第11章

Inageneralwaymodernastronomymaybeconsideredastheoutgrowthofastrology，justasmodernchemistryistheresultofalchemy。Itisquitepossible，however，thatastronomyistheolderofthetwo；butastrologymusthavedevelopedveryshortlyafter。Theprimitiveastronomer，havingacquiredenoughknowledgefromhisobservationsoftheheavenlybodiestomakecorrectpredictions，suchasthetimeofthecomingofthenewmoon，wouldbeled，naturally，tobelievethatcertainpredictionsotherthanpurelyastronomicalonescouldbemadebystudyingtheheavens。Eveniftheastronomerhimselfdidnotbelievethis，someofhissuperstitiousadmirerswould；fortotheunscientificmindpredictionsofearthlyeventswouldsurelyseemnomoremiraculousthancorrectpredictionsastothefuturemovementsofthesun，moon，andstars。Whenastronomyhadreachedastageofdevelopmentsothatsuchthingsaseclipsescouldbepredictedwithanythinglikeaccuracy，theoccultknowledgeoftheastronomerwouldbeunquestioned。Turningthisapparentlyoccultknowledgetoaccountinamercenarywaywouldthenbetheinevitableresult，althoughitcannotbedoubtedthatmanyoftheastrologers，inallages，weresincereintheirbeliefs。

Later，asthebusinessofastrologybecameaprofitableone，sincereastronomerswouldfinditexpedienttopractiseastrologyasameansofgainingalivelihood。SuchaphilosopherasKeplerfreelyadmittedthathepractisedastrology"tokeepfromstarving，"althoughheconfessednofaithinsuchpredictions。

"Yeotherwisephilosophers，"hesaid，"yecensurethisdaughterofastronomybeyondherdeserts；knowyenotthatshemustsupporthermotherbyhercharms。"

Onceastrologyhadbecomeanestablishedpractice，anyconsiderableknowledgeofastronomywasunnecessary，forasitwasatbestbutasystemofgoodguessingastofutureevents，cleverimpostorscouldthriveequallywellwithouttroublingtostudyastronomy。Thecelebratedastrologers，however，wereusuallyastronomersaswell，andundoubtedlybasedmanyoftheirpredictionsonthepositionandmovementsoftheheavenlybodies。

Thus，thecastingofahoroscopethatis，themethodsbywhichtheastrologersascertainedtherelativepositionoftheheavenlybodiesatthetimeofabirth——wasasimplebutfairlyexactprocedure。Itsbasiswasthezodiac，orthepathtracedbythesuninhisyearlycoursethroughcertainconstellations。Atthemomentofthebirthofachild，thefirstcareoftheastrologerwastonotetheparticularpartofthezodiacthatappearedonthehorizon。Thezodiacwasthendividedinto"houses"——thatis，intotwelvespaces——onachart。Inthesehouseswereinsertedtheplacesoftheplanets，sun，andmoon，withreferencetothezodiac。Whenthischartwascompleteditmadeafairlycorrectdiagramoftheheavensandthepositionoftheheavenlybodiesastheywouldappeartoapersonstandingattheplaceofbirthatacertaintime。

Uptothispointtheprocesswasasimpleoneofastronomy。Butthenextstep——thereallyimportantone——thatofinterpretingthischart，wastheonewhichcalledforththeskillandimaginationoftheastrologer。Inthisinterpretation，notinhismereobservations，laythesecretofhissuccess。Nordidhistaskceasewithsimplyforetellingfutureeventsthatweretohappeninthelifeofthenewlyborninfant。Hemustnotonlypointoutthedangers，butshowthemeanswherebytheycouldbeaverted，andhisprophylacticmeasures，likehispredictions，wereallegedtobebasedonhisreadingofthestars。

Butcastingahoroscopeatthetimeofbirthswas，ofcourse，onlyasmallpartoftheastrologer’sduty。Hisofficesweresoughtbypersonsofallagesforpredictionsastotheirfutures，themovementsofanenemy，wheretofindstolengoods，andahostofeverydayoccurrences。Insuchcasesitismorethanprobablethattheastrologersdidverylittleconsultingofthestarsinmakingtheirpredictions。Theybecameexpertphysiognomistsandexcellentjudgesofhumannature，andwerethusabletoforetellfutureswiththesameshrewdnessandbythesamemethodsasthemodern"mediums，"palmists，andfortune-tellers。Tostrengthenbeliefintheirpowers，itbecameacommonthingforsomesupposedlylostdocumentoftheastrologertobemysteriouslydiscoveredafteranimportantevent，thisdocumentpurportingtoforetellthisveryevent。Itwasalsoacommonpracticewithastrologerstoretain，orhaveaccessto，theiroriginalcharts，cleverlyalteringthemfromtimetotimetofitconditions。

Thedangersattendantuponastrologywereofsuchanaturethatthelotoftheastrologerwaslikelytoproveanythingbutanenviableone。Asinthecaseofthealchemist，thegreaterthereputationofanastrologerthegreaterdangershewaslikelytofallinto。Ifhebecamesofamousthathewasemployedbykingsornoblemen，histootrueortoofalseprophecieswerelikelytobringhimintodisrepute——eventoendangerhislife。

Throughoutthedarkagetheastrologersflourished，butthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturieswerethegoldenageoftheseimpostors。Askilfulastrologerwasasmuchanessentialtothegovernmentasthehighestofficial，anditwouldhavebeenaboldmonarch，indeed，whowouldundertakeanyexpeditionofimportanceunlesssanctionedbythegoverningstarsasinterpretedbytheseofficials。

Itshouldnotbeunderstood，however，thatbeliefinastrologydiedwiththeadventoftheCopernicandoctrine。Itdidbecomeseparatedfromastronomyveryshortlyafter，tobesure，andundoubtedlyamongthescientistsitlostmuchofitsprestige。

Butitcannotbeconsideredasentirelypassedaway，evento-day，andevenifweleaveoutofconsiderationstreet-corner"astrologers"andfortune-tellers，whosesignsmaybeseenineverylargecity，therestillremainsquitealargeclassofrelativelyintelligentpeoplewhobelieveinwhattheycall"thescienceofastrology。"Needlesstosay，suchpeoplearenotfoundamongthescientificthinkers；butitissignificantthatscarcelyayearpassesthatsomebookorpamphletisnotpublishedbysomeardentbelieverinastrology，attemptingtoprovebytheillogicaldogmascharacteristicofunscientificthinkersthatastrologyisascience。Theargumentscontainedinthesepamphletsareverymuchthesameasthoseoftheastrologersthreehundredyearsago，exceptthattheylackthequaintformofwordingwhichisoneofthefeaturesthatlendsinteresttotheolderdocuments。Thesepamphletsneednotbetakenseriously，buttheyareinterestingasexemplifyinghowdifficultitis，eveninanageofscience，toentirelystampoutfirmlyestablishedsuperstitions。Herearesomeoftheargumentsadvancedindefenceofastrology，takenfromalittlebrochureentitled"AstrologyVindicated，"publishedin1898:ItwillbefoundthatapersonbornwhentheSunisintwentydegreesScorpiohastheleftearashisexceptionalfeatureandthenose(Sagittarius)benttowardstheleftear。ApersonbornwhentheSunisinanyofthelatterdegreesofTaurus，saythetwenty-fifthdegree，willhaveasmall，sharp，weakchin，curveduptowardsGemini，thetwoverticallinesontheupperlip。"[4]

Thetimewaswhensciencewentoutofitswaytoprovethatsuchstatementswereuntrue；butthattimeispast，andsuchwritersareusuallyclassedamongthoseenergeticbutmisguidedpersonswhoareunabletodistinguishbetweenlogicandsophistry。

InEngland，fromthetimeofElizabethtothereignofWilliamandMary，judicialastrologywasatitsheight。AfterthegreatLondonfire，in1666，acommitteeoftheHouseofCommonspubliclysummonedthefamousastrologer，Lilly，tocomebeforeParliamentandreporttothemonhisallegedpredictionofthecalamitythathadbefallenthecity。Lilly，forsomereasonbestknowntohimself，deniedhavingmadesuchaprediction，being，asheexplained，"moreinterestedindeterminingaffairsofmuchmoreimportancetothefuturewelfareofthecountry。"Someoftheexplanationsofhisinterpretationswillsufficetoshowtheirabsurdities，which，however，werebynomeansregardedasabsurditiesatthattime，forLillywasoneofthegreatestastrologersofhisday。Hesaidthatin1588aprophecyhadbeenprintedinGreekcharacterswhichforetoldexactlythetroublesofEnglandbetweentheyears1641。and1660。"Andafterhimshallcomeadreadfuldeadman，"rantheprophecy，"andwithhimaroyalGofthebestbloodintheworld，andheshallhavethecrownandshallsetEnglandontherightwayandputoutallheresies。Hisinterpretationofthiswasthat，"Monkerybeingextinguishedaboveeightyorninetyyears，andtheLordGeneral’snamebeingMonk，isthedeadman。TheroyalGorC(itisgammaintheGreek，intendingCintheLatin，beingthethirdletterinthealphabet)isCharlesII。，who，forhisextraction，maybesaidtobeofthebestbloodoftheworld。"[5]

ThismaybetakenasafairsampleofLilly’sinterpretationsofastrologicalprophesies，butmanyofhisownwritings，whilesomewhatmoredefiniteanddirect，arestillleftsufficientlyvaguetoallowhisskilfulinterpretationstosetrightanapparentmistake。Oneofhisfamousdocumentswas"TheStarryMessenger，"alittlepamphletpurportingtoexplainthephenomenonofa"strangeapparitionofthreesuns"thatwereseeninLondononNovember19，1644——theanniversaryofthebirthofCharlesI。，thenthereigningmonarch。ThisphenomenoncausedagreatstiramongtheEnglishastrologers，coming，asitdid，atatimeofgreatpoliticaldisturbance。Prophecieswerenumerous，andLilly’sbrochureisonlyoneofmanythatappearedatthattime，mostofwhich，however，havebeenlost。Lilly，inhispreface，says:"IftherebeanyofsoprevaricateajudgmentastothinkthattheapparitionofthesethreeSunsdothintimatenoNovellethingtohappeninourownClimate，wheretheyweremanifestlyvisible，Ishalllamenttheirindisposition，andconceivetheirbrainstobeshallow，andvoydeofunderstandinghumanity，ornoticeofcommonHistory。"

Havingthusforgivenhisfewdoubtingreaders，whowerebynomeansinthemajorityinhisday，hetakesupinreviewtherecordsofthevariousappearancesofthreesunsastheyhaveoccurredduringtheChristianera，showinghowsuchphenomenahavegovernedcertainhumaneventsinaverydefinitemanner。

Someoftheseareworthrecording。

"Anno66。Acometwasseen，andalsothreeSuns:Inwhichyeer，FlorusPresidentoftheJewswasbythemslain。PaulwritestoTimothy。TheChristiansarewarnedbyadivineOracle，anddepartoutofJerusalem。BoadiceaBritishQueen，killethseventythousandRomans。TheNazareni，ascurvieSect，begun，thatboastedmuchofRevelationsandVisions。AboutayearafterNerowasproclaimedenemytotheStateofRome。"

Again，"Anno1157，inSeptember，therewereseenthreeSunstogether，inasclearweatherascouldbe:Andafewdaysafter，inthesamemonth，threeMoons，and，intheMoonthatstoodinthemiddle，awhiteCrosse。Sueno，KingofDenmark，atagreatFeast，killethCanutus:Suenoishimselfslain，inpursuitofWaldemar。TheOrderofEremites，accordingtotheruleofSaintAugustine，begunthisyear；andinthenext，thePopesubmitstotheEmperour:(wasnotthismiraculous？)LombardywasalsoadjudgedtotheEmperour。"

Continuingthislistofpeculiarphenomenahecomesdowntowithinafewyearsofhisowntime。

"Anno1622，threeSunsappearedatHeidelberg。ThewofulCalamitiesthathaveeversincefallenuponthePalatinate，weareallsensibleof，andofthelossofit，foranythingIsee，forever，fromtherightHeir。OsmanthegreatTurkisstrangledthatyear；andSpinolabesiegethBergenupZoom，etc。"

Fortifiedbytheenumerationofthesepastevents，hethenproceedstomakehisdeductions。"OnlythisImusttellthee，"hewrites，"thattheinterpretationIwriteis，Iconceive，groundeduponprobablefoundations；andwholivestoseeafewyearsoverhishead，willeasilyperceiveIhaveunfoldedasmuchaswasfittodiscover，andthatmyjudgmentwasnotamileandahalffromtruth。"

Thereisagreatsignificanceinthis"asmuchaswasfittodiscover"——amysterioussomethingthatLillythinksitexpedientnottodivulge。But，nevertheless，onewouldimaginethathewasabouttomakesomedefinitepredictionaboutCharlesI。，sincethesethreesunsappeareduponhisbirthdayandsurelymustportendsomethingconcerninghim。Butafterramblingonthroughmanypagesofdissertationsuponplanetsandprophecies，hefinallymakeshisownindefiniteprediction。

"OallyouEmperors，Kings，Princes，RulersandMagistratesofEurope，thisunaccustomedApparitionisliketheHandwritinginDanieltosomeofyou；itpremonishethyou，aboveallotherpeople，tomakeyourpeacewithGodintime。Youshalleveryoneofyousmart，andeveryoneofyoutaste(noneexcepted)theheaviehandofGod，whowillstrengthenyoursubjectswithinvinciblecouragetosuppressyourmisgovernmentsandOppressionsinChurchorCommon-wealth；……Thosewordsaregeneral:awordformyowncountryofEngland……Looktoyourselves；here’ssomemonstrousdeathtowardsyou。Buttowhom？

wiltthousay。HereinweconsidertheSigne，Lordthereof，andtheHouse；TheSunsignifiesinthatRoyalSigne，greatones；theHousesignifiescaptivity，poison，Treachery:Fromwhichisderivedthusmuch，Thatsomeverygreatman，whatKing，Prince，Duke，orthelike，IreallyaffirmIperfectlyknownot，shall，I

say，cometosomesuchuntimelyend。"[6]

Hereisshownatypicalexampleofastrologicalprophecy，whichseemstotellsomethingornothing，accordingtothepointofviewofthereader。Accordingtoabelieverinastrology，aftertheexecutionofCharlesI。，fiveyearslater，thiscouldbemadetoseemadirectandexactprophecy。Forexample，hesays:"YouKings，Princes，etc。，……itpremonishethyou……tomakeyourpeacewithGod……Looktoyourselves；here’ssomemonstrousdeathtowardsyou……Thatsomeverygreatman，whatKing，Prince，。shall，Isay，cometosuchuntimelyend。"

Butbythedoubterthecompleteprophecycouldbeshowntobeabsolutelyindefinite，andapplicableasmuchtothekingofFranceorSpainastoCharlesI。，ortoanykinginthefuture，sincenodefinitetimeisstated。Furthermore，Lillydistinctlystates，"WhatKing，Prince，Duke，orthelike，IreallyaffirmI

perfectlyknownot"——whichlast，atleast，wasamosttruthfulstatement。Thesameingenuitythatmade"Gen。Monk"the"dreadfuldeadman，"couldeasilymakesuchapredictionapplytotheexecutionofCharlesI。Suchadefinitestatementthat，onsuchandsuchadayacertainnumberofyearsinthefuture，themonarchofEnglandwouldbebeheaded——suchanexactstatementcanscarcelybefoundinanyoftheworksonastrology。Itshouldbeborneinmind，also，thatLillywasoftheCromwellpartyandopposedtotheking。

AfterthedeathofCharlesI。，Lillyadmittedthatthemonarchhadgivenhimathousandpoundstocasthishoroscope。"Iadvisedhim，"saysLilly，"toproceedeastwards；hewentwest，andalltheworldknowstheresult。"ItisanunfortunatethingforthecauseofastrologythatLillyfailedtomentionthisuntilafterthedownfallofthemonarch。Infact，thesuddendeath，ordeclineinpower，ofanymonarch，evento-day，bringsouttheperennialpost-mortempredictionsofastrologers。

WeseehowLilly，anopponentoftheking，madehisso-calledprophecyofthedisasterofthekingandhisarmy。AtthesametimeanothercelebratedastrologerandrivalofLilly，GeorgeWharton，alsomadesomepredictionsabouttheoutcomeoftheeventfulmarchfromOxford。Wharton，unlikeLilly，wasafolloweroftheking’sparty，butthat，ofcourse，shouldhavehadnoinfluenceinhis"scientific"readingofthestars。Wharton’spredictionsaremuchlessverbosethanLilly’s，muchmoreexplicit，and，incidentally，muchmoreincorrectinthisparticularinstance。"TheMoonLadyofthe12，"hewrote，"andmovingbetwixtthe8degree，34min。，and21degree，26min。ofAquarius，givesustounderstandthatHisMajestyshallreceivemuchcontentmentbycertainMessagesbroughthimfromforeignparts；andthatheshallreceivesomesuddenandunexpectedsupplyof……bythemeansofsomethatassimilatetheconditionofhisEnemies:Andwithalthiscomfort；thatHisMajestyshallbeexceedingsuccessfulinBesiegingTowns，Castles，orForts，andinpersuingtheenemy。

"MarshisSextiletotheSun，LordoftheAscendant(whichhappeneththe18dayofMay)willencourageourSoldierstoadvancewithmuchalacrityandcheerfulnessofspirit；toshowthemselvesgallantinthemostdangerousattempt……Andnowtosumupall:Itismostapparenttoeveryimpartialandingenuousjudgment；ThatalthoughHisMajestycannotexpecttobesecuredfromeverytrivialdisasterthatmaybefallhisarmy，eitherbythetoomuchPresumption，Ignorance，orNegligenceofsomeparticularPersons(whichisfrequentlyincidentandunavoidableinthebestofArmies)，yettheseveralpositionsoftheHeavensdulyconsideredandcomparedamongthemselves，aswellintheprefixedSchemeasattheQuarterlyIngresses，dogenerallyrenderHisMajestyandhiswholeArmyunexpectedlyvictoriousandsuccessfulinallhisdesigns；Believeit(London)，thyMiseriesapproach，theyareliketobemany，great，andgrievous，andnottobediverted，unlessthouseasonablycravePardonofGodforbeingNursetothispresentRebellion，andspeedilysubmittothyPrince’sMercy；WhichshallbethedailyPrayerofGeo。

Wharton。"[7]

Inthelightofafterevents，itisprobablethatWharton’sstockasanastrologerwasnotgreatlyenhancedbythisdocument，atleastamongmembersoftheRoyalfamily。Lilly’sbook，ontheotherhand，becameafavoritewiththeParliamentaryarmy。

AfterthedownfallanddeathofNapoleontherewereunearthedmanyallegedauthenticastrologicaldocumentsforetellinghisruin。AndonthedeathofGeorgeIV。，in1830，thereappearedadocument(unknown，asusual，untilthattime)purportingtoforetellthedeathofthemonarchtotheday，andthiswithouttheastrologerknowingthathishoroscopewasbeingcastforamonarch。Afullaccountofthisprophecyistold，withfullbelief，byRoback，anineteenth-centuryastrologer。Hesays:

"Intheyear1828，astrangerofnoblemien，advancedinlife，butpossessingthemostblandmanners，arrivedattheabodeofacelebratedastrologerinLondon，"askingthatthelearnedmanforetellhisfuture。"Theastrologercompliedwiththerequestofthemysteriousvisitor，drewforthhistables，consultedhisephemeris，andcastthehoroscopeorcelestialmapforthehourandthemomentoftheinquiry，accordingtotheestablishedrulesofhisart。

"Theelementsofhiscalculationwereadverse，andafeelingofgloomcastashadeofseriousthought，ifnotdejection，overhiscountenance。

"’Youareofhighrank，’saidtheastrologer，ashecalculatedandlookedonthestranger，’andofillustrioustitle。’Thestrangermadeagracefulinclinationoftheheadintokenofacknowledgmentofthecomplimentaryremarks，andtheastrologerproceededwithhismission。

"Thecelestialsignswereominousofcalamitytothestranger，who，probablyobservingasuddenchangeinthecountenanceoftheastrologer，eagerlyinquiredwhatevilorgoodfortunehadbeenassignedhimbythecelestialorbs。

’Tothefirstpartofyourinquiry，’saidtheastrologer，’Icanreadilyreply。Youhavebeenafavoriteoffortune；hersmilesonyouhavebeenabundant，herfrownsbutfew；youhavehad，perhapsnowpossess，wealthandpower；theimpossibilityoftheiraccomplishmentistheonlylimittothefulfilmentofyourdesires。’"

"’Youhavespokentrulyofthepast，’saidthestranger。’Ihavefullfaithinyourrevelationsofthefuture:whatsayyouofmypilgrimageinthislife——isitshortorlong？’

"’Iregret，’repliedtheastrologer，inanswertothisinquiry，’tobetheheraldofill，thoughTRUE，fortune；yoursojournonearthwillbeshort。’

"’Howshort？’eagerlyinquiredtheexcitedandanxiousstranger。

"’Givemeamomentarytruce，’saidtheastrologer；’Iwillconsultthehoroscope，andmaypossiblyfindsomemitigatingcircumstances。’

"Havingcasthiseyesoverthecelestialmap，andpausedforsomemoments，hesurveyedthecountenanceofthestrangerwithgreatsympathy，andsaid，’IamsorrythatIcanfindnoplanetaryinfluencesthatopposeyourdestiny——yourdeathwilltakeplaceintwoyears。’

"Theeventjustifiedtheastrologicprediction:GeorgeIV。diedonMay18，1830，exactlytwoyearsfromthedayonwhichhehadvisitedtheastrologer。"[8]

Thismakesaveryprettystory，butithardlyseemslikeoccultinsightthatanastrologershouldhavebeenabletopredictanearlydeathofamannearlyseventyyearsold，ortohaveguessedthathiswell-groomedvisitor"had，perhapsnowpossesses，wealthandpower。"Hereagain，however，thepointofviewofeachindividualplaysthegoverningpartindeterminingtheimportanceofsuchadocument。Tothescientistitprovesnothing；tothebelieverinastrology，everything。ThesignificantthingisthatitappearedshortlyAFTERthedeathofthemonarch。

OntheContinentastrologerswereevenmoreinfavorthaninEngland。Charlemagne，andsomeofhisimmediatesuccessors，tobesure，attemptedtoexterminatethem，butsuchrulersasLouisXI。

andCatherinede’Medicipatronizedandencouragedthem，anditwasmanyyearsafterthetimeofCopernicusbeforetheirinfluencewasentirelystampedouteveninofficiallife。Therecanbenoquestionthatwhatgavethecoloroftruthtomanyofthepredictionswasthefactthatsomanyofthepropheciesofsuddendeathsandgreatconflagrationswereknowntohavecometrue——inmanyinstancesweremadetocometruebytheastrologerhimself。Andsoithappenedthatwhenthepredictionofagreatconflagrationatacertaintimeculminatedinsuchaconflagration，manytimesasecondbutless-importantburningtookplace，inwhichtheambitiousastrologer，orhisfollowers，tookacentralpartaboutastake，beingconvictedofincendiarism，whichtheyhadcommittedinorderthattheirpropheciesmightbefulfilled。

But，ontheotherhand，thesepredictionsweresometimesturnedtoaccountbyinterestedfriendstowarncertainpersonsofapproachingdangers。

Forexample，acertainastrologerforetoldthedeathofPrinceAlexanderde’Medici。Henotonlyforetoldthedeath，butdescribedsominutelythecircumstancesthatwouldattendit，andgavesuchacorrectdescriptionoftheassassinwhoshouldmurdertheprince，thathewasatoncesuspectedofhavingahandintheassassination。Itdevelopedlater，however，thatsuchwasprobablynotthecase；butthatsomefriendofPrinceAlexander，knowingoftheplottotakehislife，hadinducedtheastrologertoforetelltheeventinorderthattheprincemighthavetimelywarningandsoeludetheconspirators。

Thecauseofthedeclineofastrologywasthegrowingprevalenceofthenewspiritofexperimentalscience。DoubtlessthemostdirectblowwasdealtbytheCopernicantheory。Sosoonasthiswasestablished，therecognitionoftheearth’ssubordinateplaceintheuniversemusthavemadeitdifficultforastronomerstobelongerdeceivedbysuchcoincidencesashadsufficedtoconvincetheobserversofamorecredulousgeneration。TychoBrahewas，perhaps，thelastastronomerofprominencewhowasaconscientiouspractiseroftheartoftheastrologer。

VII。FROMPARACELSUSTOHARVEY

PARACELSUS

Intheyear1526thereappearedanewlecturerontheplatformattheUniversityatBasel——asmall，beardless，effeminate-lookingperson——whohadalreadyinflamedallChristendomwithhispeculiarphilosophy，hisrevolutionarymethodsoftreatingdiseases，andhisunparalleledsuccessincuringthem。Amanwhowastoberememberedinafter-timebysomeasthefatherofmodernchemistryandthefounderofmodernmedicine；byothersasmadman，charlatan，impostor；andbystillothersasacombinationofallthese。Thissoft-cheeked，effeminate，woman-hatingman，whoseverysexhasbeenquestioned，wasTheophrastusvonHohenheim，betterknownasParacelsus(1493-1541)。

Toappreciatehiswork，somethingmustbeknownofthelifeoftheman。HewasbornnearMaria-Einsiedeln，inSwitzerland，thesonofapoorphysicianoftheplace。Hebeganthestudyofmedicineundertheinstructionofhisfather，andlateroncameundertheinstructionofseverallearnedchurchmen。AttheageofsixteenheenteredtheUniversityofBasel，but，soonbecomingdisgustedwiththephilosophicalteachingsofthetime，hequittedthescholarlyworldofdogmasandtheoriesandwenttoliveamongtheminersintheTyrol，inorderthathemightstudynatureandmenatfirsthand。Ordinarymethodsofstudywerethrownaside，andhedevotedhistimetopersonalobservation——theonlytruemeansofgainingusefulknowledge，ashepreachedandpractisedeverafter。Herehebecamefamiliarwiththeartofmining，learnedthephysicalpropertiesofminerals，ores，andmetals，andacquiredsomeknowledgeofmineralwaters。Moreimportantstill，hecameincontactwithsuchdiseases，wounds，andinjuriesasminersaresubjectto，andhetriedhishandatthepracticaltreatmentoftheseconditions，untrammelledbythetraditionsofaprofessioninwhichhistraininghadbeensoscant。

Havingacquiredsomeempiricalskillintreatingdiseases，ParacelsussetoutwanderingfromplacetoplacealloverEurope，gatheringpracticalinformationashewent，andlearningmoreandmoreofthemedicinalvirtuesofplantsandminerals。Hiswanderingscoveredaperiodofabouttenyears，attheendofwhichtimehereturnedtoBasel，wherehewassooninvitedtogiveacourseoflecturesintheuniversity。

Theselectureswererevolutionaryintworespects——theyweregiveninGermaninsteadoftime-honoredLatin，andtheywerebaseduponpersonalexperienceratherthanupontheworksofsuchwritersasGalenandAvicenna。Indeed，theiconoclasticteacherspokewithopendisparagementofthesereveredmasters，andopenlyupbraidedhisfellow-practitionersforfollowingtheirtenets。Naturallysuchteachingraisedastormofoppositionamongtheolderphysicians，butforatimetheunparalleledsuccessofParacelsusincuringdiseasesmorethanoffsethisunpopularity。Gradually，however，hisbittertongueandhiscoarsepersonalityrenderedhimsounpopular，evenamonghispatients，that，finally，hislibertyandlifebeingjeopardized，hewasobligedtofleefromBasel，andbecameawanderer。HelivedforbriefperiodsinColmar，Nuremberg，Appenzell，Zurich，Pfeffers，Augsburg，andseveralothercities，untilfinallyatSalzburghiseventfullifecametoaclosein1541。Hisenemiessaidthathehaddiedinatavernfromtheeffectsofaprotracteddebauch；hissupportersmaintainedthathehadbeenmurderedattheinstigationofrivalphysiciansandapothecaries。

Buttheeffectsofhisteachingshadtakenfirmroot，andcontinuedtospreadafterhisdeath。Hehadshownthefallibilityofmanyoftheteachingsofthehithertostandardmethodsoftreatingdiseases，andhaddemonstratedtheadvantagesofindependentreasoningbasedonobservation。InhisMagicumhegiveshisreasonsforbreakingwithtradition。"Idid，"hesays，"embraceatthebeginningthesedoctrines，asmyadversaries(followersofGalen)havedone，butsinceIsawthatfromtheirproceduresnothingresultedbutdeath，murder，stranglings，anchylosedlimbs，paralysis，andsoforth，thattheyheldmostdiseasesincurable……thereforehaveIquittedthiswretchedart，andsoughtfortruthinanyotherdirection。Iaskedmyselfiftherewerenosuchthingasateacherinmedicine，wherecouldIlearnthisartbest？Nowherebetterthantheopenbookofnature，writtenwithGod’sownfinger。"Weshallsee，however，thatthis"bookofnature"taughtParacelsussomeverystrangelessons。Modestywasnotoneofthese。"Nowatthistime，"hedeclares，"I，TheophrastusParacelsus，Bombast，MonarchoftheArcana，wasendowedbyGodwithspecialgiftsforthisend，thateverysearcherafterthissupremephilosopher’sworkmaybeforcedtoimitateandtofollowme，beheItalian，Pole，Gaul，German，orwhatsoeverorwhosoeverhebe。Comehitherafterme，allyephilosophers，astronomers，andspagirists……Iwillshowandopentoyou……thiscorporealregeneration。"[1]

Paracelsusbasedhismedicalteachingsonfour"pillars"——

philosophy，astronomy，alchemy，andvirtueofthephysician——astrange-enoughequipmentsurely，andyet，properlyinterpreted，notquitesoanomalousasitseemsatfirstblush。Philosophywasthe"gateofmedicine，"wherebythephysicianenteredrightlyuponthetruecourseoflearning；astronomy，thestudyofthestars，wasall-importantbecause"they(thestars)causeddiseasebytheirexhalations，as，forinstance，thesunbyexcessiveheat"；alchemy，asheinterpretedit，meanttheimprovementofnaturalsubstancesforman’sbenefit；whilevirtueinthephysicianwasnecessarysince"onlythevirtuousarepermittedtopenetrateintotheinnermostnatureofmanandtheuniverse。"

Allhiswritingsaimtopromoteprogressinmedicine，andtoholdbeforethephysicianagrandidealofhisprofession。Inthishisviewsarewideandfar-reaching，basedontherelationshipwhichmanbearstonatureasawhole；butinhissweepingcondemnationshenotonlyrejectedGalenictherapeuticsandGalenicanatomy，butcondemneddissectionsofanykind。Helaidthecauseofalldiseasesatthedoorofthethreemysticelements——salt，sulphur，andmercury。Inhealthhesupposedthesetobemingledinthebodysoastobeindistinguishable；aslightseparationofthemproduceddisease；anddeathhesupposedtobetheresultoftheircompleteseparation。Thespiritualagenciesofdiseases，hesaid，hadnothingtodowitheitherangelsordevils，butwerethespiritsofhumanbeings。

Hebelievedthatallfoodcontainedpoisons，andthatthefunctionofdigestionwastoseparatethepoisonousfromthenutritious。Inthestomachwasanarchaeus，oralchemist，whosedutywastomakethisseparation。Indigestivedisordersthearchaeusfailedtodothis，andthepoisonsthusgainingaccesstothesystemwere"coagulated"anddepositedinthejointsandvariousotherpartsofthebody。Thusthedepositsinthekidneysandtartarontheteethwereformed；andthestonydepositsofgoutwereparticularlyfamiliarexamplesofthis。Allthisisvisionaryenough，yetitshowsatleastagropingafterrationalexplanationsofvitalphenomena。

Likemostothersofhistime，Paracelsusbelievedfirmlyinthedoctrineof"signatures"——abeliefthateveryorganandpartofthebodyhadacorrespondingforminnature，whosefunctionwastohealdiseasesoftheorganitresembled。Thevagariesofthispeculiardoctrinearetoonumerousandcomplicatedforlengthydiscussion，andvariedgreatlyfromgenerationtogeneration。Ingeneral，however，thetheorymaybesummedupinthewordsofParacelsus:"Asawomanisknownbyhershape，soarethemedicines。"Hencethephysicianswereconstantlysearchingforsomeobjectofcorrespondingshapetoanorganofthebody。Themostnaturalapplicationofthisdoctrinewouldbetheuseoftheorgansoftheloweranimalsforthetreatmentofthecorrespondingdiseasedorgansinman。Thusdiseasesoftheheartweretobetreatedwiththeheartsofanimals，liverdisorderswithlivers，andsoon。Butthisapparentlysimpleformoftreatmenthadendlessmodificationsandrestrictions，fornotallanimalswereuseful。Forexample，itwasuselesstogivethestomachofanoxingastricdiseaseswhentheindicationinsuchcaseswasreallyforthestomachofarat。Norweretheorgansofanimalstheonly"signatures"innature。Plantsalsoplayedaveryimportantrole，andtheherb-doctorsdevotedendlesslabortosearchingforsuchplants。Thustheblood-root，withitsredjuice，wassupposedtobeusefulinblooddiseases，instoppinghemorrhage，orinsubduingtherednessofaninflammation。

Paracelsus’ssystemofsignatures，however，wassocomplicatedbyhistheoriesofastronomyandalchemythatitispracticallybeyondcomprehension。Itispossiblethathehimselfmayhaveunderstoodit，butitisimprobablethatanyoneelsedid——asshownbytheendlessdiscussionsthathavetakenplaceaboutit。

Butwithallthevagariesofhistheorieshewasstillrationalinhisapplications，andheattackedtogoodpurposethecomplicated"shot-gun"prescriptionsofhiscontemporaries，advocatingmoresimplemethodsoftreatment。

Theever-fascinatingsubjectofelectricity，or，morespecifically，"magnetism，"foundgreatfavorwithhim，andwithproperlyadjustedmagnetsheclaimedtobeabletocuremanydiseases。Inepilepsyandlockjaw，forexample，onehadbuttofastenmagnetstothefourextremitiesofthebody，andthen，"whenthepropermedicinesweregiven，"thecurewouldbeeffected。Theeasyloop-holeforexcusingfailureonthegroundofimpropermedicinesisobvious，butParacelsusdeclaresthatthisoneprescriptionisofmorevaluethan"allthehumoralistshaveeverwrittenortaught。"

SinceParacelsuscondemnedthestudyofanatomyasuseless，hequitenaturallyregardedsurgeryinthesamelight。Inthishewouldhavedonefarbettertohavestudiedsomeofhispredecessors，suchasGalen，PaulofAegina，andAvicenna。Butinsteadof"cuttingmentopieces，"hetaughtthatsurgeonswouldgainmorebydevotingtheirtimetosearchingfortheuniversalpanaceawhichwouldcurealldiseases，surgicalaswellasmedical。Inthiswedetectataintofthepopularbeliefinthephilosopher’sstoneandthemagicelixiroflife，hisbeliefinwhichhavebeenstoutlydeniedbysomeofhisfollowers。Hedidadmit，however，thatoneoperationalonewasperhapspermissible——lithotomy，orthe"cuttingforstone。"

Hisinfluenceuponmedicinerestsundoubtedlyuponhisrevolutionaryattitude，ratherthanonanygreatornewdiscoveriesmadebyhim。Itisclaimedbymanythathebroughtprominentlyintouseopiumandmercury，andifthiswereindisputablyprovenhisservicestomedicinecouldhardlybeoverestimated。Unfortunately，however，therearegoodgroundsfordoubtingthathewasparticularlyinfluentialinreintroducingthesemedicines。Hischiefinfluencemayperhapsbesummedupinasinglephrase——heoverthrewoldtraditions。

ToParacelsus’sendeavors，however，ifnottotheactualproductsofhiswork，isduethecreditofsettinginmotionthechainofthoughtthatdevelopedfinallyintoscientificchemistry。Norcantheultimateaimofthemodernchemistseekahigherobjectthanthatofthissixteenth-centuryalchemist，whotaughtthat"truealchemyhasbutoneaimandobject，toextractthequintessenceofthings，andtopreparearcana，tinctures，andelixirswhichmayrestoretomanthehealthandsoundnesshehaslost。"

THEGREATANATOMISTS

Aboutthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury，whileParacelsuswasscoffingatthestudyofanatomyasuseless，andusinghisinfluenceagainstit，therehadalreadycomeuponthescenethefirstofthegreatanatomistswhoseworkwastomakethecenturyconspicuousinthatbranchofmedicine。

TheyounganatomistCharlesetienne(1503-1564)madeoneofthefirstnoteworthydiscoveries，pointingoutforthefirsttimethatthespinalcordcontainsacanal，continuousthroughoutitslength。Healsomadeotherminordiscoveriesofsomeimportance，buthisresearcheswerecompletelyovershadowedandobscuredbytheworkofayoungFlemingwhocameuponthesceneafewyearslater，andwhoshonewithsuchbrilliancyinthemedicalworldthatheobscuredcompletelytheworkofhiscontemporaryuntilmanyyearslater。Thisyoungphysician，whowasdestinedtoleadsuchaneventfulcareerandmeetsuchanuntimelyendasamartyrtoscience，wasAndrewVesalius(1514-1564)，whoiscalledthe"greatestofanatomists。"AtthetimehecameintothefieldmedicinewasstrugglingagainstthedominatingGalenicteachingsandthetheoriesofParacelsus，butperhapsmostofallagainstthesuperstitionsofthetime。InFrancehumandissectionswereattendedwithsuchdangersthattheyoungVesaliustransferredhisfieldoflaborstoItaly，wheresuchinvestigationswerecovertlypermitted，ifnotopenlycountenanced。

FromtheverystarttheyoungFleminglookedaskanceattheacceptedteachingsoftheday，andbeganaseriesofindependentinvestigationsbaseduponhisownobservations。Theresultsoftheseinvestigationshegaveinatreatiseonthesubjectwhichisregardedasthefirstcomprehensiveandsystematicworkonhumananatomy。Thisremarkableworkwaspublishedintheauthor’stwenty-eighthortwenty-ninthyear。SoonafterthisVesaliuswasinvitedasimperialphysiciantothecourtofEmperorCharlesV。

HecontinuedtoactinthesamecapacityatthecourtofPhilipII。，aftertheabdicationofhispatron。Butinspiteofthisroyalfavortherewasatworkafactormorepowerfulthantheinfluenceofthemonarchhimself——aninstrumentthatdidsomuchtoretardscientificprogress，andbywhichsomanyliveswerebroughttoaprematureclose。

Vesaliushadreceivedpermissionfromthekinsmenofacertaingrandeetoperformanautopsy。Whilemakinghisobservationstheheartoftheoutragedbodywasseentopalpitate——soatleastitwasreported。ThiswasbroughtimmediatelytotheattentionoftheInquisition，anditwasonlybytheinterventionofthekinghimselfthattheanatomistescapedtheusualfateofthoseaccusedbythattribunal。Asitwas，hewasobligedtoperformapilgrimagetotheHolyLand。Whilereturningfromthishewasshipwrecked，andperishedfromhungerandexposureontheislandofZante。

AttheverytimewhentheanatomicalwritingsofVesaliuswerestartlingthemedicalworld，therewaslivingandworkingcontemporaneouslyanothergreatanatomist，Eustachius(died1574)，whoserecordsofhisanatomicalinvestigationswerereadyforpublicationonlynineyearsafterthepublicationoftheworkofVesalius。Owingtotheunfortunatecircumstancesoftheanatomist，however，theywereneverpublishedduringhislifetime——not，infact，until1714。WhenatlasttheyweregiventotheworldasAnatomicalEngravings，theyshowedconclusivelythatEustachiuswasequal，ifnotsuperiortoVesaliusinhisknowledgeofanatomy。Ithasbeensaidofthisremarkablecollectionofengravingsthatiftheyhadbeenpublishedwhentheyweremadeinthesixteenthcentury，anatomywouldhavebeenadvancedbyatleasttwocenturies。Butbethisasitmay，theycertainlyshowthattheirauthorwasamostcarefuldissectorandobserver。

Eustachiusdescribedaccuratelyforthefirsttimecertainstructuresofthemiddleear，andrediscoveredthetubeleadingfromtheeartothethroatthatbearshisname。Healsomadecarefulstudiesoftheteethandthephenomenaoffirstandseconddentition。Hewasnotbaffledbytheminutenessofstructuresandwherehewasunabletostudythemwiththenakedeyeheusedglassesforthepurpose，andresortedtomacerationsandinjectionsforthestudyofcertaincomplicatedstructures。

Butwhilethefruitofhispenandpencilwerelostformorethanacenturyafterhisdeath，theeffectsofhisteachingswerenot；

andhistwopupils，FallopiusandColumbus，arealmostaswellknownto-dayastheirillustriousteacher。Columbus(1490-1559)

didmuchincorrectingthemistakesmadeintheanatomyofthebonesasdescribedbyVesalius。Healsoaddedmuchtothesciencebygivingcorrectaccountsoftheshapeandcavitiesoftheheart，andmademanyotherdiscoveriesofminorimportance。

Fallopius(1523-1562)addedconsiderablytothegeneralknowledgeofanatomy，madeseveraldiscoveriesintheanatomyoftheear，andalsoseveralorgansintheabdominalcavity。

Atthistimeamostvitallyimportantcontroversywasinprogressastowhetherornottheveinsofthebodiesweresuppliedwithvalves，manyanatomistsbeingunabletofindthem。etiennehadfirstdescribedthesestructures，andVesaliushadconfirmedhisobservations。Itwouldseemasiftherecouldbenodifficultyinsettlingthequestionastothefactofsuchvalvesbeingpresentinthevessels，forthedemonstrationissosimplethatitisnowmadedailybymedicalstudentsinallphysiologicallaboratoriesanddissecting-rooms。Butmanyofthegreatanatomistsofthesixteenthcenturywereunabletomakethisdemonstration，evenwhenithadbeenbroughttotheirattentionbysuchanauthorityasVesalius。Fallopius，writingtoVesaliusonthesubjectin1562，declaredthathewasunabletofindsuchvalves。Others，however，suchasEustachiusandFabricius(1537-1619)，weremoresuccessful，andfoundanddescribedthesestructures。Butthepurposeservedbythesevalveswasentirelymisinterpreted。Thattheyactinpreventingthebackwardflowofthebloodintheveinsonitswaytotheheart，justasthevalvesoftheheartitselfpreventregurgitation，hasbeenknownsincethetimeofHarvey；butthebestinterpretationthatcouldbegivenatthattime，evenbysuchamanasFabricius，wasthattheyactedinretardingtheflowofthebloodasitcomesfromtheheart，andthuspreventitstoorapiddistributionthroughoutthebody。Thefactthatthebloodmighthavebeengoingtowardstheheart，insteadofcomingfromit，seemsnevertohavebeenconsideredseriouslyuntildemonstratedsoconclusivelybyHarvey。

Ofthisimportantandremarkablecontroversyoverthevalvesinveins，Withingtonhasthistosay:"Thisistrulyamarvellousstory。AgreatGalenicanatomistisfirsttogiveafullandcorrectdescriptionofthevalvesandtheirfunction，butfailstoseethatanymodificationoftheoldviewastothemotionofthebloodisrequired。Twoabledissectorscarefullytesttheiractionbyexperiment，andcometoaresult。theexactreverseofthetruth。Urgedbythem，thetwoforemostanatomistsoftheagemakeaspecialsearchforvalvesandfailtofindthem。Finally，passingoverlesserpeculiarities，anagedandhonorableprofessor，whohaslivedthroughallthis，calmlyassertsthatnoanatomist，ancientormodern，hasevermentionedvalvesinveinstillhediscoveredthemin1574！"[2]

AmongtheanatomistswhoprobablydiscoveredthesevalveswasMichaelServetus(1511-1553)；butifthisissomewhatindoubt，itiscertainthathediscoveredanddescribedthepulmonarycirculation，andhadaveryclearideaoftheprocessofrespirationascarriedoninthelungs。ThedescriptionwascontainedinafamousdocumentsenttoCalvinin1545——adocumentwhichthereformercarefullykeptforsevenyearsinorderthathemightmakeuseofsomeofthehereticalstatementsitcontainedtoaccomplishhisdesireofbringingitswritertothestake。TheawfulfateofServetus，theinterestingcharacteroftheman，andthefactthathecamesoneartoanticipatingthediscoveriesofHarveymakehimoneofthemostinterestingfiguresinmedicalhistory。

InthisdocumentwhichwassenttoCalvin，Servetusrejectedthedoctrineofnatural，vital，andanimalspirits，ascontainedintheveins，arteries，andnervesrespectively，andmadetheall-importantstatementthatthefluidscontainedinveinsandarteriesarethesame。Heshowedalsothatthebloodis"purgedfromfume"andpurifiedbyrespirationinthelungs，anddeclaredthatthereisanewvesselinthelungs，"formedoutofveinandartery。"EvenatthepresentdaythereislittletoaddtoorchangeinthisdescriptionofServetus’s。

Bykeepingthisdocument，pregnantwithadvancedscientificviews，fromtheworld，andintheendonlyusingitasameansofdestroyingitsauthor，thegreatreformershowedthesamejealousyinretardingscientificprogressashadhisarch-enemiesoftheInquisition，atwhosedictatesVesaliusbecameamartyrtoscience，andinwhosedungeonsetienneperished。

THECOMINGOFHARVEY

Thetimewasripefortheculminatingdiscoveryofthecirculationoftheblood；butasyetnoonehaddeterminedtheall-importantfactthattherearetwocurrentsofbloodinthebody，onegoingtotheheart，onecomingfromit。Thevalvesintheveinswouldseemtoshowconclusivelythatthevenouscurrentdidnotcomefromtheheart，andsurgeonsmusthaveobservedthousandsoftimestheevery-dayphenomenonofcongestedveinsatthedistalextremityofalimbaroundwhichaligatureorconstrictionofanykindhadbeenplaced，andthesimultaneousdepletionofthevesselsattheproximalpointsabovetheligature。Butitshouldberememberedthatinductivesciencewasinitsinfancy。Thiswasthesixteenth，notthenineteenthcentury，andfewmenhadlearnedtoputimplicitconfidenceintheirobservationsandconvictionswhenopposedtoexistingdoctrines。Thetimewasathand，however，whensuchamanwastomakehisappearance，and，asinthecaseofsomanyrevolutionarydoctrinesinscience，thismanwasanEnglishman。ItremainedforWilliamHarvey(1578-1657)tosolvethegreatmysterywhichhadpuzzledthemedicalworldsincethebeginningofhistory；notonlytosolveit，buttoprovehiscasesoconclusivelyandsosimplythatforalltimehislittlebookletmusthehandeddownasoneofthegreatmasterpiecesoflucidandalmostfaultlessdemonstration。

Harvey，thesonofaprosperousKentishyeoman，wasbornatFolkestone。Hiseducationwasbegunatthegrammar-schoolofCanterbury，andlaterhebecameapensionerofCaiusCollege，Cambridge。SoonaftertakinghisdegreeofB。A。，attheageofnineteen，hedecidedupontheprofessionofmedicine，andwenttoPaduaasapupilofFabriciusandCasserius。ReturningtoEnglandattheageoftwenty-four，hesoonafter(1609)obtainedthereversionofthepostofphysiciantoSt。Bartholomew’sHospital，hisapplicationbeingsupportedbyJamesI。himself。Evenatthistimehewasapopularphysician，countingamonghispatientssuchmenasFrancisBacon。In1618hewasappointedphysicianextraordinarytotheking，and，alittlelater，physicianinordinary。HewasinattendanceuponCharlesI。atthebattleofEdgehill，in1642，where，withtheyoungPrinceofWalesandtheDukeofYork，afterseekingshelterunderahedge，hedrewabookoutofhispocketand，forgetfulofthebattle，becameabsorbedinstudy，untilfinallythecannon-ballsfromtheenemy’sartillerymadehimseekamoreshelteredposition。

OnthefallofCharlesI。heretiredfrompractice，andlivedinretirementwithhisbrother。Hewasthenwellalonginyears，butstillpursuedhisscientificresearcheswiththesamevigorasbefore，directinghisattentionchieflytothestudyofembryology。OnJune3，1657，hewasattackedbyparalysisanddied，inhiseightiethyear。Hehadlivedtoseehistheoryofthecirculationaccepted，severalyearsbefore，byalltheeminentanatomistsofthecivilizedworld。

Akeennessintheobservationoffacts，characteristicofthemindoftheman，hadledHarveytodoubtthetruthofexistingdoctrinesastothephenomenaofthecirculation。Galenhadtaughtthat"thearteriesarefilled，likebellows，becausetheyareexpanded，"butHarveythoughtthattheactionofspurtingbloodfromaseveredvesseldisprovedthis。Forthespurtingwasremittant，"nowwithgreater，nowwithlessimpetus，"anditsgreaterforcealwayscorrespondedtotheexpansion(diastole)，notthecontraction(systole)ofthevessel。Furthermore，itwasevidentthatcontractionoftheheartandthearterieswasnotsimultaneous，aswascommonlytaught，becauseinthatcasetherewouldbenomarkedpropulsionofthebloodinanydirection；andtherewasnogainsayingthefactthatthebloodwasforciblypropelledinadefinitedirection，andthatdirectionawayfromtheheart。

Harvey’sinvestigationsledhimtodoubtalsotheacceptedtheorythattherewasaporosityintheseptumoftissuethatdividesthetwoventriclesoftheheart。Itseemedunreasonabletosupposethatathickfluidlikethebloodcouldfinditswaythroughporessosmallthattheycouldnotbedemonstratedbyanymeansdevisedbyman。Inevidencethattherecouldbenosuchopeningshepointedoutthat，sincethetwoventriclescontractatthesametime，thisprocesswouldimpederatherthanfacilitatesuchanintra-ventricularpassageofblood。Butwhatseemedthemostconclusiveproofofallwasthefactthatinthefoetusthereexistedademonstrableopeningbetweenthetwoventricles，andyetthisisclosedinthefullydevelopedheart。

WhyshouldNature，ifsheintendedthatbloodshouldpassbetweenthetwocavities，choosetoclosethisopeningandsubstitutemicroscopicopeningsinplaceofit？Itwouldsurelyseemmorereasonabletohavethesmallperforationsinthethin，easilypermeablemembraneofthefoetus，andtheopeningintheadultheart，ratherthanthereverse。FromallthisHarveydrewhiscorrectconclusions，declaringearnestly，"ByHercules，thereARE

nosuchporosities，andtheycannotbedemonstrated。"

Havingconvincedhimselfthatnointra-ventricularopeningexisted，heproceededtostudytheactionoftheheartitself，untrammelledbytoomuchfaithinestablishedtheories，and，asyet，withnotheoryofhisown。Hesoondiscoveredthatthecommonlyacceptedtheoryoftheheartstrikingagainstthechest-wallduringtheperiodofrelaxationwasentirelywrong，andthatitsactionwasexactlythereverseofthis，theheartstrikingthechest-wallduringcontraction。Havingthusdisprovedtheacceptedtheoryconcerningtheheart’saction，hetookupthesubjectoftheactionofarteries，andsoonwasabletodemonstratebyvivisectionthatthecontractionofthearterieswasnotsimultaneouswithcontractionsoftheheart。Hisexperimentsdemonstratedthatthesevesselsweresimplyelastictubeswhosepulsationswere"nothingelsethantheimpulseofthebloodwithinthem。"Thereasonthatthearterialpulsationwasnotsimultaneouswiththeheart-beathefoundtobebecauseofthetimerequiredtocarrytheimpulsealongthetube，Byaseriesoffurthercarefulexaminationsandexperiments，whicharetooextendedtobegivenhere，hewassoonablefurthertodemonstratetheactionandcourseofthebloodduringthecontractionsoftheheart。Hisexplanationswerepracticallythesameasthosegivento-day——firstthecontractionoftheauricle，sendingbloodintotheventricle；thenventricularcontraction，makingthepulse，andsendingthebloodintothearteries。Hehadthusdemonstratedwhathadnotbeengenerallyacceptedbefore，thattheheartwasanorganforthepropulsionofblood。Tomakesuchastatementto-dayseemsnotunlikethesoberannouncementthattheearthisroundorthatthesundoesnotrevolveaboutit。BeforeHarvey’stime，however，itwasconsideredasanorganthatwas"insomemysteriouswaythesourceofvitalityandwarmth，asananimatedcruciblefortheconcoctionofbloodandthegenerationofvitalspirits。"[3]

Inwatchingtherapidandceaselesscontractionsoftheheart，Harveywasimpressedwiththefactthat，evenifaverysmallamountofbloodwassentoutateachpulsation，anenormousquantitymustpassthroughtheorganinaday，oreveninanhour。Estimatingthesizeofthecavitiesoftheheart，andnotingthatatleastadrachmmustbesentoutwitheachpulsation，itwasevidentthatthetwothousandbeatsgivenbyaveryslowhumanheartinanhourmustsendoutsomefortypoundsofblood——morethantwicetheamountintheentirebody。Thequestionwas，whatbecameofitall？Foritshouldberememberedthatthereturnofthebloodbytheveinswasunknown，andnothinglikea"circulation"morethanvaguelyconceivedevenbyHarveyhimself。Onceitcouldbeshownthattheveinswereconstantlyreturningbloodtotheheart，thediscoverythatthebloodinsomewaypassesfromthearteriestotheveinswasonlyashortstep。Harvey，byresortingtovivisectionsofloweranimalsandreptiles，soondemonstratedbeyondquestionthefactthattheveinsdocarrythereturnblood。"Butthis，inparticular，canbeshownclearerthandaylight，"saysHarvey。

"Thevenacavaenterstheheartataninferiorportion，whilethearterypassesoutabove。Nowifthevenacavabetakenupwithforcepsorthethumbandfinger，andthecourseofthebloodinterceptedforsomedistancebelowtheheart，youwillatonceseeitalmostemptiedbetweenthefingersandtheheart，thebloodbeingexhaustedbytheheart’spulsation，theheartatthesametimebecomingmuchpalereveninitsdilatation，smallerinsize，owingtothedeficiencyofblood，andatlengthlanguidinpulsation，asifabouttodie。Ontheotherhand，whenyoureleasetheveintheheartimmediatelyregainsitscoloranddimensions。Afterthat，ifyouleavetheveinfreeandtieandcompressthearteriesatsomedistancefromtheheart，youwillsee，onthecontrary，theirincludedportiongrowexcessivelyturgid，theheartbecomingsobeyondmeasure，assumingadark-redcolor，eventolividity，andatlengthsooverloadedwithbloodastoseemindangerofsuffocation；butwhentheobstructionisremoveditreturnstoitsnormalcondition，insize，color，andmovement。"[4]

ThisconclusivedemonstrationthattheveinsreturnthebloodtotheheartmusthavebeenmostimpressivetoHarvey，whohadbeentaughttobelievethatthebloodcurrentintheveinspursuedanoppositecourse，andmusthavetendedtoshakehisfaithinallexistingdoctrinesoftheday。

Hisnextstepwasthenaturaloneofdemonstratingthatthebloodpassesfromthearteriestotheveins。Hedemonstratedconclusivelythatthisdidoccur，butforoncehisrejectionoftheancientwritersandonemodernonewasamistake。ForGalenhadtaught，andhadattemptedtodemonstrate，thattherearesetsofminutevesselsconnectingthearteriesandtheveins；andServetushadshownthattheremustbesuchvessels，atleastinthelungs。

However，thelittleflawintheotherwisecompletedemonstrationofHarveydetractsnothingfromthemainissueatstake。Itwasforotherswhofollowedtoshowjusthowthesesmallvesselsactedineffectingthetransferofthebloodfromarterytovein，andthegrandgeneralstatementthatsuchatransferdoestakeplacewas，afterall，theall-importantone，andtheexactmethodofhowittakesplaceadetail。Harvey’sexperimentstodemonstratethatthebloodpassesfromthearteriestotheveinsaresosimplyandconciselystatedthattheymaybestbegiveninhisownwords。

"Ihaveheretocitecertainexperiments，"hewrote，"fromwhichitseemsobviousthatthebloodentersalimbbythearteries，andreturnsfromitbytheveins；thatthearteriesarethevesselscarryingthebloodfromtheheart，andtheveinsthereturningchannelsofthebloodtotheheart；thatinthelimbsandextremepartsofthebodythebloodpasseseitherbyanastomosisfromthearteriesintotheveins，orimmediatelybytheporesoftheflesh，orinbothways，ashasalreadybeensaidinspeakingofthepassageofthebloodthroughthelungs；whenceitappearsmanifestthatinthecircuitthebloodmovesfromthencehither，andhencethither；fromthecentretotheextremities，towit，andfromtheextremepartsbackagaintothecentre。Finally，upongroundsofcirculation，withthesameelementsasbefore，itwillbeobviousthatthequantitycanneitherbeaccountedforbytheingesta，noryetbeheldnecessarytonutrition。

"Nowletanyonemakeanexperimentonthearmofaman，eitherusingsuchafilletasisemployedinblood-lettingorgraspingthelimbtightlywithhishand，thebestsubjectforitbeingonewhoislean，andwhohaslargeveins，andthebesttimeafterexercise，whenthebodyiswarm，thepulseisfull，andthebloodcarriedinlargequantitiestotheextremities，forallthenismoreconspicuous；undersuchcircumstancesletaligaturebethrownabouttheextremityanddrawnastightlyascanbeborne:

itwillfirstbeperceivedthatbeyondtheligatureneitherinthewristnoranywhereelsedothearteriespulsate，thatatthesametimeimmediatelyabovetheligaturethearterybeginstorisehigherateachdiastole，tothrobmoreviolently，andtoswellinitsvicinitywithakindoftide，asifitstrovetobreakthroughandovercometheobstacletoitscurrent；thearteryhere，inshort，appearsasifitwerepermanentlyfull。

Thehandundersuchcircumstancesretainsitsnaturalcolorandappearances；inthecourseoftimeitbeginstofallsomewhatintemperature，indeed，butnothingisDRAWNintoit。

"Afterthebandagehasbeenkeptonsomeshorttimeinthisway，letitbeslackenedalittle，broughttothestateortermofmiddlingtightnesswhichisusedinbleeding，anditwillbeseenthatthewholehandandarmwillinstantlybecomedeeplysuffusedanddistended，injected，gorgedwithblood，DRAWN，asitissaid，bythismiddlingligature，withoutpain，orheat，oranyhorrorofavacuum，oranyothercauseyetindicated。

"Aswehavenoted，inconnectionwiththetightligature，thatthearteryabovethebandagewasdistendedandpulsated，notbelowit，so，inthecaseofthemoderatelytightbandage，onthecontrary，dowefindthattheveinsbelow，neverabove，thefilletswellandbecomedilated，whilethearteriesshrink；andsuchisthedegreeofdistentionoftheveinsherethatitisonlyverystrongpressurethatwillforcethebloodbeyondthefilletandcauseanyoftheveinsintheupperpartofthearmtorise。

"Fromthesefactsitiseasyforanycarefulobservertolearnthatthebloodentersanextremitybythearteries；forwhentheyareeffectivelycompressednothingisDRAWNtothemember；thehandpreservesitscolor；nothingflowsintoit，neitherisitdistended；butwhenthepressureisdiminished，asitiswiththebleedingfillet，itismanifestthatthebloodisinstantlythrowninwithforce，forthenthehandbeginstoswell；whichisasmuchastosaythatwhenthearteriespulsatethebloodisflowingthroughthem，asitiswhenthemoderatelytightligatureisapplied；butwhentheydonotpulsate，orwhenatightligatureisused，theyceasefromtransmittinganything；theyareonlydistendedabovethepartwheretheligatureisapplied。Theveinsagainbeingcompressed，nothingcanflowthroughthem；thecertainindicationofwhichisthatbelowtheligaturetheyaremuchmoretumidthanaboveit，andthantheyusuallyappearwhenthereisnobandageuponthearm。

"Itthereforeplainlyappearsthattheligaturepreventsthereturnofthebloodthroughtheveinstothepartsaboveit，andmaintainsthosebeneathitinastateofpermanentdistention。

Butthearteries，inspiteofthepressure，andundertheforceandimpulseoftheheart，sendonthebloodfromtheinternalpartsofthebodytothepartsbeyondthebandage。"[5]

Thisuseofligaturesisverysignificant，because，asshown，averytightligaturestopscirculationinbotharteriesandveins，whilealooseone，whilecheckingthecirculationintheveins，whichlienearerthesurfaceandarenotsodirectlyinfluencedbytheforceoftheheart，doesnotstopthepassageofbloodinthearteries，whichareusuallydeeplyimbeddedinthetissues，andnotsoeasilyinfluencedbypressurefromwithout。

ThelaststepofHarvey’sdemonstrationwastoprovethattheblooddoesflowalongtheveinstotheheart，aidedbythevalvesthathadbeenthecauseofsomuchdiscussionanddisputebetweenthegreatsixteenth-centuryanatomists。Harveynotonlydemonstratedthepresenceofthesevalves，butshowedconclusively，bysimpleexperiments，whattheirfunctionwas，thuscompletinghisdemonstrationofthephenomenaofthecirculation。

ThefinaloculardemonstrationofthepassageofthebloodfromthearteriestotheveinswasnottobemadeuntilfouryearsafterHarvey’sdeath。Thisprocess，whichcanbeobservedeasilyinthewebofafrog’sfootbytheaidofalow-powerlens，wasfirstdemonstratedbyMarcelloMalpighi(1628-1694)in1661。Bytheaidofalenshefirstsawthesmall"capillary"vesselsconnectingtheveinsandarteriesinapieceofdriedlung。

Takinghiscuefromthis，heexaminedthelungofaturtle，andwasabletoseeinitthepassageofthecorpusclesthroughtheseminutevessels，makingtheirwayalongthesepreviouslyunknownchannelsfromthearteriesintotheveinsontheirjourneybacktotheheart。ThustheworkofHarvey，allbutcomplete，wasmadeabsolutelyentirebythegreatItalian。Andallthisinasinglegeneration。

LEEUWENHOEKDISCOVERSBACTERIA

Theseventeenthcenturywasnottoclose，however，withoutanotherdiscoveryinscience，which，whenappliedtothecausationofdiseasealmosttwocenturieslater，revolutionizedtherapeuticsmorecompletelythananyonediscovery。Thiswasthediscoveryofmicrobes，byAntoniusvonLeeuwenhoek(1632-1723)，in1683。VonLeeuwenhoekdiscoveredthat"inthewhitematterbetweenhisteeth"thereweremillionsofmicroscopic"animals"——more，infact，than"therewerehumanbeingsintheunitedNetherlands，"andall"movinginthemostdelightfulmanner。"Therecanbenoquestionthathesawthem，forwecanrecognizeinhisdescriptionsofthesevariousformsoflittle"animals"thefourprincipalformsofmicrobes——thelongandshortrodsofbacilliandbacteria，thespheresofmicrococci，andthecorkscrewspirillum。

ThepresenceofthesemicrobesinhismouthgreatlyannoyedAntonius，andhetriedvariousmethodsofgettingridofthem，suchasusingvinegarandhotcoffee。Indoingthishelittlesuspectedthathewasanticipatingmodernantisepticsurgerybyacenturyandthree-quarters，andtobeattemptingwhatantisepticsurgeryisnowabletoaccomplish。Forthefundamentalprincipleofantisepsisistheuseofmedicinesforriddingwoundsofsimilarmicroscopicorganisms。VonLeenwenhoekwasonlytemporarilysuccessfulinhisattempts，however，andtookoccasiontocommunicatehisdiscoverytotheRoyalSocietyofEngland，hopingthattheywouldbe"interestedinthisnovelty。"

Probablytheywere，butnotsufficientlysoforanymembertopursueanyprotractedinvestigationsorreachanysatisfactoryconclusions，andthewholematterwaspracticallyforgottenuntilthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury。

VIII。MEDICINEINTHESIXTEENTHANDSEVENTEENTHCENTURIES

Ofthehalf-dozensurgeonswhowereprominentinthesixteenthcentury，AmbroisePare(1517-1590)，calledthefatherofFrenchsurgery，isperhapsthemostwidelyknown。HerosefromthepositionofacommonbarbertothatofsurgeontothreeFrenchmonarchs，HenryII。，FrancisII。，andCharlesIX。Someofhismottoesarestillfirstprinciplesofthemedicalman。Amongothersare:"Hewhobecomesasurgeonforthesakeofmoney，andnotforthesakeofknowledge，willaccomplishnothing"；and"A

triedremedyisbetterthananewlyinvented。"Onhisstatueishismodestestimateofhisworkincaringforthewounded，"Jelepansay，Dieuleguarit"——Idressedhim，Godcuredhim。

ItwasinthisdressingofwoundsonthebattlefieldthatheaccidentallydiscoveredhowuselessandharmfulwastheterriblypainfultreatmentofapplyingboilingoiltogunshotwoundsasadvocatedbyJohnofVigo。Ithappenedthatafteracertainbattle，wheretherewasanunusuallylargenumberofcasualties，Parefound，tohishorror，thatnomoreboilingoilwasavailableforthesurgeons，andthatheshouldbeobligedtodressthewoundedbyothersimplermethods。Tohisamazementtheresultsprovedentirelysatisfactory，andfromthatdayhediscardedthehot-oiltreatment。

AsParedidnotunderstandLatinhewrotehistreatisesinFrench，thusinauguratingacustominFrancethatwasbegunbyParacelsusinGermanyhalfacenturybefore。Hereintroducedtheuseoftheligatureincontrollinghemorrhage，introducedthe"figureofeight"sutureintheoperationforhare-lip，improvedmanyofthemedico-legaldoctrines，andadvancedthepracticeofsurgerygenerally。Heiscreditedwithhavingsuccessfullyperformedtheoperationforstrangulatedhernia，butheprobablyborroweditfromPeterFranco(1505-1570)，whopublishedanaccountofthisoperationin1556。Asthisoperationisconsideredbysomethemostimportantoperationinsurgery，itsdiscovererisentitledtomorethanpassingnotice，althoughhewasdespisedandignoredbythesurgeonsofhistime。

Francowasanilliteratetravellinglithotomist——aclassofitinerantphysicianswhowereverygenerallyfrowneddownbytheregularpractitionersofmedicine。ButFrancopossessedsuchskillasanoperator，andappearstohavebeensoearnestinthepursuitofwhatheconsideredalegitimatecalling，thathefinallyovercamethepopularprejudiceandbecameoneofthesalariedsurgeonsoftherepublicofBern。Hewasthefirstsurgeontoperformthesuprapubiclithotomyoperation——theremovalofstonethroughtheabdomeninsteadofthroughtheperineum。Hisworks，whilewritteninanilliteratestyle，givetheclearestdescriptionsofanyoftheearlymodernwriters。

AsthefameofFrancorestsuponhisoperationforprolonginghumanlife，sothefameofhisItaliancontemporary，GasparTagliacozzi(1545-1599)，restsuponhisoperationforincreasinghumancomfortandhappinessbyrestoringamputatednoses。Atthetimeinwhichhelivedamputationofthenosewasverycommon，partlyfromdisease，butalsobecauseacertainpopehadfixedtheamputationofthatmemberasthepenaltyforlarceny。

TagliacozziprobablyborrowedhisoperationfromtheEast；buthewasthefirstWesternsurgeontoperformitanddescribeit。SogreatwasthefameofhisoperationsthatpatientsflockedtohimfromalloverEurope，andeach"wentawaywithasmanynosesasheliked。"Naturally，themanwhodirectedhiseffortstorestoringstructuresthatbadbeenremovedbyorderoftheChurchwasregardedinthelightofahereticbymanytheologians；andthoughhesucceededincheatingthestakeordungeon，anddiedanaturaldeath，hisbodywasfinallycastoutofthechurchinwhichithadbeenburied。

InthesixteenthcenturyGermanyproducedasurgeon，FabriciusHildanes(1560-1639)，whoseworkcomparesfavorablywiththatofPare，andwhosenamewouldundoubtedlyhavebeenmuchbetterknownhadnotthecircumstancesofthetimeinwhichhelivedtendedtoobscurehismerits。TheblindfollowersofParacelsuscouldseenothingoutsidethepaleoftheirmaster’steachings，andthedisastrousThirtyYears’WartendedtoobscureandretardallscientificadvancesinGermany。Unlikemanyofhisfellow-surgeons，HildaneswaswellversedinLatinandGreek；

and，contrarytotheteachingsofParacelsus，helaidparticularstressuponthenecessityofthesurgeonhavingathoroughknowledgeofanatomy。Hehadahelpmateinhiswife，whowasalsosomethingofasurgeon，andsheiscreditedwithhavingfirstmadeuseofthemagnetinremovingparticlesofmetalfromtheeye。Hildanestellsofacertainmanwhohadbeeninjuredbyasmallpieceofsteelinthecornea，whichresistedallhiseffortstoremoveit。AfterobservingHildanes’fruitlesseffortsforatime，itsuddenlyoccurredtohiswifetoattempttomaketheextractionwithapieceofloadstone。Whilethephysicianheldopenthetwolids，hiswifeattemptedtowithdrawthesteelwiththemagnetheldclosetothecornea，andafterseveraleffortsshewassuccessful——whichHildanesenumeratesasoneoftheadvantagesofbeingamarriedman。

Hildaneswasparticularlyhappyinhisinventionsofsurgicalinstruments，manyofwhichweredesignedforlocatingandremovingthevariousmissilesrecentlyintroducedinwarfare。

Theseventeenthcentury，whichwassuchaflourishingoneforanatomyandphysiology，wasnotasproductiveofgreatsurgeonsoradvancesinsurgeryasthesixteenthhadbeenortheeighteenthwastobe。Therewasagradualimprovementallalongtheline，however，andmuchoftheworkbegunbysuchsurgeonsasPareandHildaneswasperfectedorimproved。PerhapsthemostprogressivesurgeonofthecenturywasanEnglishman，RichardWiseman(1625-1686)，who，likeHarvey，enjoyedroyalfavor，beingintheserviceofalltheStuartkings。Hewasthefirstsurgeontoadvocateprimaryamputation，ingunshotwounds，ofthelimbs，andalsotointroducethetreatmentofaneurismsbycompression；

butheisgenerallyratedasaconservativeoperator，whofavoredmedicationratherthanradicaloperations，wherepossible。

InItaly，MarcusAureliusSeverinus(1580-1656)andPeterMarchettis(1589-1675)weretheleadingsurgeonsoftheirnation。

LikemanyofhispredecessorsinEurope，SeverinusranamuckwiththeHolyInquisitionandfledfromNaples。ButthewaningofthepowerfularmoftheChurchisshownbythefactthathewasbroughtbackbytheunanimousvoiceofthegratefulcitizens，andlivedinsafetydespitethefrownsofthetheologians。

Thesixteenthcenturycannotbesaidtohaveaddedmuchofimportanceinthefieldofpracticalmedicine，and，asintheprecedingandsucceedingcenturies，wasatbestonlystrugglingalonginthewakeofanatomy，physiology，andsurgery。Intheseventeenthcentury，however，atleastonediscoveryintherapeuticswasmadethathasbeenaninestimableboontohumanityeversince。Thiswastheintroductionofcinchonabark(fromwhichquinineisobtained)in1640。ButthiscenturywasproductiveofmanymedicalSYSTEMS，andcouldboastofmanygreatnamesamongthemedicalprofession，and，onthewhole，madeconsiderablymoreprogressthantheprecedingcentury。

Ofthefoundersofmedicalsystems，oneofthemostwidelyknownisJanBaptistavanHelmont(1578-1644)，aneccentricgeniuswhoconstructedasystemofmedicineofhisownandforatimeexertedconsiderableinfluence。Butintheendhissystemwasdestinedtopassoutofexistence，notverylongafterthedeathofitsauthor。VanHelmontwasnotonlyaphysician，butwasmasterofalltheotherbranchesoflearningofthetime，takingupthestudyofmedicineandchemistryasanafter-thought，butdevotinghimselftothemwiththegreatestenthusiasmoncehehadbegunhisinvestigations。HisattitudetowardsexistingdoctrineswasasrevolutionaryasthatofParacelsus，andherejectedtheteachingsofGalenandalltheancientwriters，althoughretainingsomeoftheviewsofParacelsus。HemodifiedthearchaeusofParacelsus，andaddedmanycomplicationstoit。Hebelievedthewholebodytobecontrolledbyanarchaeusinfluus，thesoulbythearchaeiinsiti，andtheseinturncontrolledbythecentralarcheus。Hissystemistooelaborateandcomplicatedforfullexplanation，butitschiefservicetomedicinewasinintroducingnewchemicalmethodsinthepreparationofdrugs。InthiswayhewasindirectlyconnectedwiththeestablishmentoftheIatrochemicalschool。Itwashewhofirstusedtheword"gas"——awordcoinedbyhim，alongwithmanyothersthatsoonfellintodisuse。

TheprinciplesoftheIatrochemicalschoolweretheuseofchemicalmedicines，andatheoryofpathologydifferentfromtheprevailing"humoral"pathology。ThefounderofthisschoolwasSylvius(FranzdeleBoe，1614-1672)，professorofmedicineatLeyden。Heattemptedtoestablishapermanentsystemofmedicinebasedonthenewlydiscoveredtheoryofthecirculationandthenewchemistry，buthisnameisrememberedbymedicalmenbecauseofthefissureinthebrain(fissureofSylvius)thatbearsit。

Helaidgreatstressonthecauseoffeversandotherdiseasesasoriginatinginthedisturbancesoftheprocessoffermentationinthestomach。ThedoctrinesofSylviusspreadwidelyoverthecontinent，butwerenotgenerallyacceptedinEnglanduntilmodifiedbyThomasWillis(1622-1675)，whosename，likethatofSylvius，isperpetuatedbyastructureinthebrainnamedafterhim，thecircleofWillis。Willis’sdescriptionsofcertainnervousdiseases，andanaccountofdiabetes，arethefirstrecorded，andaddedmateriallytoscientificmedicine。Theseschoolsofmedicinelasteduntiltheendoftheseventeenthcentury，whentheywerefinallyoverthrownbySydenham。

TheIatrophysicalschool(alsocallediatromathematical，iatromechanical，orphysiatric)wasfoundedontheoriesofphysiology，probablybyBorelli，ofNaples(1608-1679)，althoughSanctorius；Sanctorius，aprofessoratPadua，wasaprecursor，ifnotdirectlyinterestedinestablishingit。Sanctoriusdiscoveredthefactthatan"insensibleperspiration"isbeinggivenoffbythebodycontinually，andwasamazedtofindthatlossofweightinthiswayfarexceededthelossofweightbyallotherexcretionsofthebodycombined。Hemadethisdiscoverybymeansofapeculiarweighing-machinetowhichachairwasattached，andinwhichhespentmostofhistime。Verynaturallyheoverestimatedtheimportanceofthisdiscovery，butitwas，nevertheless，ofgreatvalueinpointingoutthehygienicimportanceofthecareoftheskin。Healsointroducedathermometerwhichheadvocatedasvaluableincasesoffever，buttheinstrumentwasprobablynothisowninvention，butborrowedfromhisfriendGalileo。

Harvey’sdiscoveryofthecirculationofthebloodlaidthefoundationoftheIatrophysicalschoolbyshowingthatthisvitalprocesswascomparabletoahydraulicsystem。InhisOntheMotiveofAnimals，Borellifirstattemptedtoaccountforthephenomenaoflifeanddiseasesontheseprinciples。Theiatromechanicsheldthatthegreatcauseofdiseaseisduetodifferentstatesofelasticityofthesolidsofthebodyinterferingwiththemovementsofthefluids，whicharethemselvessubjecttochangesindensity，oneorbothoftheseconditionscontinuingtocausestagnationorcongestion。TheschoolthusfoundedbyBorelliwastheoutcomeoftheunboundedenthusiasm，withitsaccompanyingexaggerationofcertainphenomenawiththecorrespondingbelittlingofothersthatnaturallyfollowssucharevolutionarydiscoveryasthatofHarvey。HavingsuchafounderasthebrilliantItalianBorelli，itwasgivenasufficientimpetusbyhiswritingstocarryitsomedistancebeforeitfinallycollapsed。SomeoftheexaggeratedmathematicalcalculationsofBorellihimselfareworthnoting。Eachheart-beat，ashecalculatedit，overcomesaresistanceequaltoonehundredandeightythousandpounds；——themodernphysiologistestimatesitsforceatfromfivetonineounces！