下载辰思小说免费APP
Anationwhichonlycarriesonagriculture，isanindividual
whoinhismaterialproductionlacksonearm。Commerceismerely
themediumofexchangebetweentheagriculturalandthe
manufacturingpower，andbetweentheirseparatebranches。Anation
whichexchangesagriculturalproductsforforeignmanufactured
goodsisanindividualwithonearm，whichissupportedbya
foreignarm。Thissupportmaybeusefultoit，butnotsousefulas
ifitpossessedtwoarmsitself，andthisbecauseitsactivityis
dependentonthecapriceoftheforeigner。Inpossessionofa
manufacturingpowerofitsown，itcanproduceasmuchprovisions
andrawmaterialsasthehomemanufacturerscanconsume；butif
dependentuponforeignmanufacturers，itcanmerelyproduceasmuch
surplusasforeignnationsdonotcaretoproduceforthemselves，
andwhichtheyareobligedtobuyfromanothercountry。
Asbetweenthedifferentdistrictsofoneandthesamecountry，
sodoesthedivisionoflabourandtheco-operationofthe
productivepowersoperatebetweenthevariousnationsoftheearth。
Theformerisconductedbyinternalornational，thelatterby
internationalcommerce。Theinternationalco-operationof
productivepowersis，however，averyimperfectone，inasmuchasit
maybefrequentlyinterruptedbywars，politicalregulations，
commercialcrises，&c。Althoughitisthemostimportantinone
sense，inasmuchasbyitthevariousnationsoftheearthare
connectedwithoneanother，itisneverthelesstheleastimportant
withregardtotheprosperityofanyseparatenationwhichis
alreadyfaradvancedincivilisation。Thisisadmittedbywriters
ofthepopularschool，whodeclarethatthehomemarketofanation
iswithoutcomparisonmoreimportantthanitsforeignmarket。It
followsfromthis，thatitistheinterestofeverygreatnationto
makethenationalconfederationofitsproductivepowersthemain
objectofitsexertions，andtoconsidertheirinternational
confederationassecondinimportancetoit。
Bothinternationalandnationaldivisionoflabourarechiefly
determinedbyclimateandbyNatureherself。Wecannotproducein
everycountryteaasinChina，spicesasinJava，cottonasin
Louisiana，orcorn，wool，fruit，andmanufacturedgoodsasinthe
countriesofthetemperatezone。Itwouldbefollyforanationto
attempttosupplyitselfbymeansofnationaldivisionoflabour
(i。e。byhomeproduction)witharticlesfortheproductionofwhich
itisnotfavouredbynature，andwhichitcanprocurebetterand
cheaperbymeansofinternationaldivisionoflabour(i。e。through
foreigncommerce)。Andjustasmuchdoesitbetokenawantof
nationalintelligenceornationalindustryifanationdoesnot
employallthenaturalpowerswhichitpossessesinorderto
satisfyitsowninternalwants，andthenbymeansofthesurplusof
itsownproductionstopurchasethosenecessaryarticleswhich
naturehasforbiddenittoproduceonitsownterritory。
Thecountriesoftheworldmostfavouredbynature，withregard
tobothnationalandinternationaldivisionoflabour，are
evidentlythosewhosesoilbringsforththemostcommonnecessaries
oflifeofthebestqualityandinthelargestquantity，andwhose
climateismostconducivetobodilyandmentalexertion，andthese
arethecountriesofthetemperatezone；forinthesecountriesthe
manufacturingpowerespeciallyprospers，bymeansofwhichthe
nationnotmerelyattainstothehighestdegreeofmentaland
socialdevelopmentandofpoliticalpower，butisalsoenabledto
makethecountriesoftropicalclimatesandofinferior
civilisationtributaryinacertainmeasuretoitself。The
countriesofthetemperatezonethereforeareaboveallothers
calledupontobringtheirownnationaldivisionoflabourtothe
highestperfection，andtousetheinternationaldivisionoflabour
fortheirenrichment。
NOTES：
1。WealthofNations，BookI。chap。i。
2。WealthofNations，BookI。chap。i。
Chapter14
PrivateEconomyandNationalEconomy
Wehaveprovedhistoricallythattheunityofthenationforms
thefundamentalconditionoflastingnationalprosperity；andwe
haveshownthatonlywheretheinterestofindividualshasbeen
subordinatedtothoseofthenation，andwheresuccessive
generationshavestrivenforoneandthesameobject，thenations
havebeenbroughttoharmoniousdevelopmentoftheirproductive
powers，andhowlittleprivateindustrycanprosperwithoutthe
unitedeffortsbothoftheindividualswhoarelivingatthetime，
andofsuccessivegenerationsdirectedtoonecommonobject。We
havefurthertriedtoproveinthelastchapterhowthelawof
unionofpowersexhibitsitsbeneficialoperationintheindividual
manufactory，andhowitactswithequalpowerontheindustryof
wholenations。Inthepresentchapterwehavenowtodemonstrate
howthepopularschoolhasconcealeditsmisunderstandingofthe
nationalinterestsandoftheeffectsofnationalunionofpowers，
byconfoundingtheprinciplesofprivateeconomywiththoseof
nationaleconomy。
\'Whatisprudenceintheconductofeveryprivatefamily，\'says
AdamSmith，(1*)\'canscarcebefollyinthatofagreatkingdom。\'
Everyindividualinpursuinghisowninterestsnecessarilypromotes
therebyalsotheinterestsofthecommunity。Itisevidentthat
everyindividual，inasmuchasheknowshisownlocalcircumstances
bestandpaysmostattentiontohisoccupation，isfarbetterable
tojudgethanthestatesmanorlegislatorhowhiscapitalcanmost
profitablybeinvested。Hewhowouldventuretogiveadvicetothe
peoplehowtoinvesttheircapitalwouldnotmerelytakeupon
himselfauselesstask，butwouldalsoassumetohimselfan
authoritywhichbelongssolelytotheproducer，andwhichcanbe
entrustedtothosepersonsleastofallwhoconsiderthemselves
equaltosodifficultatask。AdamSmithconcludesfromthis：
\'Restrictionsontradeimposedonthebehalfoftheinternal
industryofacountry，aremerefolly；everynation，likeevery
individual，oughttobuyarticleswheretheycanbeprocuredthe
cheapest；inordertoattaintothehighestdegreeofnational
prosperity，wehavesimplytofollowthemaximoflettingthings
alone(laisserfaireetlaisseraller)。\'SmithandSaycomparea
nationwhichseekstopromoteitsindustrybyprotectiveduties，to
atailorwhowantstomakehisownboots，andtoabootmakerwho
wouldimposeatollonthosewhoenterhisdoor，inorderto
promotehisprosperity。Asinallerrorsofthepopularschool，so
alsointhisonedoesThomasCoopergotoextremesinhisbook(2*)
whichisdirectedagainsttheAmericansystemofprotection。
\'Politicaleconomy，\'healleges，\'isalmostsynonymouswiththe
privateeconomyofallindividuals；politicsarenoessential
ingredientofpoliticaleconomy；itisfollytosupposethatthe
communityissomethingquitedifferentfromtheindividualsofwhom
itiscomposed。Everyindividualknowsbesthowtoinvesthis
labourandhiscapital。Thewealthofthecommunityisnothingelse
thantheaggregateofthewealthofallitsindividualmembers；and
ifeveryindividualcanprovidebestforhimself，thatnationmust
betherichestinwhicheveryindividualismostlefttohimself。\'
TheadherentsoftheAmericansystemofprotectionhadopposed
themselvestothisargument，whichhadformerlybeenadducedby
importingmerchantsinfavouroffreetrade；theAmerican
navigationlawshadgreatlyincreasedthecarryingtrade，the
foreigncommerce，andfisheriesoftheUnitedStates；andforthe
mereprotectionoftheirmercantilemarinemillionshadbeen
annuallyexpendedontheirfleet；accordingtohistheorythose
lawsandthisexpensealsowouldbeasreprehensibleasprotective
duties。\'Inanycase，\'exclaimsMrCooper，\'nocommercebyseais
worthanavalwar；themerchantsmaybelefttoprotect
themselves。\'
Thusthepopularschool，whichhadbegunbyignoringthe
principlesofnationalityandnationalinterests，finallycomesto
thepointofaltogetherdenyingtheirexistence，andofleaving
individualstodefendthemastheymaysolelybytheirown
individualpowers。
How？Isthewisdomofprivateeconomy，alsowisdominnational
economy？Isitinthenatureofindividualstotakeinto
considerationthewantsoffuturecenturies，asthoseconcernthe
natureofthenationandtheState？Letusconsideronlythefirst
beginningofanAmericantown；everyindividuallefttohimself
wouldcaremerelyforhisownwants，oratthemostforthoseof
hisnearestsuccessors，whereasallindividualsunitedinone
communityprovidefortheconvenienceandthewantsofthemost
distantgenerations；theysubjectthepresentgenerationforthis
objecttoprivationsandsacrificeswhichnoreasonableperson
couldexpectfromindividuals。Cantheindividualfurthertakeinto
considerationinpromotinghisprivateeconomy，thedefenceofthe
country，publicsecurityandthethousandotherobjectswhichcan
onlybeattainedbytheaidofthewholecommunity？Doesnotthe
Staterequireindividualstolimittheirprivatelibertyaccording
towhattheseobjectsrequire？Doesitnotevenrequirethatthey
shouldsacrificeforthesesomepartoftheirearnings，oftheir
mentalandbodilylabour，nay，eventheirownlife？Wemustfirst
rootout，asCooperdoes，theveryideasof\'State\'and\'nation\'
beforethisopinioncanbeentertained。
No；thatmaybewisdominnationaleconomywhichwouldbefolly
inprivateeconomy，andvicevers？andowingtotheverysimple
reason，thatatailorisnonationandanationnotailor，thatone
familyissomethingverydifferentfromacommunityofmillionsof
families，thatonehouseissomethingverydifferentfromalarge
nationalterritory。Nordoestheindividualmerelybyunderstanding
hisowninterestsbest，andbystrivingtofurtherthem，ifleftto
hisowndevices，alwaysfurthertheinterestsofthecommunity。We
askthosewhooccupythebenchesofjustice，whethertheydonot
frequentlyhavetosendindividualstothetread-millonaccountof
theirexcessofinventivepower，andoftheiralltoogreat
industry。Robbers，thieves，smugglers，andcheatsknowtheirown
localandpersonalcircumstancesandconditionsextremelywell，and
paythemostactiveattentiontotheirbusiness；butitbynomeans
followstherefrom，thatsocietyisinthebestconditionwheresuch
individualsareleastrestrainedintheexerciseoftheirprivate
industry。
InathousandcasesthepoweroftheStateiscompelledto
imposerestrictionsonprivateindustry。Itpreventstheshipowner
fromtakingonboardslavesonthewestcoastofAfrica，andtaking
themovertoAmerica。Itimposesregulationsastothebuildingof
steamersandtherulesofnavigationatsea，inorderthat
passengersandsailorsmaynotbesacrificedtotheavariceand
capriceofthecaptains。InEnglandcertainruleshaverecently
beenenactedwithregardtoshipbuilding，becauseaninfernalunion
betweenassurancecompaniesandshipownershasbeenbroughtto
light，wherebyyearlythousandsofhumanlivesandmillionsin
valueweresacrificedtotheavariceofafewpersons。InNorth
Americamillersareboundunderapenaltytopackintoeachcask
notlessthan198lbs。ofgoodflour，andforallmarketgoods
marketinspectorsareappointed，althoughinnoothercountryis
individuallibertymorehighlyprized。EverywheredoestheState
considerittobeitsdutytoguardthepublicagainstdangerand
loss，asinthesaleofnecessariesoflife，soalsointhesaleof
medicines，&c。
Butthecaseswhichwehavementioned(theschoolwillreply)
concernunlawfuldamagestopropertyandtotheperson，notthe
honourableexchangeofusefulobjects，nottheharmlessanduseful
industryofprivateindividuals；toimposerestrictionsonthese
lattertheStatehasnorightwhatever。Ofcoursenot，solongas
theyremainharmlessanduseful；thatwhich，however，isharmless
andusefulinitself，ingeneralcommercewiththeworld，can
becomedangerousandinjuriousinnationalinternalcommerce，and
vicevers？Intimeofpeace，andconsideredfromacosmopolitan
pointofview，privateeringisaninjuriousprofession；intimeof
war，Governmentsfavourit。Thedeliberatekillingofahumanbeing
isacrimeintimeofpeace，inwaritbecomesaduty。Tradingin
gunpowder，lead，andarmsintimeofpeaceisallowed；butwhoever
providestheenemywiththemintimeofwar，ispunishedasa
traitor。
ForsimilarreasonstheStateisnotmerelyjustifiedin
imposing，butboundtoimpose，certainregulationsandrestrictions
oncommerce(whichisinitselfharmless)forthebestinterestsof
thenation。Byprohibitionsandprotectivedutiesitdoesnotgive
directionstoindividualshowtoemploytheirproductivepowersand
capital(asthepopularschoolsophisticallyalleges)；itdoesnot
telltheone，\'Youmustinvestyourmoneyinthebuildingofa
ship，orintheerectionofamanufactory；\'ortheother，\'Youmust
beanavalcaptainoracivilengineer；\'itleavesittothe
judgmentofeveryindividualhowandwheretoinvesthiscapital，
ortowhatvocationhewilldevotehimself。Itmerelysays，\'Itis
totheadvantageofournationthatwemanufacturetheseorthe
othergoodsourselves；butasbyfreecompetitionwithforeign
countrieswecanneverobtainpossessionofthisadvantage，wehave
imposedrestrictionsonthatcompetition，sofarasinouropinion
isnecessary，togivethoseamonguswhoinvesttheircapitalin
thesenewbranchesofindustry，andthosewhodevotetheirbodily
andmentalpowerstothem，therequisiteguaranteesthattheyshall
notlosetheircapitalandshallnotmisstheirvocationinlife；
andfurthertostimulateforeignerstocomeovertooursidewith
theirproductivepowers。Inthismanner，itdoesnotintheleast
degreerestrainprivateindustry；onthecontrary，itsecuresto
thepersonal，natural，andmoneyedpowersofthenationagreater
andwiderfieldofactivity。Itdoesnottherebydosomethingwhich
itsindividualcitizenscouldunderstandbetteranddobetterthan
it；onthecontraryitdoessomethingwhichtheindividuals，even
iftheyunderstoodit，wouldnotbeabletodoforthemselves。
Theallegationoftheschool，thatthesystemofprotection
occasionsunjustandanti-economicalencroachmentsbythepowerof
theStateagainsttheemploymentofthecapitalandindustryof
privateindividuals，appearsintheleastfavourablelightifwe
considerthatitistheforeigncommercialregulationswhichallow
suchencroachmentsonourprivateindustrytotakeplace，andthat
onlybytheaidofthesystemofprotectionareweenabledto
counteractthoseinjuriousoperationsoftheforeigncommercial
policy。IftheEnglishshutoutourcornfromtheirmarkets，what
elsearetheydoingthancompellingouragriculturiststogrowso
muchlesscornthantheywouldhavesentouttoEnglandunder
systemsoffreeimportation？Iftheyputsuchheavydutiesonour
wool，ourwines，orourtimber，thatourexporttradetoEngland
whollyoringreatmeasureceases，whatelseistherebyeffected
thanthatthepoweroftheEnglishnationrestrictsproportionately
ourbranchesofproduction？Inthesecasesadirectionisevidently
givenbyforeignlegislationtoourcapitalandourpersonal
productivepowers，whichbutfortheregulationsmadebyitthey
wouldscarcelyhavefollowed。Itfollowsfromthis，thatwereweto
disowngiving，bymeansofourownlegislation，adirectiontoour
ownnationalindustryinaccordancewithourownnational
interests，wecouldnotpreventforeignnationsfromregulatingour
nationalindustryafterafashionwhichcorrespondswiththeirown
realorpresumedadvantage，andwhichinanycaseoperates
disadvantageouslytothedevelopmentofourownproductivepowers。
Butcanitpossiblybewiseronourpart，andmoretotheadvantage
ofthosewhonationallybelongtous，forustoallowourprivate
industrytoberegulatedbyaforeignnationalLegislature，in
accordancewithforeignnationalinterests，ratherthanregulateit
bymeansofourownLegislatureandinaccordancewithourown
interests？DoestheGermanorAmericanagriculturistfeelhimself
lessrestrictedifhehastostudyeveryyeartheEnglishActsof
Parliament，inordertoascertainwhetherthatbodydeemsit
advantageoustoencourageortoimposerestrictionsonhis
productionofcornorwool，thanifhisownLegislatureimposes
certainrestrictionsonhiminrespectofforeignmanufactured
goods，butatthesametimeinsureshimamarketforallhis
products，ofwhichhecanneveragainbedeprivedbyforeign
legislation？
Iftheschoolmaintainsthatprotectivedutiessecuretothe
homemanufacturersamonopolytothedisadvantageofthehome
consumers，insodoingitmakesuseofaweakargument。Foras
everyindividualinthenationisfreetoshareintheprofitsof
thehomemarketwhichisthussecuredtonativeindustry，thisis
innorespectaprivatemonopoly，butaprivilege，securedtoall
thosewhobelongtoournation，asagainstthosewhonationally
belongtoforeignnations，andwhichisthemorerighteousandjust
inasmuchasthosewhonationallybelongtoforeignnationspossess
themselvestheverysamemonopoly，andthosewhobelongtousare
merelytherebyputonthesamefootingwiththem。Itisneithera
privilegetotheexclusiveadvantageoftheproducers，nortothe
exclusivedisadvantageoftheconsumers；foriftheproducersat
firstobtainhigherprices，theyrungreatrisks，andhaveto
contendagainstthoseconsiderablelossesandsacrificeswhichare
alwaysconnectedwithallbeginningsinmanufacturingindustry。But
theconsumershaveamplesecuritythattheseextraordinaryprofits
shallnotreachunreasonablelimits，orbecomeperpetual，bymeans
ofthecompetitionathomewhichfollowslateron，andwhich，asa
rule，alwayslowerspricesfurtherthanthelevelatwhichtheyhad
steadilyrangedunderthefreecompetitionoftheforeigner。Ifthe
agriculturists，whoarethemostimportantconsumerstothe
manufacturers，mustalsopayhigherprices，thisdisadvantagewill
beamplyrepaidtothembyincreaseddemandsforagricultural
products，andbyincreasedpricesobtainedforthelatter。
Itisafurthersophism，arrivedatbyconfoundingthetheory
ofmerevalueswiththatofthepowersofproduction，whenthe
popularschoolinfersfromthedoctrine，\'thatthewealthofthe
nationismerelytheaggregateofthewealthofallindividualsin
it，andthattheprivateinterestofeveryindividualisbetter
ablethanallStateregulationstoincitetoproductionand
accumulationofwealth，\'theconclusionthatthenationalindustry
wouldprosperbestifonlyeveryindividualwereleftundisturbed
intheoccupationofaccumulatingwealth。Thatdoctrinecanbe
concededwithouttheconclusionresultingfromitatwhichthe
schooldesiresthustoarrive；forthepointinquestionisnot(as
wehaveshowninapreviouschapter)thatofimmediatelyincreasing
bycommercialrestrictionstheamountofthevaluesofexchangein
thenation，butofincreasingtheamountofitsproductivepowers。
Butthattheaggregateoftheproductivepowersofthenationis
notsynonymouswiththeaggregateoftheproductivepowersofall
individuals，eachconsideredseparately——thatthetotalamountof
thesepowersdependschieflyonsocialandPoliticalconditions，
butespeciallyonthedegreeinwhichthenationhasrendered
effectualthedivisionoflabourandtheconfederationofthe
powersofproductionwithinitself——webelievewehave
sufficientlydemonstratedintheprecedingchapters。
Thissystemeverywheretakesintoitsconsiderationonly
individualswhoareinfreeunrestrainedintercourseamong
themselves，andwhoarecontentedifweleaveeveryonetopursue
hisownprivateinterestsaccordingtohisownprivatenatural
inclination。Thisisevidentlynotasystemofnationaleconomy，
butasystemoftheprivateeconomyofthehumanrace，asthat
wouldconstituteitselfweretherenointerferenceonthepartof
anyGovernment，weretherenowars，nohostileforeigntariff
restrictions。Nowheredotheadvocatesofthatsystemcaretopoint
outbywhatmeansthosenationswhicharenowprosperoushave
raisedthemselvestothatstageofpowerandprosperitywhichwe
seethemmaintain，andfromwhatcausesothershavelostthat
degreeofprosperityandpowerwhichtheyformerlymaintained。We
canonlylearnfromithowinprivateindustry，naturalability，
labourandcapital，arecombinedinordertobringintoexchange
valuableproducts，andinwhatmannertheselatteraredistributed
amongthehumanraceandconsumedbyit。Butwhatmeansaretobe
adoptedinordertobringthenaturalpowersbelongingtoany
individualnationintoactivityandvalue，toraiseapoorandweak
nationtoprosperityandpower，cannotbegatheredfromit，because
theschooltotallyignoringpolitics，ignoresthespecial
conditionsofthenation，andconcernsitselfmerelyaboutthe
prosperityofthewholehumanrace。Whereverinternationalcommerce
isinquestion，thenativeindividualisthroughoutsimplypitted
againsttheforeignindividual；examplesfromtheprivatedealings
ofseparatemerchantsarethroughouttheonlyonesadduced——goods
arespokenofingeneralterms(withoutconsideringwhetherthe
questionisoneofrawproductsorofmanufacturedarticles)——in
ordertoprovethatitisequallyforthebenefitofthenation
whetheritsexportsandimportsconsistofmoney，ofrawmaterials，
orofmanufacturedgoods，andwhetherornottheybalanceone
another。Ifwe，forexample，terrifiedatthecommercialcrises
whichprevailintheUnitedStatesofNorthAmericalikenative
epidemics，consultthistheoryastothemeansofavertingor
diminishingthem，itleavesusutterlywithoutcomfortor
instruction；nay，itisindeedimpossibleforustoinvestigate
thesephenomenascientifically，because，underthepenaltyofbeing
takenformuddleheadsandignoramuses，wemustnotevenutterthe
term\'balanceoftrade，\'whilethistermis，notwithstanding，made
useofinalllegislativeassemblies，inallbureauxof
administration，oneveryexchange。Forthesakeofthewelfareof
humanity，thebeliefisinculcatedonusthatexportsalways
balancethemselvesspontaneouslybyimports；notwithstandingthat
wereadinpublicaccountshowtheBankofEnglandcomestothe
assistanceofthenatureofthings；notwithstandingthatcornlaws
exist，whichmakeitsomewhatdifficultfortheagriculturistof
thosecountrieswhichdealwithEnglandtopaywithhisownproduce
forthemanufacturedgoodswhichheconsumes。
Theschoolrecognisesnodistinctionbetweennationswhichhave
attainedahigherdegreeofeconomicaldevelopment，andthosewhich
occupyalowerstage。Everywhereitseekstoexcludetheactionof
thepoweroftheState；everywhere，accordingtoit，willthe
individualbesomuchbetterabletoproduce，thelessthepowerof
theStateconcernsitselfforhim。Infact，accordingtothis
doctrinesavagenationsoughttobethemostproductiveandwealthy
oftheearth，fornowhereistheindividualleftmoretohimself
thaninthesavagestate，nowhereistheactionofthepowerofthe
Statelessperceptible。
Statisticsandhistory，however，teach，onthecontrary，that
thenecessityfortheinterventionoflegislativepowerand
administrationiseverywheremoreapparent，thefurthertheeconomy
ofthenationisdeveloped。Asindividuallibertyisingenerala
goodthingsolongonlyasitdoesnotruncountertotheinterests
ofsociety，soisitreasonabletoholdthatprivateindustrycan
onlylayclaimtounrestrictedactionsolongasthelatter
consistswiththewell-beingofthenation。Butwheneverthe
enterpriseandactivityofindividualsdoesnotsufficeforthis
purpose，orinanycasewherethesemightbecomeinjurioustothe
nation，theredoesprivateindustryrightlyrequiresupportfrom
thewholepowerofthenation，thereoughtitforthesakeofits
ownintereststosubmittolegalrestrictions。
Iftheschoolrepresentsthefreecompetitionofallproducers
asthemosteffectualmeansforpromotingtheprosperityofthe
humanrace，itisquiterightfromthepointofviewwhichit
assumes。Onthehypothesisofauniversalunion，everyrestriction
onthehonestexchangeofgoodsbetweenvariouscountriesseems
unreasonableandinjurious。Butsolongasothernations
Subordinatetheinterestsofthehumanraceasawholetotheir
nationalinterests，itisfollytospeakoffreecompetitionamong
theindividualsofvariousnations。Theargumentsoftheschoolin
favouroffreecompetitionarethusonlyapplicabletotheexchange
betweenthosewhobelongtooneandthesamenation。Everygreat
nation，therefore，mustendeavourtoformanaggregatewithin
itself，whichwillenterintocommercialintercoursewithother
similaraggregatessofaronlyasthatintercourseisSuitableto
theinterestsofitsownspecialcommunity。Theseinterestsofthe
communityare，however，infinitelydifferentfromtheprivate
interestsofalltheseparateindividualsofthenation，ifeach
individualistoberegardedasexistingforhimselfaloneandnot
inthecharacterofamemberofthenationalcommunity，ifwe
regard(asSmithandSaydo)individualsasmereproducersand
consumers，notcitizensofstatesormembersofnations；foras
such，mereindividualsdonotconcernthemselvesfortheprosperity
offuturegenerations——theydeemitfoolish(asMrCooperreally
demonstratestous)tomakecertainandpresentsacrificesinorder
toendeavourtoobtainabenefitwhichisasyetuncertainand
lyinginthevastfieldofthefuture(ifevenitpossessanyvalue
atall)；theycarebutlittleforthecontinuanceofthenation——
theywouldexposetheshipsoftheirmerchantstobecometheprey
ofeveryboldpirate——theytroublethemselvesbutlittleabout
thepower，thehonour，orthegloryofthenation，atthemostthey
canpersuadethemselvestomakesomematerialsacrificesforthe
educationoftheirchildren，andtogivethemtheopportunityof
learningatrade，providedalwaysthatafterthelapseofafew
yearsthelearnersareplacedinapositiontoearntheirown
bread。
Indeed，accordingtotheprevailingtheory，soanalogousis
nationaleconomytoprivateeconomythatJ。B。Say，where
(exceptionally)heallowsthatinternalindustrymaybeprotected
bytheState，makesitaconditionofsodoing，thatevery
probabilitymustexistthatafterthelapseofafewyearsitwill
attainindependence，justasashoemaker\'sapprenticeisallowed
onlyafewyears\'timeinordertoperfecthimselfsofarinhis
tradeastodowithoutparentalassistance。
NOTES：
1。WealthofNations，BookIV。chap。ii。
2。LecturesonPoliticalEconomy，byThomasCooper，pp。1，15，19，
117。
Chapter15
NationalityandtheEconomyoftheNation
Thesystemoftheschoolsuffers，aswehavealreadyshownin
theprecedingchapters，fromthreemaindefects：firstly，from
boundlesscosmopolitanism，whichneitherrecognisestheprinciple
ofnationality，nortakesintoconsiderationthesatisfactionof
itsinterests；secondly，fromadeadmaterialism，whicheverywhere
regardschieflythemereexchangeablevalueofthingswithout
takingintoconsiderationthementalandpolitical，thepresentand
thefutureinterests，andtheproductivepowersofthenation；
thirdly，fromadisorganisingparticularismandindividualism，
which，ignoringthenatureandcharacterofsociallabourandthe
operationoftheunionofpowersintheirhigherconsequences，
considersprivateindustryonlyasitwoulddevelopitselfundera
stateoffreeinterchangewithsociety(i。e。withthewholehuman
race)werethatracenotdividedintoseparatenationalsocieties。
Betweeneachindividualandentirehumanity，however，stands
THENATION，withitsspeciallanguageandliterature，withits
peculiaroriginandhistory，withitsspecialmannersandcustoms，
lawsandinstitutions，withtheclaimsofalltheseforexistence，
independence，perfection，andcontinuanceforthefuture，andwith
itsseparateterritory；asocietywhich，unitedbyathousandties
ofmindandofinterests，combinesitselfintooneindependent
whole，whichrecognisesthelawofrightforandwithinitself，and
initsunitedcharacterisstillopposedtoothersocietiesofa
similarkindintheirnationalliberty，andconsequentlycanonly
undertheexistingconditionsoftheworldmaintainself-existence
andindependencebyitsownpowerandresources。Astheindividual
chieflyobtainsbymeansofthenationandinthenationmental
culture，powerofproduction，security，andprosperity，soisthe
civilisationofthehumanraceonlyconceivableandpossibleby
meansofthecivilisationanddevelopmentoftheindividual
nations。
Meanwhile，however，aninfinitedifferenceexistsinthe
conditionandcircumstancesofthevariousnations：weobserve
amongthemgiantsanddwarfs，well-formedbodiesandcripples，
civilised，half-civilised，andbarbarousnations；butinallof
them，asintheindividualhumanbeing，existstheimpulseof
self-preservation，thestrivingforimprovementwhichisimplanted
bynature。Itisthetaskofpoliticstocivilisethebarbarous
nationalities，tomakethesmallandweakonesgreatandstrong，
but，aboveall，tosecuretothemexistenceandcontinuance。Itis
thetaskofnationaleconomytoaccomplishtheeconomical
developmentofthenation，andtoprepareitforadmissionintothe
universalsocietyofthefuture。
Anationinitsnormalstatepossessesonecommonlanguageand
literature，aterritoryendowedwithmanifoldnaturalresources，
extensive，andwithconvenientfrontiersandanumerouspopulation。
Agriculture，manufactures，commerce，andnavigationmustbeall
developedinitproportionately。artsandsciences，educational
establishments，anduniversal，cultivationmuststandinitonan
equalfootingwithmaterialproduction。Itsconstitution，laws，and
institutionsmustaffordtothosewhobelongtoitahighdegreeof
securityandliberty，andmustpromotereligion，morality，and
prosperity；inaword，musthavethewell-beingofitscitizensas
theirobject。Itmustpossesssufficientpoweronlandandatsea
todefenditsindependenceandtoprotectitsforeigncommerce。It
willpossessthepowerofbeneficiallyaffectingthecivilisation
oflessadvancednations，andbymeansofitsownsurplus
populationandoftheirmentalandmaterialcapitaltofound
coloniesandbegetnewnations。
Alargepopulation，andanextensiveterritoryendowedwith
manifoldnationalresources，areessentialrequirementsofthe
normalnationality；theyarethefundamentalconditionsofmental
cultivationaswellasofmaterialdevelopmentandpoliticalpower。
Anationrestrictedinthenumberofitspopulationandin
territory，especiallyifithasaseparatelanguage，canonly
possessacrippledliterature，crippledinstitutionsforpromoting
artandscience。AsmallStatecanneverbringtocomplete
perfectionwithinitsterritorythevariousbranchesofproduction。
Initallprotectionbecomesmereprivatemonopoly。Onlythrough
allianceswithmorepowerfulnations，bypartlysacrificingthe
advantagesofnationality，andbyexcessiveenergy，canitmaintain
withdifficultyitsindependence。
Anationwhichpossessesnocoasts，mercantilemarine，ornaval
power，orhasnotunderitsdominionandcontrolthemouthsofits
rivers，isinitsforeigncommercedependentonothercountries；it
canneitherestablishcoloniesofitsownnorformnewnations；all
surpluspopulation，mentalandmaterialmeans，whichflowsfrom
suchanationtouncultivatedcountries，islosttoitsown
literature，civilisationandindustry，andgoestothebenefitof
othernationalities。
Anationnotboundedbyseasandchainsofmountainsliesopen
totheattacksofforeignnations，andcanonlybygreat
sacrifices，andinanycaseonlyveryimperfectly，establishand
maintainaseparatetariffsystemofitsown。
Territorialdeficienciesofthenationcanberemediedeither
bymeansofhereditarysuccession，asinthecaseofEnglandand
Scotland；orbypurchase，asinthecaseofFloridaandLouisiana；
orbyconquests，asinthecaseofGreatBritainandIreland。
Inmoderntimesafourthmeanshasbeenadopted，whichleadsto
thisobjectinamannermuchmoreinaccordancewithjusticeand
withtheprosperityofnationsthanconquest，andwhichisnotso
dependentonaccidentsashereditarysuccession，namely，theunion
oftheinterestsofvariousStatesbymeansoffreeconventions。
ByitsZollverein，theGermannationfirstobtainedoneofthe
mostimportantattributesofitsnationality。Butthismeasure
cannotbeconsideredcompletesolongasitdoesnotextendover
thewholecoast，fromthemouthoftheRhinetothefrontierof
Poland，includingHollandandDenmark。Anaturalconsequenceof
thisunionmustbetheadmissionofboththesecountriesintothe
GermanBund，andconsequentlyintotheGermannationality，whereby
thelatterwillatonceobtainwhatitisnowinneedof，namely，
fisheriesandnavalpower，maritimecommerceandcolonies。Besides，
boththesenationsbelong，asrespectstheirdescentandwhole
character，totheGermannationality。Theburdenofdebtwithwhich
theyareoppressedismerelyaconsequenceoftheirunnatural
endeavourstomaintainthemselvesasindependentnationalities，and
itisinthenatureofthingsthatthisevilshouldrisetoapoint
whenitwillbecomeintolerabletothosetwonationsthemselves，
andwhenincorporationwithalargernationalitymustseem
desirableandnecessarytothem。
Belgiumcanonlyremedybymeansofconfederationwitha
neighbouringlargernationherneedswhichareinseparablefromher
restrictedterritoryandpopulation。TheUnitedStatesandCanada，
themoretheirpopulationincreases，andthemoretheprotective
systemoftheUnitedStatesisdeveloped，somuchthemorewill
theyfeelthemselvesdrawntowardsoneanother，andthelesswill
itbepossibleforEnglandtopreventaunionbetweenthem。
Asrespectstheireconomy，nationshavetopassthroughthe
followingstagesofdevelopment：originalbarbarism，pastoral
condition，agriculturalcondition，agricultural-manufacturing
condition，andagricultural-manufacturing-commercialcondition。
Theindustrialhistoryofnations，andofnonemoreclearly
thanthatofEngland，provesthatthetransitionfromthesavage
statetothepastoralone，fromthepastoraltotheagricultural，
andfromagriculturetothefirstbeginningsinmanufactureand
navigation，iseffectedmostspeedilyandadvantageouslybymeans
offreecommercewithfurtheradvancedtownsandcountries，but
thataperfectlydevelopedmanufacturingindustry，animportant
mercantilemarine，andforeigntradeonareallylargescale，can
onlybeattainedbymeansoftheinterpositionofthepowerofthe
State。
Thelessanynation\'sagriculturehasbeenperfected，andthe
moreitsforeigntradeisinwantofopportunitiesofexchanging
theexcessofnativeagriculturalproductsandrawmaterialsfor
foreignmanufacturedgoods，thedeeperthatthenationisstill
sunkinbarbarismandfittedonlyforanabsolutemonarchicalform
ofgovernmentandlegislation，themorewillfreetrade(i。e。the
exportationofagriculturalproductsandtheimportationof
manufacturedgoods)promoteitsprosperityandcivilisation。
Ontheotherhand，themorethattheagricultureofanation，
itsindustries，anditssocial，political，andmunicipal
conditions，arethoroughlydeveloped，thelessadvantagewillitbe
abletoderivefortheimprovementofitssocialconditions，from
theexchangeofnativeagriculturalproductsandrawmaterialsfor
foreignmanufacturedgoods，andthegreaterdisadvantageswillit
experiencefromthesuccessfulcompetitionofaforeign
manufacturingpowersuperiortoitsown。
Solelyinnationsofthelatterkind，namely，thosewhich
possessallthenecessarymentalandmaterialconditionsandmeans
forestablishingamanufacturingpoweroftheirown，andofthereby
attainingthehighestdegreeofcivilisation，anddevelopmentof
materialprosperityandpoliticalpower，butwhichareretardedin
theirprogressbythecompetitionofaforeignmanufacturingpower
whichisalreadyfartheradvancedthantheirown——onlyinsuch
nationsarecommercialrestrictionsjustifiableforthepurposeof
establishingandprotectingtheirownmanufacturingpower；andeven
inthemitisjustifiableonlyuntilthatmanufacturingpoweris
strongenoughnolongertohaveanyreasontofearforeign
competition，andthenceforthonlysofarasmaybenecessaryfor
protectingtheinlandmanufacturingpowerinitsveryroots。
Thesystemofprotectionwouldnotmerelybecontrarytothe
principlesofcosmopoliticaleconomy，butalsototherightly
understoodadvantageofthenationitself，wereittoexclude
foreigncompetitionatonceandaltogether，andthusisolatefrom
othernationsthenationwhichisthusprotected。Ifthe
manufacturingpowertobeprotectedbestillinthefirstperiodof
itsdevelopment，theprotectivedutiesmustbeverymoderate，they
mustonlyrisegraduallywiththeincreaseofthementaland
materialcapital，ofthetechnicalabilitiesandspiritof
enterpriseofthenation。Neitherisitatallnecessarythatall
branchesofindustryshouldbeprotectedinthesamedegree。Only
themostimportantbranchesrequirespecialprotection，forthe
workingofwhichmuchoutlayofcapitalinbuildingandmanagement，
muchmachinery，andthereforemuchtechnicalknowledge，skill，and
experience，andmanyworkmenarerequired，andwhoseproducts
belongtothecategoryofthefirstnecessariesoflife，and
consequentlyareofthegreatestimportanceasregardstheirtotal
valueaswellasregardsnationalindependence(as，forexample，
cotton，woollenandlinenmanufactories，&c。)。Ifthesemain
branchesaresuitablyprotectedanddeveloped，allotherless
importantbranchesofmanufacturewillriseuparoundthemundera
lessdegreeofprotection。Itwillbetotheadvantageofnations
inwhichwagesarehigh，andwhosepopulationisnotyetgreatin
proportiontotheextentoftheirterritory，e。g。intheUnited
StatesofNorthAmerica，togivelessprotectiontomanufacturesin
whichmachinerydoesnotplayanimportantpart，thantothosein
whichmachinerydoesthegreaterpartofthework，providingthat
thosenationswhichsupplythemwithsimilargoodsallowinreturn
freeimportationtotheiragriculturalproducts。
Thepopularschoolbetraysanuttermisconceptionofthenature
ofnationaleconomicalconditionsifitbelievesthatsuchnations
canpromoteandfurthertheircivilisation，theirprosperity，and
especiallytheirsocialprogress，equallywellbytheexchangeof
agriculturalproductsformanufacturedgoods，asbyestablishinga
manufacturingpoweroftheirown。Amereagriculturalnationcan
neverdeveloptoanyconsiderableextentitshomeandforeign
commerce，itsinlandmeansoftransport，anditsforeign
navigation，increaseitspopulationindueproportiontotheir
wellbeing，ormakenotableprogressinitsmoral，intellectual，
social，andpoliticaldevelopment：itwillneveracquireimportant
politicalpower，orbeplacedinapositiontoinfluencethe
cultivationandprogressoflessadvancednationsandtoform
coloniesofitsown。AmereagriculturalStateisaninfinitely
lessperfectinstitutionthananagriculturalmanufacturingState。
Theformerisalwaysmoreorlesseconomicallyandpolitically
dependentonthoseforeignnationswhichtakefromitagricultural
productsinexchangeformanufacturedgoods。Itcannotdetermine
foritselfhowmuchitwillproduce；itmustwaitandseehowmuch
otherswillbuyfromit。Theselatter，onthecontrary(the
agricultural-manufacturingStates)，produceforthemselveslarge
quantitiesofrawmaterialsandprovisions，andsupplymerelythe
deficiencybyimportationfromthepurelyagriculturalnations。The
purelyagriculturalnationsarethusinthefirstplacedependent
fortheirpowerofeffectingsalesonthechancesofamoreorless
plentifulharvestintheagricultural-manufacturingnations；inthe
nextplacetheyhavetocompeteinthesesaleswithotherpurely
agriculturalnations，wherebytheirpowerofsale，initselfvery
uncertain，thusbecomesstillmoreuncertain。Lastly，theyare
exposedtothedangerofbeingtotallyruinedintheirtradingwith
foreignmanufacturingnationsbywars，ornewforeigntariff
regulationswherebytheysufferthedoubledisadvantageoffinding
nobuyersfortheirsurplusagriculturalproducts，andoffailing
toobtainsuppliesofthemanufacturedgoodswhichtheyrequire。An
agriculturalnationis，aswehavealreadystated，anindividual
withonearm，whomakesuseofaforeignarm，butwhocannotmake
sureoftheuseofitinallcases；anagricultural-manufacturing
nationisanindividualwhohastwoarmsofhisownalwaysathis
disposal。
Itisafundamentalerroroftheschoolwhenitrepresentsthe
systemofprotectionasameredeviceofspeculativepoliticians
whichiscontrarytonature。Historyistheretoprovethat
protectiveregulationsoriginatedeitherinthenaturaleffortsof
nationstoattaintoprosperity，independence，andpower，orin
consequenceofwarsandofthehostilecommerciallegislationof
predominatingmanufacturingnations。
Theideaofindependenceandpoweroriginatesintheveryidea
of\'thenation。\'Theschoolnevertakesthisintoconsideration，
becauseitdoesnotmaketheeconomyoftheseparatenation，but
theeconomyofsocietygenerally，i。e。ofthewholehumanrace，the
objectofitsinvestigations。Ifweimagine，forinstance，thatall
nationswereunitedbymeansofauniversalconfederation，their
individualindependenceandpowerwouldceasetobeanobjectof
regard。Thesecurityfortheindependenceofeverynationwouldin
suchacaserestonthelegalprovisionsoftheuniversalsociety，
justase。g。thesecurityoftheindependenceofthestatesof
RhodeIslandandDelawareliesintheunionofallthefreestates
constitutingtheAmericanUnion。Sincethefirstfoundationofthat
Unionithasneveryetoccurredtoanyofthesesmallerstatesto
carefortheenlargementofitsownpoliticalpower，ortoconsider
itsindependencelesssecuredthanisthatofthelargeststatesof
theUnion。
Inproportion，however，astheprincipleofauniversal
confederationofnationsisreasonable，injustthesamedegree
wouldagivennationactcontrarytoreasonif，inanticipationof
thegreatadvantagestobeexpectedfromsuchaunion，andfroma
stateofuniversalandperpetualpeace，itweretoregulatethe
principlesofitsnationalpolicyasthoughthisuniversal
confederationofnationsexistedalready。Weask，wouldnotevery
sanepersonconsideragovernmenttobeinsanewhich，in
considerationofthebenefitsandthereasonablenessofastateof
universalandperpetualpeace，proposedtodisbanditsarmies，
destroyitsfleet，anddemolishitsfortresses？Butsucha
governmentwouldbedoingnothingdifferentinprinciplefromwhat
thepopularschoolrequiresfromgovernmentswhen，becauseofthe
advantageswhichwouldbederivablefromgeneralfreetrade，it
urgesthattheyshouldabandontheadvantagesderivablefrom
protection。
Warhasaruinouseffectonthereciprocalcommercialrelations
betweennationandnation。Theagriculturistlivinginonecountry
isbyitforciblyseparatedfromthemanufacturerlivinginanother
country。While，however，themanufacturer(especiallyifhebelongs
toanationpowerfulatsea，andcarryingonextensivecommerce)
readilyfindscompensationfromtheagriculturistsofhisown
country，orfromthoseofotheraccessibleagriculturalcountries，
theinhabitantofthepurelyagriculturalcountrysuffersdoubly
throughthisinterruptionofintercourse。
Themarketforhisagriculturalproductswillfailhim
entirely，andhewillconsequentlylosethemeansofpayingfor
thosemanufacturedgoodswhichhavebecomenecessariestohimowing
topreviouslyexistingtrade；hispowerbothofproductionand
consumptionwillbediminished。
If，however，oneagriculturalnationwhoseproductionand
consumptionarethusdiminishedbywarhasalreadymade
considerableadvancesinpopulation，civilisation，andagriculture，
manufacturesandfactorieswillspringupinitinconsequenceof
theinterruptionofinternationalcommercebywar。Waractsonit
likeaprohibitivetariffsystem。Ittherebybecomesacquainted
withthegreatadvantagesofamanufacturingpowerofitsown，it
becomesconvincedbypracticalexperiencethatithasgainedmore
thanithaslostbythecommercialinterruptionswhichwarhas
occasioned。Theconvictiongainsgroundinit，thatitiscalledto
passfromtheconditionofamereagriculturalStatetothe
conditionofanagricultural-manufacturingState，andin
consequenceofthistransition，toattaintothehighestdegreeof
prosperity，Civilisation，andpower。Butifaftersuchanationhas
alreadymadeconsiderableprogressinthemanufacturingcareer
whichwasopenedtoitbywar，peaceisagainestablished，and
shouldbothnationsthencontemplatetheresumptionoftheir
previouslyexistingcommercialintercourse，theywillbothfind
thatduringthewarnewinterestshavebeenformed，whichwouldbe
destroyedbyre-establishingtheformercommercialinterchange。(1*)
Theformeragriculturalnationwillfeel，thatinordertoresume
thesaleofitsagriculturalproductstotheforeigner，itwould
havetosacrificeitsownmanufacturingindustrywhichhasinthe
meanwhilebeencreated；themanufacturingnationwillfeelthata
portionofitshomeagriculturalproduction，whichhasbeenformed
duringthewar，wouldagainbedestroyedbyfreeimportation。Both，
therefore，trytoprotecttheseinterestsbymeansofimposing
dutiesonimports。Thisisthehistoryofcommercialpolitics
duringthelastfiftyyears。
Itiswarthathascalledintoexistencethemorerecent
systemsofprotection；andwedonothesitatetoassert，thatit
wouldhavebeentotheinterestofthemanufacturingnationsofthe
secondandthirdranktoretainaprotectivepolicyandfurther
developit，evenifEnglandaftertheconclusionofpeacehadnot
committedthemonstrousmistakeofimposingrestrictionsonthe
importationofnecessariesoflifeandofrawmaterials，and
consequentlyofallowingthemotiveswhichhadledtothesystemof
protectioninthetimeofthewar，tocontinueduringpeace。Asan
uncivilisednation，havingabarbaroussystemofagriculture，can
makeprogressonlybycommercewithcivilisedmanufacturing
nations，soafterithasattainedtoacertaindegreeofculture，
innootherwaycanitreachthehighestgradeofprosperity，
civilisation，andpower，thanbypossessingamanufacturing
industryofitsown。Awarwhichleadstothechangeofthepurely
agriculturalStateintoanagricultural-manufacturingStateis
thereforeablessingtoanation，justastheWarofIndependence
oftheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica，inspiteoftheenormous
sacrificeswhichitrequired，hasbecomeablessingtoallfuture
generations。Butapeacewhichthrowsbackintoapurely
agriculturalconditionanationwhichisfittedtodevelopa
manufacturingpowerofitsown，becomesacursetoit，andis
incomparablymoreinjurioustoitthanawar。
Itisfortunateforthemanufacturingpowersofthesecondand
thirdrank，thatEnglandaftertherestorationofthegeneralpeace
hasherselfimposedalimittohermaintendency(ofmonopolising
themanufacturingmarketofthewholeearth)，byimposing
restrictionsontheimportationofforeignmeansofsubsistenceand
rawmaterials。CertainlytheEnglishagriculturists，whohad
enjoyedamonopolyofsupplyingtheEnglishmarketwithproducts
duringthewar，wouldofcoursehavepainfullyfelttheforeign
competition，butthatonlyatfirst；atalaterperiod(aswewill
showmoreparticularlyelsewhere)，theselosseswouldhavebeen
madeuptothemtenfoldbythefactthatEnglandhadobtaineda
monopolyofmanufacturingforthewholeworld。Butitwouldhave
beenstillmoreinjudiciousifthemanufacturingnationsofthe
secondandthirdrank，aftertheirownmanufacturingpowerhadjust
beencalledintoexistence，inconsequenceofwarslastingfor
twenty-fiveyears，andafter(inconsequenceoftwenty-fiveyears\'
exclusionoftheiragriculturalproductsfromtheEnglishmarket)
thatpowerhasbeenstrengthenedsofarthatpossiblyitonly
requiredanothertenorfifteenyearsofstrictprotectioninorder
tosustainsuccessfullyfreecompetitionwithEnglishmanufactures——
if(wesay)thesenations，afterhavingenduredthesacrifices
ofhalfacentury，weretogiveuptheimmenseadvantagesof
possessingamanufacturingpoweroftheirown，andweretodescend
oncemorefromthehighstateofculture，prosperity，and
independence，whichispeculiartoagricultural-manufacturing
countries，tothelowpositionofdependentagriculturalnations，
merelybecauseitnowpleasestheEnglishnationtoperceiveits
errorandthecloselyimpendingadvancesoftheContinentalnations
whichenterintocompetitionwithit。
SupposingalsothatthemanufacturinginterestofEngland
shouldobtainsufficientinfluencetoforcetheHouseofLords，
whichchieflyconsistsoflargelandedproprietors，andtheHouse
ofCommons，composedmostlyofcountrysquires，tomakeconcessions
inrespectoftheimportationofagriculturalproducts，whowould
guaranteethatafteralapseofafewyearsanewToryministry
wouldnotunderdifferentcircumstancesagainpassanewCornLaw？
WhocanguaranteethatanewnavalwaroranewContinentalsystem
maynotseparatetheagriculturistsoftheContinentfromthe
manufacturersoftheislandkingdom，andcompeltheContinental
nationstorecommencetheirmanufacturingcareer，andtospend
theirbestenergiesinovercomingitsprimarydifficulties，merely
inorder，atalaterperiodtosacrificeeverythingagainatthe
conclusionofpeace。
InthismannertheschoolwouldcondemntheContinentalnations
forevertoberollingthestoneofSisyphus，forevertoerect
manufactoriesintimeofwarinordertoallowthemtofalltoruin
intimeofpeace。
Toresultssoabsurdasthesetheschoolcouldneverhave
arrivedhaditnot(inspiteofthenamewhichitgivestothe
sciencewhichitprofesses)completelyexcludedpoliticsfromthat
science，haditnotcompletelyignoredtheveryexistenceof
nationality，andleftentirelyoutofconsiderationtheeffectsof
waronthecommercialintercoursebetweenseparatenations。
Howutterlydifferentistherelationoftheagriculturistto
themanufacturerifbothliveinoneandthesamecountry，andare
consequentlyreallyconnectedwithoneanotherbyperpetualpeace。
Underthosecircumstances，everyextensionorimprovementofan
alreadyexistingmanufactoryincreasesthedemandforagricultural
products。Thisdemandisnouncertainone；itisnotdependenton
foreigncommercialregulationsorforeigncommercialfluctuations，
onforeignpoliticalcommotionsorwars，onforeigninventionsand
improvements，oronforeignharvests；thenativeagriculturisthas
nottoshareitwithothernations，itiscertaintohimevery
year。Howeverthecropsofothernationsmayturnout，whatever
misunderstandingsmayspringupinthepoliticalworld，hecan
dependonthesaleofhisownproduce，andonobtainingthe
manufacturedgoodswhichheneedsatsuitableandregularprices。
Ontheotherhand，everyimprovementofthenativeagriculture，
everynewmethodofculture，actsasastimulantonthenative
manufacture，becauseeveryaugmentationofnativeagricultural
productionmustresultinaproportionateaugmentationofnative
manufacturingproduction。Thus，bymeansofthisreciprocalaction，
progressisinsuredforalltimetoboththesemainsourcesofthe
nation\'sstrengthandsupport。
Politicalpowernotmerelysecurestothenationtheincrease
ofitsprosperitybyforeigncommerceandbycoloniesabroad，it
alsosecurestoitthepossessionofinternalprosperity，and
securestoititsownexistence，whichisfarmoreimportanttoit
thanmerematerialwealth。Englandhasobtainedpoliticalpowerby
meansofhernavigationlaws；andbymeansofpoliticalpowershe
hasbeenplacedinapositiontoextendhermanufacturingpower
overothernations。Poland，however，wasstruckoutofthelistof
nationsbecauseshedidnotpossessavigorousmiddleclass，which
couldonlyhavebeencalledintoexistencebytheestablishmentof
aninternalmanufacturingpower。
Theschoolcannotdenythattheinternalmarketofanationis
tentimesmoreimportanttoitthanitsexternalone，evenwhere
thelatterisinthemostflourishingcondition；butithasomitted
todrawfromthistheconclusion，whichisveryobvious，thatitis
tentimesmoreimportanttocultivateandsecurethehomemarket，
thantoseekforwealthabroad，andthatonlyinthosenations
whichhavedevelopedtheirinternalindustrytoahighdegreecan
foreigncommerceattainimportance。
