardtosilkwormsandolivetrees，butcontinueshisoldsocialhabitstotheextentoffillinganentiretenementhousewiththepeoplefromonevillage。

WealsoexhibitalltheAnglo-Saxondistrustofanyexperimentwithlandtenureormethodoftaxation，althoughoursingle-taxadvocatesdonotfailtotellusdailyofthestupidityofthepresentarrangement。

Itmight，indeed，bewelltomakeafewexperimentsuponanhistoricbasisbeforetheirenthusiasmconvertsusall。ForcenturiesinRussiatheSlavicvillage，themirsystemoflandoccupation，hasbeeninsuccessfuloperation，trainingmenwithinitsnarrowlimitstocommunityadministration。YetwhenapersecutedsectfromRussiawishestofindrefugeinAmerica，weinsistthatseventhousandpeopleshallgiveupallatonceasystemoflandownershipinwhichtheyareexperts。Americansdeclarethesystemtobeimpracticable，althoughitissingularlylikethatinvogueinPalestineduringtheperiodofitshighestprosperity。WecannotreceivethemintheUnitedStates，because(68)ourlawshavenowayofdealingwithsuchcases。

AndinCanada，wheretheyarefinallysettled，theunimaginativeDominionofficialsaredriventothevergeofdistractionconcerningregistrationofdeedsandthecollectionoftaxesfrommenwhodonotclaimacresintheirownnames，butinthenameofthevillage。Theofficialdistractionisreflectedandintensifiedamongthepeoplethemselves，tothepointofdrivingthemintothemediaeval“marchingmania，“inthehopeoffindingalandinthesouthwheretheymaycarryouttheirinoffensive“mir“system。

Theentiresituationmightprovethatanunbendingtheoryofindividualismmaybecomeasfixedasstatusitself，althoughtherearecertainlyotherfactorsintheDoukhoborsituation——religiousbigotry，andtheself-seekingofleadership。InspiteofthefactthattheCanadianofficialshaveinothermattersexhibitedmuchoftheadaptabilitywhichdistinguishestheBritishcolonialpolicy，theyarecompletelystrandedontherockofAnglo-Saxonindividualisticownership，andassumethatanyothersystemoflandtenureissubversiveofgovernment，forgettingthatRussiamanagestoexertafairamountofgovernmentalcontroloverthousandsofacresheldunderthesystemwhichtheysodetest。

Inoureagernesstoreproachtheimmigrantsfor(69)notgoinguponthelandwealmostoverlookthecontributionstocitylifewhichthoseofthem，whowereadaptedtoitinEurope，aremakingtoourcitieshere。Fromdingylittleeating-housesinlowerNewYork，performingafunctionsomewhatbetweentheeighteenth-centurycoffee-houseandtheParisiancafe，isissuingatthepresentmomentperhapsthesturdiestrealisticdramathatisbeingproducedonAmericansoil。

Lateintothenightspeculationiscarriedforward——noronthenicequestionsoftheTalmudandonquibblesoflogic；butmindslongtrainedontheseseriouslydiscusstheneedofareadjustmentoftheindustrialmachineinorderthattheprimitivesenseofjusticeandrighteousnessmaysecurelargerplayinoursocialorganization。AndyetaRussianinChicagowhousedtobelievethatAmericanscaredfirstandforemostforpoliticallibertyandthattheywouldcertainlyadmirethosewhohadsufferedinitscause，findsnooneinterestedinhisstoryofsixyears\'banishmentbeyondtheAntarcticcircle。Heisreallylistenedtoonlywhenhetellsthetaletoasportsmanofthefishhehadcaughtduringthesixweeksofsummerwhentheriverswereopen。“Livelyworkthen，butplentyoftimetoeatthemdriedorfrozenthroughtherestoftheyear，“isthemostsympatheticcommenthehasyetre-

(70)-ceiveduponanexperiencewhich，atleasttohim，heldthebittersweetofmartyrdom。

AmongthecoloniesofthemostrecentlyimmigratedJews，whostillcarryouttheirorthodoxcustomsandaritualpreservedthroughcenturiesintheGhetto，oneconstantlyfeelsduringaseasonofreligiousobservance，arefreshinginsistenceupontherealityoftheinnerlife，anduponthedignityofitsexpressionininheritedform。PerhapsthemoststrikingreproachtothematerialismofChicagoisthesightonasolemnJewishholidayofaChicagoRiverbridgelinedwithmenandwomenobliviousofthenoisytrafficandsordidsurroundings，castingtheirsinsuponthewatersthattheymaybecarriedfaraway。Thesceneisaclearstatementthat，afterall，lifedoesnotconsistinwealth，inlearning，inenterprise，inenergy，insuccess，noteveninthatmodernfetich，culture，butinaninnerequilibrium，in“theagreementofsoul。“Itisarelieftoseeeventhisexaggeratedandgrotesquepresentationofspiritualvalues。

Butthestatesmanshutshimselfawayfromthepossibilityofusingthesegreatreservoirsofhumanabilityandmotivepowerbecauseheconsidersitpatriotictoholdtogovernmentallinesandidealslaiddownacenturyandaquarterago。Becauseofamilitaryinheritance，weasanationstoutly(71)contendthatallthisvariedandsuggestivelifehasnothingtodowithgovernmentnorpatriotism，andthatweperformthefulldutyofAmericancitizenswhentheprovisionsofthestatutesonnaturalizationarecarriedout。Inthemeantime，intheinterestsofourtheorythatcommercialandgovernmentalpowersshouldhavenoconnectionwitheachother，wecarefullyignoretheonemillionfalsenaturalizationpapersintheUnitedStatesissuedandconcealedbycommercializedpolitics。Althoughwehaveanuneasyknowledgethatthesepowersarecuriouslyallied，weprofessthatthelatterhasnoconnectionwiththeformerandnocontroloverit。Westeadilyrefusetorecognizethefactthatourageisswayedbyindustrialforces。

Fortunately，lifeismuchbiggerandfinerthanourtheoriesaboutit，and，amongalltheimmi-grantsinthegreatcities，thereisslowlydevelopingthebeginningsofself-governmentonthelinesoftheirdailyexperiences。